COMMUNICATION NOTES

INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION

Communication can be defined as:

 The process of passing information or message from one person to another

through medium or a channel.

 Process of exchanging information, ideas, thoughts, feelings and emotions

through speech, signals, writing, or behavior.

ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATION

For any effective communication to take place the following elements must be
present.

Sender: the sender initiates communication

Receiver: the receiver is the target of the communication
Message: the message is what the sender communicates to the receiver.
Channel: the channel is the means used to transmit the message from the sender to
the receiver.
Feedback: it is the response the sender gets from the receiver.

PURPOSE OF COMMUNICATION
1. Good reputation
Effective communication with customers and other businesses enables
company/institution to establish good reputation thus increasing prestige of
the company.
2. Improves public relations
When a company communicates with the general public ,it keep them
informed of its activities and therefore more people become interested in
dealing with that company.
3. Better business prospects
Good communication by the company can attract more customers.

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 4. It helps the company improve its our services

5. Job requirements
Most jobs require communication skills such as personal public relations,
marketing, editing, research, advocacy etc. Executives are expected to make
speeches, give interviews to media and all these require good communication
skills.

6. To inform
One of the most important objectives of communication is passing and receiving
information.

7. To advice
Information is factual and objective, advice on the other hand involves personal
opinions. It is subjective and neutral. When advice is given to person he/she may
decide to use it or not to use it. Advice flows downwards and horizontal and is aimed
at influencing the opinions or behavior of the other person.

8. To order
An order is an authoritative communication or directive. Orders flow from top to
bottom.

9. To suggest
A suggestion is different from other forms of communication. In other forms it flows
from superiors to subordinates but a suggestion may flow from subordinate to
superior. It is mild and subtle and moves in all directions.

10.To persuade
It is aimed at influencing the attitudes, feelings or beliefs of others.

11.To educate
Education is a conscious process of communication. Its main purpose is to widen
knowledge and improve skills.

12.To warn
To caution people of any impending issues or behaviors.

13. Raise morale

Morale is a powerful factor representing the sum of many qualities such as courage,
fortitude, resolution and confidence.
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 14.To motivate
Motivation means to energize and activate a person and challenge their behavior
towards the attainment of desired goals.

PRINCIPLES OF EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

For communication to be effective, the communicator has to observe the following

principles:

1. Clarity;
Communicator must use simple words/means and avoid the use of jargon.
2. Completeness/content;
The communicator must include all the relevant facts in his message.
3. Conciseness;
The communicator must be as brief as possible so as to win the attention of the
receiver. This can be achieved through observing the following:-
 Including only the relevant parts.
 Avoid repetition.
 Organizing the message in a simple, logical way.
4. Consideration;
The communicator must try to understand the audience. This will enable
him/her establishment of rapport with the audience and hence communication
will be smooth. The communicator should try not to emphasize on the negative
aspect of the audience.
5. Courtesy;
The communicator will create friendliness with the audience. This can be
achieved by use of such words as; Thank you, Good morning, welcome, Sorry,
welcome etc.
6. Correctness;
The communicator must ensure that:-
 He gives the correct facts
 Uses the correct language
 Sends the message at the correct time
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  Sends the message through the correct medium.

7. Concreteness
 Being definite, vivid and specific rather than vague. Facts and figures
being presented in the message should be specific.

ESSENTIALS OF EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

As an effective communicator, you should understand the following essentials of

communication:

The subject: also known as the content of communication, is the information that you
would like to be understood by your receiver.

The audience: is the receiver of your message and you need to have enough
information about them. For example their personality, age status, education, political
inclination, etc how are they likely to react to the content of your message?

Purpose: in other words you ask yourself whether you want to persuade, inform,
influence, educate, advice, entertain, provoke, stimulate thought.

Appropriate channel: is the vehicle by which the message is passed on to the

audience. for example by use of words, pictures or both, or use spoken or written.

Proper presentation: is the means by which you will achieve the most desired
response from your audience. It is the best way you organize your points you want to
drive home to your audience.

ROLE OF INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY IN

COMMUNICATION

1. Information Communication and Technology allows a number of people to

have access to the same information at the same time instead of having to

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 wait e.g for a file to be returned to the cabinet i.e information is instantly
available.

2. Computers can be used to produce volumes of information sufficient for

operations.

3. Tasks that were previously done by hands in what is known as manual system
can now be done much more quickly and efficiently by electronic means.

4. Electronic mail (e-mail) allows messages to be sent faster to parts of the world
in different time zones without the need to wait for an appropriate time or the
next working day.

5. Electronic conferencing makes it possible to be held between people at

different ends of the country or even in different parts of the world by use of
television, camera and receivers, computer technology and telephone lines.

6. Most organizations/companies are able to store information in data bases and

that information can be retrieved easily and quickly.

7. Confidentiality:- electronic data base makes it impossible for any unauthorized

user to have access to certain information.

8. Portability:- carrying a large amount of information has been made easier by

using e.g flash disk, diskettes, floppy disc e.t.c.

9. Storage and processing of vast amount of data.

10. Editing:- errors can be corrected on screen so that there should be no errors
in the final document.

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COMMUNICATION PROCESS

Stages of communication process

Communication is a two way process that takes place through several stages:

a. Conception of the message: at this stage an idea, thought or feeling is

formulated in the mind of the sender as a result of an external or internal
stimulus or motivation.

b. Encoding: this involves giving the message a communication form in verbal or

non verbal language

c. Channel selection: the sender selects the most appropriate and effective
vehicle that will deliver the message to the receiver, for example telephone,
letter, e-mail.

d. Transmission: the message is transferred to the receiver through the selected

channel. At this stage there is a possibility of the message being interfered
with by “noise”

e. Reception (receiver): this is the physical act of receiving the message through
any of the five senses- hearing, touching, tasting, seeing and smelling.

f. Decoding: this involves the receiver trying to assign meaning to the language
used as he/she relates the language to his knowledge of terms and vocabulary.

g. Comprehension: it takes place when the receiver tries to spend moments to

absorb the meaning and to understand the technical jargon used by the
sender.

h. Interpretation: is similar to what is loosely termed as reading between the

lines. This means that you as the receiver should search out the underlying
meaning.
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 i. Feedback: the receiver reacts to the message by encoding his response in a
language that the sender can understand and transmit it back to the originator
of the message. The receiver goes through the same communication process
as the sender had done . Only when this cycle is completed can
communication be said to have been effective

BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

However, carefully an act of communication is planned, it is inevitable that

breakdowns will sometimes occur. Some of the breakdowns or barriers arise in the
process of communication mainly from the sender and the receiver, while others may
be due to external factors.

A. Barriers caused by the sender

1. Sender’s lack of awareness of the receiver’s needs

If the sender does not have a clear idea of what the communication aims to achieve
before encoding the message,there will be a breakdown.

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2. Language
If the language used by the sender is unfamiliar to the receiver there will be a
breakdown in communication and how it is said. Facial expressions, gestures and
the way in which a message is conveyed can also result in a receiver gaining a
false impression. The tone of voice can also be detected even in a written message.

3. Use of the wrong medium

If the medium chosen is not appropriate for the message, the message can be
delayed or distorted. For example, if you had to tell a group of employees about
their new salaries each of which is different, it would be tactless to type a notice
and to display it on a notice board instead of sending personal letters to those
concerned. A careful choice of medium would avoid any misunderstanding.

4. Poor timing
Deciding on the most appropriate time to communicate is as important as knowing
what medium to use. Ensure that the receiver has enough time to pay careful
attention to a message in order to understand it and give the expected feedback.

5. Information overload
The message the sender wishes to communicate should contain the right amount of
information to avoid an overload. Too much information is bad as too little
information because it reduces the audience’s ability to concentrate effectively on
the most important messages.

B. Barriers caused by the receiver

1. Poor listening skills

The receiver may deliberately refuse to listen to an incoming message. This is what
is known as selective listening. However, lack of concentration, lack of interest,
difficulty in comprehending the content, poor mental attitude and cultural
differences between the sender and the receiver also cause a breakdown in
communication.

2. Prejudice
This means preformed attitude towards the sender, the message or both. Prejudice
may arise from the difference between the sender and receiver owing to their
differing social status, education or age.

3. Lack of feedback

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 If the receiver fails to give feedback to the sender or he gives a delayed feedback,
this will automatically result to breakdown in communication.

4. Psychological factor
Such as people’s state of mind e.g health or marriage problems.

C. Barriers caused by external factors

1. Noise
This can be physical noise in a room, a poor telephone connection, or other forms
of interference like poor handwriting.

2. Physical distance
The geographical distance between the sender and receiver may also be a source of
communication breakdown.

3. Too many steps in the communication process

If an oral message is channeled through many people, the message is likely to get
distorted. In written communication, for example a letter passing through many
bureaucratic steps in an organization may not reach the correct destination in the
desired time for appropriate action to be taken.

1. Age difference
2. Socio economic factors
3. Competition for attention
4. Attitude of sender or receiver

Ways of overcoming barriers to effective communication

1. Training employees in relevant techniques of communication e.g. listening

skill, or speaking skills.
2. Ensuring that the medium of communication is carefully chosen.
3. Communication must be well planned and well-constructed.
4. Ensure that only necessary message is communicated to avoid overload.
5. Observe the principles of effective communication
6. A climate of trust and confidence should be created in the organization e.g.
employees should be encouraged to share information whatever their position.
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 7. Equipment used for communication must be maintained
8. Ensuring that the organization structure is straightforward and the
communication lines are simple and clear.

ETHICAL ISSUES IN COMMUNICATION

Ethics in communication essentially deals with how honest, fair, and responsible
communicators are being at the individual, group, and mass communication levels.

1. Truthfulness
A communicator has the responsibility to ensure that the information given out is
truthful. Conscious distortion of facts on the part of the communicator is clearly
unethical. However, truth may at times conflict with other virtues such as public
interest, privacy and confidentiality.
2. Fairness
In giving information concerning parties, the communicator should not consciously
lean towards one side at the expense of another.
3. Cult
It is very important in communication. A communicator has the responsibility of
avoiding making offensive or discriminatory speech on the grounds of race,
gender, creed, political inclination or otherwise.
4. Honesty
It is unethical for one to attempt to pass other people’s ideas and theories as their
own. Credit should always be given when quotes from other people; whether
copyrighted or not are cited. If the information is intended to achieve a sale, the
salesperson is obliged not to withhold any piece of information that may put the
potential buyer at a disadvantage.
5. Censorship
Authorities, including governments may feel compelled to control what kind of
information reaches the public. It is mostly due to self-interest and survival. This
withholding of information may result into the public being not adequately
empowered to make beneficial decisions.
Sometimes, censorship is done on propriety reasons, such as the control of
pornographic material.
6. Objectivity
Communicators need to be faithful to the facts of the subject and report
dispassionately. Personal emotions should be avoided as much as possible, as they
have the likelihood of influencing the audience unduly.

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CLASSIFICATION OF COMMUNICATION

TYPES OF COMMUNICATION

Communication can be broadly classified into six main categories:

A. FORMAL COMMUNICATION

This type of communication follows formal (official) channels of communication.

They include organizational channels and officially recognized positions. They follow
the course laid down in an organizational structure of the company or institution. As
the name formal suggests is the deliberately created, officially prescribed path for
flow of communication in an attempt to regulate the flow of organizational
communication to ensure that information flows smoothly accurately and timely.
Formal channel of communication emphasizes on the chain of command or use proper
channels.
It follows channels of formal relationships of continuity and responsibility established
by the management.

Uses of formal communication

 Communicates the vision of the organization/institution
 Communicates the objectives of organization to the members very clearly
 Used to instill the necessary discipline as required by the organization

B. INFORMAL COMMUNICATION

This is quite often described as “grapevine”. It takes place between persons or groups
at the same time the same or different levels of hierarchy on the basis of informal
relationships. Information passes informally between persons or groups as they come
in to contact with each other in the course of performing their duties. This
communication does not arise out of the organization needs but this is never the less
an integral part of its communication system. Rumors that all the time spread in any
organization follow the “grapevine”.

Uses of informal communication

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  Used in informal relations with friends, workmates or family to break
monotony.
 It is used any time and place to give feedback to an organization/institution.
 Used to air grievances.
 Used to help put people at ease and avoid or relieve stress.

C. INTERNAL COMMUNICATION

Internal communication refers to the exchange of information or messages between

persons and departments of the same organization e.g., Communication between the
employer and the employees, or communication between a company and its
shareholders.

Uses of internal communication

 Used to create good relationships within the organization
 Brings about coordination, cooperation and team work
 Used to encourage and motivate the members to continue and to work harder
for better output.

D.EXTERNAL COMMUNICATION

External communication refers to the exchange of information or messages between

particular organizations and outside offices, outside persons or other outside
organizations. Communication with the customers and suppliers, other business
organizations, government departments and service institutions come within this
category.

Uses of external communication

 Enables organizations to access other services
 Used for business purposes
 Used to inform and bring awareness
 Used for analysis, this brings about improved performance.

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E.INTER-PERSONAL COMMUNICATION

This is the communication that exists between a person or people or organization

without the same purpose but with mutual understanding despite being in different
entities in their businesses or operations.

Uses of inter- personal communication

 Used to create mutual understanding between individuals
 Used to bring about healthy competition in organizations, businesses or even
individuals.
 Used to ensure security
 Used for socialization and creating friendship.

F. INTRA-PERSONAL COMMUNICATION

This is the kind of communication within oneself, a person, group or an organization

within itself and having the same goal and purpose to achieve for themselves or to all
of them as a group.

Uses of intra -personal communication

 Used to create teamwork and unity
 Used for reconciliation in case of differences

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FORMS OF COMMUNICATIONS

Oral Communication
I. Face to face
 Presentation of a speech:- To pass
information, entertainment,
communication, creating understanding
and interaction.
Speech can be presented using:- memorizing, reading, use of cues and
demonstration
 Presentation of a report

II. Telephone
III. Meeting
IV. Interviews

Oral communication means communicating by the word of mouth, face to face

conversation, telephone (mobile) conversation, training courses, consultation,
meetings, conference, radio broadcast, group discussion and seminars and
announcements over public address system, speeches etc.
Therefore, oral communication takes place through the spoken word. Hence its
primary medium is the word of mouth.

Advantages of oral communications

1. It saves time - In a number of cases where action is required to be taken

immediately, it is best to transmit the message orally.
2. Gives immediate feedback - Most of oral communication allows immediate
feedback of information and unlike written communication where the sending
of the message and the sending of feedback occurs at different times.
3. It is Convenient - Normally oral communication requires no advance
preparation of the message, as in the case with written communication.

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 4. It’s cost effective - Oral communication does not involve a lot of cost for
example (when it is within the organization). One does not incur the extra cost
of procuring written materials or facilities.
5. It is more reliable - it provides an opportunity for feedback and clarification
6. It provides opportunities for responding appropriately to a non-verbal
communication.
7. Adequacy - It allows adequate illustration of messages as it is capable of
accommodating illustrative media like charts, graphs, maps etc. This helps to
improve the clarity of meaning in communication.

Disadvantages of oral communication:

1. Costly - Oral communication may be costly in terms of the cost of media e.g.
meetings, conferences and seminars are very expensive in terms of money and
materials. (facilities)
2. Provides no record for future references and oral message cannot be retrieved
for future use or reference.
3. May sometimes be time consuming especially in meetings and conferences
when after various deliberations nothing concrete comes out.
4. Although all messages offer a great opportunity for clarification, there are also
greater chances of misunderstanding.
5. Sometimes it may be affected by previous strained relationships i.e. between
superiors and subordinates.
6. In oral messages, there are no responsibilities for mistakes if any cannot be
specifically traced or assigned.
7. Constantly there may be more opportunities for misunderstanding owing to
the relative urgency of both the communication and feedback opportunities
with no time for reference.

V. Written Communication.

This is communication through written words where the primary medium is the
written word. At times writing is the best method of communication i.e. letters,
memos telegrams, e-mails, newspapers, minutes, and questionnaires etc.

Advantages of written communication

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 1. Accurate and precise - meaning is formulated with great care.
2. Used for future reference- unlike oral, it acts as a record for the future.
3. Durability- conveys the message for a long time, thus provides a
permanent record.
4. Provides evidence – proves that a communication was made at a certain
time.
5. Cheap- sometimes cheaper compared to oral communication in a case
whereby, circulars can be sent to a large number of people thus saving
what may have been meetings.
6. May be personalize

Disadvantages of written communication

1. Time consuming- in prove reading, mailing and typing.

2. Non-confidential- mostly passed through third parties.
3. Slow and lacks speed.
4. Costly
5. Information can be lost in case of natural hazards eg. fire, floods, theft etc.

VI. Visual Communication

- Tables
- Charts
- Graphs
- Control board
- Posters
- Slides
(They include :- Organisational charts, tables, graphs, pie and cake charts,
histograms, flowcharts, audio-visual aids, boards, tape recorders, overhead
projectors, plastigraphs, filmstrips and slides.)

Visual communication includes gestures and facial expressions, tables and charts,
diagrams, posters, slides, films strips,
We are all familiar with two pieces of bone put in a cross, fashioned with a skull
placed in between, and we all know that they signify danger. In public places and

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 vehicles we often see a notice showing a lighted cigarette with cross mark on it; again
the meaning is clear to everybody: no smoking.
Communication through such visuals is very effective because it’s sure and instant.

Advantages of visual communication

1. It’s very precise, concise and instant since information can be summarized by
use of sound messages with an impact.
2. It’s relatively cheap.
3. Can be used to change attitudes and behavior.
4. Can be used to send elementary ideas, orders, warnings and instructions.
5. It can be used in combination with other media.
6. Visual aids command attention.

Disadvantages of visual communication

1. It does not give more details about the subject matter.

2. It requires time and special skills or knowledge to prepare and present.
3. It can be costly, mostly when it involves the use of new technology

VII. Audio-visual communication

- Films / movies
- Television
- VCR
- Computer

Audio-visual communication is a type of communication that makes use of telecast

films, cinemas, video tapes, digital videos, and the like. It is the latest medium of
communication.
It’s the combination of sight and sound. It may make use of written word also.
Visual communication is not found to be adequate itself. People will usually casually
glance at it and let it go just like that. It is likely that they will miss the message, but if
the slides are accompanied with explanation and narration, it will facilitate
interpretation and ensure that the message is fully understood.

Advantages of audio- visual communication

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 1. Information is retained much longer than through any other means.
2. It can be used for mass publicity such as advertising, mass propaganda and
mass education.
3. Audio visual appeals much to our senses ensuring comprehension of the
subject matter.
Disadvantages of audio-visual communication

1. It’s quite expensive

2. It always consumes a lot of time e.g. In preparation
3. Requires a lot of skills, knowhow and expertise.

CHANNELS OF COMMUNICATION

An organization’s structure influences the communication patterns within the

organization. The structure of an organization should provide for communication in
three distinct directions: vertical, horizontal and diagonal. These three directions
establish the framework within which communication in an organization takes place.

Directions of communication

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 1. Vertical Communication

In organization, vertical communication is between those who are on different levels

of authority within the company. Examples are manager to employee, general
manager to managers etc. This communication channel occurs in two ways: Upward
and Downward.

(i) Upward Communication

Upward communication is the process of information flowing from lower levels of

hierarchy to the upper levels. Five types of information communicated upward in an
organization are as follows (Canary, 2011)

 Problems and exceptions. These messages describe serious problems and

exceptions to routine performance in order to make the leader aware of
difficulties.
 Suggestions for improvement. These messages are ideas for improving task-
related procedures to increase the quality or efficiency of organization
members.
 Performance reports. These messages include periodic reports that inform the
leader how individual organization members and departments are performing.
 Grievances and disputes. These messages are employee complaints and
conflicts that travel up the school organization hierarchy for a hearing and
possible resolution. If the grievance procedure is backed up by the presence of
a collective bargaining agreement, organization members are even more
encouraged to express true feelings.

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  Financial and accounting information. These messages pertain to costs,
accounts receivable, interest on investment, tax levies and other interest to
the board/administration.

Upward communication is best done in form of:-

1. Memo: The most frequently used form for upward communication is memo which
is a short piece of information sent to senior executives by subordinates. 

Generally routine information is communicated through this means.

2. Report: This is important form of upward communication where subordinates are

required to submit reports to the seniors about the progress of their work at regular
intervals.

3. Complaint and Suggestion Boxes: Such complain and suggestion box is installed at

convenient places in the factory or the office. Employees drop the complaints and
suggestions if any into the boxes. 
 
Later on these are collected and reviewed through the established procedure.

4. Open Door Policy: This form gives the employees a feeling that the managers door
is always open to them. 
 
Whenever the subordinates like, they can walk into superior's room without any
hesitation and talk to boss about their problems.

5. Counseling: Sometimes, in some organization, lower level employees are

encouraged to seek advice of their superiors about their personal problems. 
 
As employees feel free to talk about their problems through this system, their
confidence to work increases.

6. Social Gathering: Social gathering are arranged in different departments which

offer an informal communication atmosphere to mix with each other and talk about
their respective problem. 
 
But here Grapevine communication may not be allowed due to strong personality of
superiors.

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7. Quality Team: Such team is voluntarily formed with a small group of workers
which identifies the problems within their immediate work areas and suggests the
solution to the higher officials.

8. Direct Meeting: When formal meeting (i.e. in formal communication) is called

subordinates get opportunity to talk about their respective problems. 
 
Superiors get familiar with the problems of subordinates and they quickly react to
solve those problems.

9. Questionnaire: Managers may obtain information about employee attitude and

confidence, employees’ views about the respective organization and relationship
between managers and subordinates through questionnaire.

By the way, upward communication is an essential communication in every business

organization to improve organizational progress.

Open door policy (business)

An open door policy (as related to the business and corporate fields) is a
communication policy in which a manager, CEO, MD, president or supervisor leaves
their office door "open" in order to encourage openness and transparency with the
employees of that company. As the term implies, employees are encouraged to stop
by whenever they feel the need to meet and ask questions, discuss suggestions, and
address problems or concerns with management. An open door policy is typically
intended to foster an environment of collaboration, high performance, and mutual
respect between upper management and employees.
An open door policy means, literally, that every manager's door is open to every
employee. The purpose of an open door policy is to encourage open communication,
feedback, and discussion about any matter of importance to an employee.

Advantages/Benefits
 Open door policies exist to encourage employees to offer suggestions and ideas,
provide or solicit feedback, seek personal or professional counsel, or address
concerns within the company.
 The policy establishes an environment of trust and mutual respect between the
employer and employee.

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 The practice is viewed as a morale booster by letting employees feel as if they are
able to openly speak with their employer about issues face-to-face, rather than
through e-mail or voicemail.
 In essence, an open door policy serves to empower employees, knowing that their
voice is heard and issues are quickly addressed and resolved.
 Trust in the company tends to improve and grow, when employees understand that
they are welcome to confide in senior management, when immediate supervisors
are unavailable.

Disadvantages
 Open door policies tend to endorse the practice of bypassing the normal
management structure, risking uninformed or sub-optimal decisions that can also
undermine line managers. 
 While open door policies intend to encourage and instill a sense of transparency
and openness, some employees hesitate to speak their mind or be honest, for fear
of intimidation, criticism, and censure.
 Management personnel may tend to communicate the willingness to hear
suggestions, while belittling the suggestions when unaccompanied by solutions.
 Open door policies have also been seen as a way for companies to discourage the
formation of labor unions. Formal, written policies may encourage openness,
however, the response received in attempts to engage are often seen as threats to
the authority or management style of the individual working in a supervisory or
management capacity.
 The policy, in essence, allows employees to for-go meeting with their immediate
supervisors, choosing rather to engage in communication with their senior
managers to discuss their employment or personal issues.
 A process of open communication and transparency allows employees to bypass
their supervisors to engage with senior management. This may inadvertently lead
to tension and strife between employees and middle management. Supervisors
may either see this as an implication that they are the primary issue of concern, or
they may feel threatened, suspecting the employee of undermining him in an
attempt to cause problems between him and senior management.

Advantages upward communication

 Gives an employee an opportunity to express problems and grievances

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  It provides feedback to management e.g. on what employees likes or dislikes
about the organization
 It provides the employee an opportunity to offer constructive suggestions.
 Makes the working environment friendly hence creating harmony and
cohesion between subordinate and superiors.

Disadvantages of upward communication

 Information may be deliberately distorted before it is passed to the superior to

avoid irritating them.
 Superior or bosses may not take information from subordinate seriously [this
may be due to superiority complex]
 Most employees/subordinates are usually reluctant to communicate to their
bosses. This may be due to fear of victimization or being seen as
incompetent.
 Problem of bypassing - This problem arises where some workers ignore their
immediate superiors and up to the top most authority.

(ii) Downward communication

It is the flow of information from higher to lower levels of an organization. Canary

(2011) has identified five general purposes of downward communication:

 Implementation of goals, strategies and objectives. Communicating new

strategies and goals provides information about specific targets and expected
behaviour.
 Job instructions and rationale. These are directives on how to do a specific
task and how the job relates to other activities of the organization.
 Procedures and practices. These are messages defining the institution’s
policies, rules, regulations, benefits and structural arrangements in order to
get some degree of uniformity in organization practices.
 Performance feedback. Departmental progress reports, individual
performance appraisals, and other means are used to tell departments or
individuals how well they are doing with respect to performance standards
and goals.
 Socialization. Every institution/organization tries to motivate staff members
to adopt the institution’s mission and cultural values and to participate in
special ceremonies. It is an attempt to get a commitment, a sense of

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 belonging, and a unity of direction among staff member (Lunenburg &
Ornstein, 2008).

The downward flow of communication provides a channel for directives, instructions,

and information to organizational members. However, much information gets lost as it
is passed from one person to another. Moreover, the message can be distorted if it
travels a great distance from its sender to the ultimate receiver down through the
formal organization hierarchy (Tourish, 2010).

Importance of downward communication

 Providing feedback to the subordinate

 Give specific directives about the job
 May be used to appraise subordinate for their performance
 Explain policies and organization procedure.

Limitations
 Delay may occur if the communication lines are long
 Information may also be lost along the line
 Information may be distorted and hence it looses its originality
 Subordinates may tend to resist information if they feel that they are not
involved in decision making.

2. Horizontal communication

Is the communication between people of the same level of authority. Like an

organizational chart one communicates horizontally with people of same
‘authority
’ with similar power
’ or grade or pay band.
It is usually less structured and informal compared to vertical communication. This
communication may take place as telephone call, e-mails, memos, letters, informal
discussions, gossip, teleconferencing, videoconferencing etc.

Importance
 It promotes understanding and co-ordination among various departments

3. Diagonal communication

24
Diagonal communication occurs between officers who are at different levels of
authority and who serve under different commands. It could take place between a
sergeant in a department unit and the internal affairs division or legal advisor at
headquarters. This type of communication is common in tactical situation which
require the quick transfer of information or advice; in hostage situation or cases of
civil unrest. Diagonal communication is usually verbal and thus is conducted by
telephony or radio.

Advantages of diagonal communication

1. It is a most direct method of communication as employees gets quick answers

to questions asked that would have taken long.
2. It is a most selective method of communication
3. It is one of the fastest methods of communication by disseminating
information.
4. In critical situations, it would seem to be the most essential and logical type of
communication.
5. It allows cross communication between departments

Disadvantages of diagonal communication

1. It can destroy lines of authority and formal chains of command

2. It can leave immediate supervisors uninformed of what their subordinates are
doing.
3. It can lead to conflicting orders and hence to further confusion.
4. It is usually verbal, and thus is untraceable if things go wrong.

OFFICIAL ETIQUETTE, PROTOCOL AND DIPLOMACY

Etiquette is guidelines and rules on the proper way to behave at work, how to practice
good business etiquette, and how to make a good impression on your boss and co-
workers. 'Etiquette' in the dictionary, it will be defined as an aspect of decorum which
is a code that governs the various expectations of social behavior as per the
conventional norm, within a society, a social class or a group. Etiquette is usually
unwritten and generally tend to reflect the formulae of conduct in the society.

25
Proper etiquette generally, among others dictates that:-

a) When walking on the path or driving on Kenyan roads, always keep left.
b) When sneezing or coughing cover your mouth
c) When receiving handshake, do not allow your hand to linger for long.
d) When you need something that is not within your reach, kindly ask the person
seated next to you to pass it on.
e) When you step on someone’s toe, say sorry.
f) When lining up for service, do not jump the queue.
g) When you come across a lost and found item, hand it back to the owner.

Official etiquette encompasses circles of rules governing social or diplomatic

intercourse. These circles vary from the more or less of social usage to the rigid
conventions of e.g Court, Police, Military circles e.t.c and they extend to the legal,
medical and other professions. It is important to note that every profession or
occasion has got its own unique conventional requirements or norms.

Police etiquette is within the confines of disciplines.

Disciplines being defined as obedience to orders and considerate action towards

sub ordinates. Being a disciplined service all aspects of etiquette must be
interpreted along the lines of discipline.

In the Police Service, etiquette dictates that:-

a) A Police officer should not smoke when actively engaged and in uniform.
b) An officer should appear tidy in arms, clothing and equipment.
c) Should always respect their seniors.
d) Should not drink intoxicating liquor while on duty.
e) Should not use any obscene, abusive or insulting language to a fellow officer.
f) Should not engage in a fight with a colleague.
g) Police officer should maintain confidentiality of information.
h) Observe official working hours.

PROTOCOL

26
The formal system of rules for correct/ acceptable behavior on official occasions and
ceremonies.

Protocol is commonly described as a set of international courtesy rules. These well

established and time - honoured rules have made it easier for nations and people to
live and work together. Part of protocol has always been the acknowledgment of the
hierarchical standing of all present. Protocol rules are based on the principles of
civility.

Means the formal etiquette and code of behavior, precedence, and procedure for state
and diplomatic ceremonies. Protocol has always been associated with
acknowledgment of hierarchical standing of all present.

In the Police service, protocol follows the ranking structure from the Constable to the
Inspector General.

PROTOCOL
Synonyms: code of behaviour, manners, courtesies, conventions   
Protocol is a system of rules about the correct way to act in formal situations.
He has become something of a stickler for the finer observances of royal protocol.
...minor breaches of protocol.

A protocol is a written record of a treaty or agreement that has been made by two or
more countries.

It is diplomatic protocol that a foreign minister often accompanies the head of state
on certain journeys.
There are also protocols on the testing of nuclear weapons.

1. The formal etiquette and code of behaviour, precedence, and procedure for state

and diplomatic ceremonies
2. a memorandum or record of an agreement, esp
one reached in international negotiations, a meeting, etc
3. a. a record of data or observations on a particular experiment or proceeding
b. an annexe appended to a treaty to deal with subsidiary matters or to render the
treaty more lucid
c. a formal international agreement or understanding on some matter
4. an amendment to a treaty or convention
27
5.  a statement that is immediately verifiable by experience
In full: protocol statement. See logical positivism
6.  the set form in which data must be presented for handling by a particular
computer configuration, esp in the transmission of information between different
computer systems.

NOUN
1.  an original draft or record of a document, negotiation, etc.
2. a.  a diplomatic agreement, esp. one that amends, clarifies, or adds to a treaty
b.  the code of ceremonial forms and courtesies, of precedence,
etc. accepted as proper and correct in official dealings, as between heads of states or
diplomatic officials
3.  In science and medicine, a formal set of rules and procedures to
be followed during a particular research experiment, course of treatment, etc.
4.  a set of rules governing the communication and the transfer of data between
machines, as in a computer system
VERB TRANSITIVEWord forms: ˈprotoˌcolled or ˈprotoˌcoled, ˈprotoˌcolling or ˈproto
ˌcoling
5.  to issue in a protocol
VERB INTRANSITIVE
6.  to draw up a protocol

PROTOCOL
the formal system of rules for correct behavior on official occasions:
 According to protocol, the new ambassador will present his credentials to
the president.

protocol
/ (ˈprəʊtəˌkɒl) /

noun

the formal etiquette and code of behaviour, precedence, and procedure for state and
diplomatic ceremonies

a memorandum or record of an agreement, esp one reached in international

negotiations, a meeting, etc

(chiefly US)

28
1. a record of data or observations on a particular experiment or proceeding
2. an annexe appended to a treaty to deal with subsidiary matters or to render
the treaty more lucid
3. a formal international agreement or understanding on some matter

an amendment to a treaty or convention

philosophy a statement that is immediately verifiable by experience In full: protocol
statement See logical positivism
computing the set form in which data must be presented for handling by a particular
computer configuration, esp in the transmission of information between different
computer systems

DIPLOMACY
A diplomatic communicator is someone who can get their message across and
convince people to change without damaging the
relationship. Diplomatic communicators use reason, kindness and compassion, and
they show respect for other people’s opinions. Diplomatic communication (or tact) is
about being honest, but not brutally honest.

Communication is to diplomacy as blood is to the human body. Whenever

communication ceases, the body of international politics, the process of diplomacy,
is dead, and the result is violent conflict or atrophy

Communication is the essence of diplomacy There has never been a good diplomat
who was a bad communicator.
Tact and diplomacy can be defined as the ability to assert your ideas or opinions,
knowing what to say and how to say it without damaging the relationship by causing
offence.
Tact – The art of making a point without making an enemy. (Isaac Newton)
Diplomacy – The art of letting somebody else have your way. (David Frost)

PREREQUISITES FOR SUCCESSFUL TACT AND DIPLOMACY

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 As well as a level of common sense, good judgement and practice in various
situations, the effective use of tact and diplomacy relies on some other key skills,
namely:

 Attentive Listening:  You need to be able to listen to not just what is being
said but also how it is being said in order to understand, and react appropriately to,
others. 

 Emotional Intelligence:  People with higher emotional intelligence can usually

use tact and diplomacy more naturally in communication.  Emotional intelligence is a
measure of how well we understand our own emotions and the emotions of others.

 Showing Empathy: As an extension to emotional intelligence, empathy is your

ability to see the world from another person’s perspective. 

 Assertiveness: The reason for using tact and diplomacy is very often to

persuade or influence others to think or behave in a certain way.  Assertiveness is
fundamental to this process and a skill that many people lack. 

 Rapport: Rapport is closely linked to tact and diplomacy as well as emotional

intelligence and good manners.  Our page Building Rapport examines rapport building
in detail.
 Politeness:  Being polite and courteous, respecting other people’s view-points
and cultural differences is important in many interpersonal relationships.

DIPLOMACY
Refers to the skill in managing negotiations, handling people so that there is little or
no ill will.

30
The profession, activity, or skill of managing international relations, typically by a
country’s representatives abroad.
The art of dealing with people in a sensitive and tactful way.
The practice of influencing the decisions and conduct of foreign governments or
intergovernmental organizations through dialogue, negotiation, and other nonviolent
means. …
Diplomats may also help shape a state’s foreign policy by advising government
officials.
A diplomat is a person appointed by a state or an international institution such as the
united Nations or the European Union to conduct diplomacy with one or more other
states or international organizations.

In diplomacy, one can decide to:-

With-hold his own opinion
Introduce an idea, or favoured outcome in a way that the other person can take
ownership of it or,
Take a direct stance, stating exactly what you want and how you intend to achieve it.

More skills could include:-

 Planning
 Self-control
 Confidence
 Emotional intelligence (communication style, personalities, needs, motivators.)
 Try to keep calm
 Keep an open mind
 Find out the facts
 Find out what is and what is not possible before you react.

31
 Watch for non-verbal communication eg. body language, their tone of voice.
 Aim to reach a compromise which results in a win-win situation.
 Be precise in giving figures and dates.
 Favour logic and fact over personal opinion.
 Turn statements into questions especially if related to personal opinions.
 Take control of the situation rather than being out of control.
 Take time before responding to questions.
 Keep an eye on the prize. Keep your preferred outcome in mind. Don’t be
distracted. Don’t bow to pressure. Be assertive.

Language of communication

Language development is the development of the basic form of communication

among human beings. Just as it is the basic form, it is also the most developed. We
cannot communicate in any real sense without language since communication
involves a mutual exchange of information and understanding by effective means.
This implies that for communication to be effective, it must have an exchange of ideas
with understanding. Unless the flow goes both ways, no real communication takes
place.
Skill in communicating does not come without planning and effort. Like any other
skill, it develops through practice.

Categories of language of communication

a) Verbal communication (verbal language)
b) Non verbal communication (body language)

Verbal language (verbal communication)

Speaking is the primary means of communicating. Verbal as a means of

communication has the following advantages:
32
  It can personalize the message.
 It can tailor the message to the person present
 It’s a fairly faster means of communicating that gets feedback immediately.
 It allows for a quick reaction to analyze whether the message is sent or not.

Writing on the other hand establishes a permanent record of the message for reference
at a later date.

Body Language (Non Verbal Communication-NVC)

We communicate with body language much more than words. Research shows that
much of our communication is non-verbal. NVC or body language includes facial
expressions, gestures, eye contact, postures and even tone of voice. The ability to
understand and use non-verbal communication is a powerful tool that will help one
connect with others, express what he/she really means, navigate challenging situations
and build better relationships, for example at home, in work place, etc.

Types of Non -Verbal Communication (Body Language)

i. Facial Expression: -i.e. happiness, sadness, anger, surprise, fear , disgust etc
ii. Body Movement and postures:- sit, walk, stand up etc
iii. Gestures
iv. Eye contact :- the way you look at someone can communicate affection,
hostility, attraction etc
v. Touch :- i.e. a firm handshake, a tap on the shoulder etc

Non verbal communication

(Facial expressions, eye-contact, tone of voice, gestures, postures, physical contact,
paralinguistic)

Non- verbal communication plays five roles:

 Repetition: - used to repeat the message someone is making verbally

 Contradiction
 Substitution
 Complementing:- e.g. a senior person who pats on his/her junior’s back in
addition to giving praise
 Accenting: - pounding a table can underline a message.
33
NB; It is not what you say that matters but how you say it.
Both verbal and non-verbal communication can be used simultaneously in
communication.

COMMUNICATION WITHIN THE RANK

As a police officer the ability to communicate effectively enables you to influence the
attitudes and actions of your colleagues, subordinates and seniors. You sell your ideas
or seek redress better through effective communication. The ability to express yourself
clearly and effectively can be your most valuable skill and therefore it is important to
use the most desirable language depending on whom you are communicating with.
In the police service, just like in any other organization where hierarchical relationship
exist, communication requires even greater effort to yield the degree of understanding
necessary for effective operations .
Formal communication flows in any of the three (3) directions:-
 Downward
 Upward
 Horizontal/lateral

Downward communication

This communication which flows from the higher level to the lower level has become
the most used channel for transmitting orders, instructions and directives.
For example, the commissioner of police recalling all officers on leave or terminating
all pending leaves would communicate this through a circular to the provinces (ppos)
who in turn communicate it down to the Districts (ocpds ) down to the stations (ocss)
and eventually to the intended personnel

Upward communication

This happens when subordinates communicate with their seniors. Here the
subordinates have opportunity to make known their ideas and opinions.(suggestion
boxes)
For example, a police officer with a grievance should present the same to his
immediate supervisor. If she/he feels that the grievance is not adequately addressed,
he/she should request to be paraded before or may address his grievance to the next
available senior officer and this may go on eventually to the commissioner of police
i.e. from ocs to ocpd to ppo and eventually to the commissioner of police (compol)
34
Horizontal / Lateral communication

This refers to transmitting and receiving of information between people of the same
level of responsibility or rank. It’s the strongest of all communication flows in terms
of information.
For example, a constable may notice a deficiency in their mess and communicate the
same to others who in turn request for the correction of the deficiency from their
welfare. Decisions of helping one another, advising or sharing sorrows/happiness
together entail much horizontal communication

SUITABLE LANGUAGE AT THE WORKPLACE

1. Always use the respectful word “Sir” or “Madam”, whenever talking to those
senior to you.
2. Always call your juniors by name or rank or rank and name rather than the
rank only. Eg. Inspector mwala, madam Lavender etc
3. When answering the phone at your desk say “Hello”, “this is Mr. X.” Do not say
phrases such as “Mr. X here!” or simply “Hello”. Also remember to state the
organizations name to outside callers. Eg. hello, this is Mr. Katana, Mwingo
police station.
4. Show appreciation for the slightest courtesy extended to you.
5. Always apologize if your intrusion is an interruption of a discussion, someone’s
concentration or other activity.
6. Never use sexist or any discriminatory language.

ACCEPTED PROTOCOL AND DIPLOMACY

 Provide your senior with information as required.

 Keep your senior well informed in a timely fashion.
 Respect all other employees.
 Cooperate with your seniors
 Cooperate with all employees both uniformed and civilian.
 Do not be arrogant.

IMPORTANCE OF OFFICIAL ETIQUETTE

 Fosters harmony within and across the ranks.

 Boosts the confidence of junior officers when in the company of their seniors.

35
  Observance of etiquette makes people around feel important, respected and
appreciated.
 It helps to create a positive first impression about the individual and the
organization they represent.
 Knowledge in etiquette builds confidence in social and business environments.
 Makes one comfortable in different environments and cultures.

WRITING SKILLS
Writing is a skill; like other skills, it can be learned and like most skills it is not
inborn. It is best learned by doing.

Punctuation

The chief purpose of punctuation is to make the meaning of a written passage clear.
Punctuate carelessly and you will communicate inefficiently and probably
misleadingly.
Observe how the apostrophe and comma or their absence, changes the meaning of
these sentences:

PHRASE MEANING
These are my brothers - these people are my brothers
These are my brother’s - these things belong to my brother
These are my brothers’ -these things belong to my brothers

My aunt, who lives in Scotland, is 93 today.

This implies that I have one aunt. Take away the commas and the meaning changes:
My aunt who lives in Scotland is 93 today.
This implies that I have more than one aunt, and I am referring to the one who lives in
Scotland.

There are two broad tendencies in punctuation nowadays. You could call them
 Heavy punctuation
 Light punctuation

In simple terms heavy punctuation is the tendency to use as many different marks as
possible and as often as possible. Its aim is to make sure that the reader interprets the
text exactly as the author intended.
Light punctuation on other hand gives more scope for the reader to sort out things for
himself for the sake of a text that flows more quickly. One characteristic of light

36
punctuation is its use of commas, instead of brackets, dashes and semi colons and to
use the comma itself as little as possible.
Heavy punctuation is appropriate for serious/official discussions.

FULL STOP

 The chief use of the full stop ( point or period) is to end an assertion –typically
a declarative sentence (one that is not a question or an exclamation) such as
I want to know whether swallows really do fly south for the winter.
 Full stops are also widely used after abbreviations – e.g. B. A., a.m., etc. and
after numbers and letters listing points.
 Addresses sometimes end with a full stop and have a comma at the end of
each line.

THE COMMA CBM/CSCM

 It is main punctuation typical use is to separate main clause linked by

conjunctions such as and, but or for and nor.
 The comma is most likely to be used when the clauses are long, contrasted
and complete. e.g. The cottage was old, but the garden was new.
 Commas are used to separate large whole numbers into units of three as for
thousands and millions e.g. 153,601.

THE HYPHEN (-) hai.fn

 The hyphen looks like a short dash, but hyphen and dash are used very
differently. The dash separates whereas the hyphen unites.
 Mostly used after a prefix or other word element e.g Un-American, non-
European.
 The hyphen is used to unite separate words into compound forms that
function as a single unit. E.g. head-waiter, tax-payer, up-to-date.

BRACKETS ( )

37
The basic function of brackets is to separate the bracketed material clearly from what
surrounds it. The material set off by the brackets is less closely integrated with its
surroundings than material set off by commas.

SEMI COLON (:-)

The most characteristic use of semicolon is to separate clauses that might have been
two different sentences but are closely connected in thought or meaning. For example,
the house was dark; the woman was extremely frightened.

COLON (:)

 Used to introduce materials that explain or interpret what precedes it. e.g.
They didn’t sleep last night: they must be very tired.
 Colon and list - It introduces a number of items listed separately
e.g we offer the following services:
 Typing
 Internet services
 Printing
 photocopying
 May be used after formal salutation preceding a message e.g
Ladies and gentlemen: it gives me great pleasure to introduce John the new
sales manager.
 It is used after various headings in correspondences. E.g. To: Subject:

APOSTROPHE (‘)

 Apostrophes have two main purposes: to indicate possession and other kinds
of relationships e.g Robert’s pen
 Apostrophe comes before the s if the noun is singular e.g. one judge’s opinion
 Apostrophe comes after the s if that s serves to make the noun plural e.g The
judges’ opinions.
 Apostrophe comes before the s if the noun is already plural without the s e.g.
The people’s palace.
 To shorten words eg. did not becomes didn’t

QUOTATION MARKS (“”)

The main purpose of quotation marks also called quote marks, quotes or inverted
commas is to enclose material that is brought into a text outside it such as quotation
38
from books or words used by other persons e.g. She asked, did he say “hearing” or
“earring”?

QUESTION MARK (?)

It comes at the end of a direct question. E.g. would you like a drink?

EXCLAMATION MARK (!)

It is often used after imperatives or commands. E.g. shut up!

THE DASH (-)

Is used to interrupt a sentence e.g she was extraordinarily tall - the tallest woman I had
ever seen. A dash can be used to indicate and finish dialogue e.g help help! I can’t
seem to – “she fell to the ground, gasping for breath”.

THE SLASH (/)

 Used to indicate a choice between the words it separates.

 The slash can be translated as or and should be used where the words or could
not be used in its place.
 To avoid gender problems with pronouns, some writers use he/she, his/her,
and him and her.

THE ELLIPSIS (…)

 An ellipsis is used when you’re quoting material and you want to omit some
words.
 The ellipsis can also be used to indicate a pause in the flow of a sentence and
is especially useful in quoted speech.

 Ellipsis (omission of some part of a sentence) can lead to misunderstanding. It

should thus be avoided. E.g. put in 3 pints of water … drop in spaghetti … stir.

39
COURTESY IN WRITING

Courtesy in writing refers to the respectful, polite and considerate way of

communicating through written form.
By observing courtesy while writing, we help reduce the burden on our reader of
striving to understand and thereby making the communication of information more
effective.

There are three key elements in communicating on a paper

 Structure and layout
 Content
 Style and tone

Structure and layout

 Correct layout should be used. Layout greatly affects the ease with which
information is assimilated. Letters are geometrical shapes with
conventionalized meanings. Equally indention, spacing, underlining and layout
of blocks of types communicate much. Appropriate layout should thus be
adopted
 Correct sequence of events should be adopted. Many instructions fail because
they are out of sequence or contain gaps. E.g. An essay should have an
introduction then body and finally conclusion
 Numbering- Use appropriate numbering system. Do not use decimal numbers
for subsidiary points. They are best reserved for headings and subheadings
where the hierarchy and interrelationships or sections is being shown.

Style and tone

The style and tone of written communication is important to ensure the message is put
over and received clearly. For this one should:-
Keep it simple
 Prefer familiar words to the far- fetched
 Prefer concrete word to the abstract
 Prefer short word to the long
 Strive for clarity above all things (even above brevity)
 Be natural
40
  Be Concise
 Let the tone reflect your true feelings but beware of being angry, suspicious,
insulting, patronizing or presumptuous.
 Be courteous (cordial and tactful) for example while ending a letter use a
phrase yours faithfully/sincerely/affectionately accordingly.

Content

 The content should contain all the information required to be communicated.

it should be compact.

 It should be devoid of ambiguity (open to having several possible meanings or

interpretations, difficult to comprehend or lacking clearness)

 Words with double meaning should also be avoided e.g replace, refit,
reconnect.

Example: - check undercarriage locking pin if bent replace.

The pilot took out the pin and examined it. It was indeed bent, so he carefully
put it back into the mechanism. The aircraft subsequently crashed. One should
take precautions to understand these words.

 Ellipsis (omission of some part of a sentence) can lead to misunderstanding. It

should thus be avoided. E.g. put in 3 pints of water – drop in spaghetti – stir.

Examples

In writing a business letter you should always test the draft to ensure that:

 The message is clear

 Points are made in the best order

 It has the right style and tone.

 The most appropriate word and phrases are being used.

 The grammar/spelling is correct

 The layout is attractive.

41
  The closing formulae/ending is appropriate.

CLASS ACTIVITY

Punctuate the following paragraphs

Nearly two thirds of deaths in the world are caused by non communicable diseases
such as cancer diabetes heart and lung disease which are rapidly increasing at a cost to
the global economy of trillions of dollars according to UN estimates and preliminary
results of a new study.
Secretary general ban ki moon said in a report circulated Monday that while the
international community has focused on communicable diseases such as HIV AIDS
malaria and tuberculosis the four main non communicable diseases has been side lined
he added we need to put more emphasis in combating these diseases in the developing
world

Punctuated paragraphs
Nearly two-thirds of deaths in the world are caused by non-communicable diseases
such as cancer, diabetes, heart and lung diseases which are rapidly increasing at a cost
to the global economy of trillions of dollars, according to U.N. estimates and
preliminary results of a new study.
Secretary-General Ban ki-Moon said in a report circulated on Monday that while the
international community has focused on communicable diseases such as HIV/AIDS,
malaria and tuberculosis, the four main non-communicable diseases has been
sidelined. He added, “We need to put more emphasis in combating these diseases in
the developing world.”

Courtesy in writing

It’s critical that the content of your correspondence reflects the same level of
politeness and thoughtful attention to detail that would be shown if your exchange
were taking place in person. Courtesy writing should contain the following points;

1. Professionalism
When someone has the advantage of interacting with you in person, he/she can tell by
your eye contact, listening skills, body language and even the way you present
yourself just how seriously you take your position and your company’s reputation.
Always consider how someone unfamiliar with the issue that prompted the
correspondence will perceive you and your business.
42
 2. Respect
A courteous business letter conveys to your recipient that you are not only sensitive to
his/her concerns but believe in the value of taking the time to acknowledge those
concerns in writing.

3. Clarity
Frustrations in correspondence occur when you either misinterpret what it is the
correspondent really wants from you or assume a level of knowledge that the
correspondent doesn’t actually have. Courtesy in business letters is a combination of
paraphrasing your understanding of the problem prior to addressing its solution as
well as explaining policies, procedures and practices in a clear, concise way.

4. Empathy
Expressing your understanding, apologizing for any confusion or inconvenience, and
offering remedies are considerate ways to let customers know that trying to
accommodate their best interest is a company/institution priority.

5. Appreciation
People like to know they’re appreciated. It validates their existence and affirms their
contributions towards society.

6. Use of correct (polite) language

Polite words and phrases 
        Thank you: You say "Thank you" when someone gives you a gift or
does something nice for you. Even if you don't like the gift, it is polite to
show gratitude by saying "Thank you". This warms the other person’s
heart and makes you genial or amiable. Everyone likes a polite person. 
        You're welcome: When someone says "Thank you" you should say
"You're welcome”. You may also say “My pleasure", “I was happy to do
it", “Don’t mention it" or any other variation.
        Please: You say "please" when making a polite request. Remember to
say it with a sincere tone. 
        Excuse me: You say "Excuse me" when you want to get someone's
attention -that is if you need to talk to them. When you say excuse me
you wait until the person looks at you or nods before you begin talking.
You may also use it when you cough, sneeze or interrupt something.

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 You may also use "Excuse me" to politely tell someone you're leaving. In
more formal situations we use "Pardon me" instead. 
        I beg your pardon: When you want someone to repeat what they just
said you say "I beg your pardon”. Avoid impolite responses
like "What?" (Remember, pardon does not mean repeat, therefore, don't
say "Please pardon what you have said" .You may say "May you repeat
what you have said?" or" Could you repeat what you said? ") 
        May: The phrase "May I" makes you sound well mannered. Consider
introducing your statements with "May" for example "May I borrow your
pen?”, “May you mark my book?" or "May I go out?" 
        I'm sorry: When you make a mistake or do something wrong, hurt
someone's feelings or do something you should not have done you
say "I'm sorry". It is polite to acknowledge your mistake and show regret.
 

Greetings

Always remember to begin your conversations with greetings. Greetings are

important since they help to: 

        Establish rapport
        Set the mood for a conversation or a presentation
        Break the ice between strangers 

 
Read the conversation below and identify the use of polite words and
phrases. 

Nakhanu: Excuse me sir, may I come in? 

Mwalimu: Please do. 

Nakhanu: Good morning sir, how are you? 

Mwalimu: I am fine thank you. May I help you? 

Nakhanu: Sorry to bother you, may you mark my book please? 

Mwalimu: I am afraid I'm busy at the moment, I'll mark it later. 

Nakhanu: Thank you sir. 

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Mwalimu: You're welcome. 

Nakhanu: I have a lesson to attend sir, excuse me. 

Mwalimu: You may leave. 

Nakhanu: Thank you sir.

Polite language is always appropriate. Consider using it at all times when

speaking to other people. Being friendly and polite makes you:-

 likeable,
 get ahead in work and business and
 may help you make friends and acquaintances. Avoid words that may
offend other people.
7. Choice of words

8. Right expressions

9. Confidentiality

Confidentiality in the Workplace

Take the: Management Skills Self-Assessment
Confidentiality, or not disclosing certain information, is important in a
wide range of jobs.

Confidentiality matters for legal and reputational reasons, and it also

matters because your future employment may depend on it.

Some information is protected by law in several countries, including

personally identifiable information and also ‘trade secrets’.

It is therefore important to understand the nature of confidentiality, and

how to ensure that you comply with legal or ethical guidelines.

What is Confidentiality?
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Confidentiality means the state of keeping secret or not disclosing information.
It comes from confide, meaning to trust someone or tell secrets to them.
Confidential information, therefore, is information that should be kept private or
secret. Confidentiality is simply the act of keeping that information private.

Types of Confidential Information

There are, broadly speaking, five main types of confidential information.

1. Employee Information
In the course of the job, you will hear information about individuals within your organisation.
Some of this will be unsubstantiated gossip, and some will be information that you have
come across in the course of your work, especially if you are a line manager or you work in
human resources.

Handling Gossip

It goes without saying that you should not spread gossip, especially if you do not
know if it is true. Even just asking someone else whether they know if it is true
that x did y can have huge consequences for x’s reputation.
As a general rule, if you would not ask the person concerned, or mention it
to their face, don’t mention it behind their back.
Get a reputation for integrity, rather than one for gossiping.

If you come across private information in the course of your work, including any information
that identifies an individual (name, address, maiden name and so on), then you should
not disclose it to others. This also applies to information collected at interviews about
ethnic background, disabilities and so on.

There are legal requirements about keeping that kind of information safe and secure in
many countries. If you break those laws, you are likely to be personally liable and
potentially face prosecution.

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2. Managerial Information
Managerial information includes both information about individuals, such
as disciplinary action, and also about broad management actions such as
planned redundancies or employee relations issues.
Some types of managerial information will become public in due course—such as planned
redundancies—and other information may remain confidential for much longer.

3. Organisational Information
Organisational information is also known as business information or ‘trade
secrets’.
The definition covers anything not in the public domain that helps the organisation do its
work better or more efficiently. It would therefore include, for example, information about
industrial processes, budgets, costs, forecasts, and even customer contact information.

WARNING!

Sometimes organisational information is covered by confidentiality agreements or

contracts of employment. If you are tempted to disclose any information of this
nature, you should check your contract first and, if necessary, get legal
advice.

4. Customer or Contact Information

Customer and contact information is partially covered by ‘trade secrets’.
However, forthcoming changes to data protection law in Europe (and relating to any data
held on a citizen of a European Union country) means that it needs to be considered and
held differently.

If you think this may affect you or your company, you are advised to seek legal
advice.

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 5. Professional Information
Some professionals — including doctors, lawyers and accountants —
come across information about individuals or organisations through their
professional position.
For example:

 Doctors know about the details of their patients’ conditions and treatments;
 Lawyers know about details of wills and court cases, some of which may be protected by law; and
 Accountants will know about their clients’ tax and income.

These professionals are often bound by professional codes of conduct as well as formal
legal requirements.

Casual vs. Legal Confidentiality

There is a distinction to be drawn between casual expectations of
confidentiality and legal requirements.
 There is information which you may be told, and asked to keep secret, but
where the only obligation to do so is personal

For example, a colleague tells you that she is pregnant, and explains that she has not yet
told anyone else and would prefer it not to be public for the time being.

She wanted to tell you because you are a friend/someone she trusts to cover for her if her
morning sickness is bad/her line manager.

 There is no absolute or legal requirement on you not to tell anyone else.

However, be aware that if you do so, you will have broken her trust.

You would not expect her to be happy, and your reputation as someone to trust and rely on
will be gone (and probably not just with her).

 There is information that legally cannot be shared with other organisations or

individuals except under certain very specific circumstances

For example, you may want to share or sell a list of customer contact details to another
organisation. In many countries, you can only do so if you have obtained explicit consent
from those customers.

o Most personal information (that is, any information which is personal to an

individual, such as national insurance numbers, full name, address, email address or
similar) cannot, by law, be disclosed without consent.

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 o You can also be sued if you share information that is individual to your
employer with any of the company’s competitors, or disclose it in a way that
may damage the share price. This includes information about employees,
processes, or products that is not already in the public domain.

Protecting Confidential Information

If you regularly handle confidential information, you should take steps to ensure
that you protect it adequately.
These should include, for example:

 Ensuring that confidential information is always locked away at night, and not
left unattended during the day;
 Password-protecting sensitive computer files;
 Marking confidential information clearly as such, and ensuring that paper
copies are shredded before disposal; and
 Ensuring that you only disclose confidential information to those who need to
know.

PARAGRAPH DEVELOPMENT

A paragraph is a collection of sentences which all relate to one main idea or topic.

The topic sentence

The sentence that states the main idea of a paragraph is called the topic sentence.

Example: The commercials for televised football games are truly “big business ” for
regular
Season games. Commercials can cost an advertiser thousands of dollars for 30
seconds of airtime.
For the super bonus, they can cost millions of dollars for a couple of minutes of
airtime. Altogether, Football commercials earn hundreds of millions of dollars a year
for advertising agencies and television networks.
The first sentence states the topic of the paragraph that commercials during football
games are timely “big business”. The first sentence is therefore the topic sentence.
The other three sentences support this topic sentence. In this paragraph, the supporting
49
sentences give specific facts to explain why commercials during football games are
big business.
In most paragraphs, the topic sentence is at the beginning of the paragraph, it may
even come in the middle of a paragraph or at the end.
The supporting sentences are those sentences that give examples or develop the idea
stated in the topic sentence.
Four of the most common ways that supporting sentences develop a topic are through;
examples, analysis, analogy or narration.

EXAMPLES

One way in which a topic is developed is with examples

Example;
Besides the new, specialized computer stores, many retail stores have taken advantage
of growing demand for computer software. Most departments’ store chains, for
example, now have computer departments. In addition, discount stores throughout the
country are selling growing numbers of low cost home computers. Appliances stores
also have added computers to their lines of sound and audio equipment. Even book
stores stock a range of software disks and cassettes on their ever expanding shelves of
computer, books and magazines.

The first sentence states the topic that many retail stores now carry computer products.
The remaining four sentences develop this topic sentence by giving four specific
examples of retailers who have done so, including department stores, discount stores,
appliance stores and bookstores.

ANALYSIS

The second way to develop a sentence is through analysis. Analysis paragraph

development means breaking down the topic sentence into its main parts or categories.
Here is an example of a paragraph developed in this way.
Example
An overhead projector has three main systems or parts. The optical system uses
mirrors and lenses to focus the image of a transparency on to a screen. The electrical
system consisting of a cord, switches, a fuse, a bulb and a fan provides light and
cooling. The housing system which includes the main cabinet, focusing points and the
lens holder protects the other components and keeps them properly aligned with each
other.

50
The topic –the three main systems of parts of an overhead projector is stated in the
first sentence. The remaining sentences analyze the topic dividing it into subtopics
that presents specific details.

ANALOGY

A third way to develop a topic is analogy. An analogy is a comparison of one topic to

another topic that is more familiar to an audience. An analogy helps develop a
paragraph by relating an unfamiliar topic to more familiar ideas.

Example
Some financial analysts compare investing in the stock market to riding on a roller
coaster. Like a roller coaster, the stock market goes up and down. Some of these ups
and downs are steeper than others and often they occur suddenly. However, the more
times a person rides a roller coaster the more that person knows what to expect. In the
same way through experience investors can learn to predict the ups and downs of a
stock market. The topic sentence is again at the beginning of a paragraph. The four
sentences that follow the topic sentence develop the analogy by showing specific
comparisons between investing in the stock market and riding a roller coaster.

NARRATION

A fourth way to develop a topic is by narration. Narration presents a series of events

in the order that they happened. In narration the audience is given an accurate
description of what happened.
Examples;
The agreement between Hamisi Technologies and Foster communications took
several months to produce result. The first discussions ended when major errors were
discovered when Hamisi Technologies offered to open its financial records to an
independent audit. In exchange, Foster’s management agreed a lowered percentage of
returns during the first three years of the contract. After several weeks of negotiation
on details, the agreement was signed on August 4th.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD PARAGRAPH

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Effective paragraphs have four main characteristics: a topic sentence, unity, coherence
and adequate development. Each of these characteristics is discussed below.

i. Unity
Unity refers to the extent to which all of the ideas contained within a given paragraph
hold/hang together in a way that is easy for the reader to understand. When the writer
changes to a new idea – one which is not consistent with the topic sentence of the
paragraph – the writer should begin a new paragraph. Unity is important because it
aids the reader in following along with the writer’s ideas.
ii. Coherence
Coherence refers to the extent to which the flow of ideas in a paragraph is easily
understood by the reader. For this reason, coherence is closely related to unity. When
a writer changes main ideas or topics within a paragraph, confusion often results. To
achieve coherence, then, a writer should show how all of the ideas contained in a
paragraph are relevant to the main topic.

iii. Adequate development

A paragraph is adequately developed when it describes, explains and supports the

topic sentence. A good rule to follow is to make sure that a paragraph contains at least
four sentences which explain and elaborate on the topic sentence.

iv. Topic sentences

Beginning a paragraph with a topic sentence is one of the best ways to achieve clarity
and unity in one’s writing. The function of a topic sentence is to describe what the
paragraph will be about, such that the reader has clear expectations about what will
follow. An effective topic sentence typically contains only one main idea. The
remainder of the paragraph then develops that idea more fully, offering supporting
points and examples.

ESSAY WRITING

An essay is a brief piece of writing which is often written from an author’s point of
view. It contains three main sections i.e. introduction, body, and conclusion.
NB: The concept of an essay has been extended to other media beyond writing e.g.
film essay, photographic essay etc

Importance of essay writing

 It improves writing skills
52
  Used as a way of assessing the performance of a student
 It improves thought system in sorting out ideas, organizing them and putting
them down for others to read.

Common types of essays

 Narrative
 Expository /explanatory
 Descriptive
 Argumentative

1. NARRATIVE

Narration is the basic way of presenting a story. The writer tells the story as it
happened, the order of events is given in the sequence it happened (chronological
order). A narrative usually has a plot (main event) e.g. when narrating about your first
day in high school.

2. EXPOSITORY/EXPLANATORY

These attempts to explain so that the reader may understand what the writer needs to
be understood. When writing make it simple and easy to understand. Do not put in
your own opinions or views. It also attempts to explain so that the reader may
understand what the writer needs to be understood. These may be any of the
following:
 What the subject or topic is about
 How the thing being explained works
 Showing the relationship between one thing and another one
 Explain how various parts of one thing or objects functions.
 Why something happened the way it happened.

Expository essay may be written using the following approaches:

 Analysis
 Subject and predicate
 Compare and contrast
 Illustrations

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3.DESCRIPTIVE

The purpose of descriptive writing is to make our reader see, feel and hear what we
have seen, felt and heard. We may describe a place, an object, a topic, a building etc.
when writing this essay the best way to create a vivid experience is to focus on the
five senses i.e sight, smell, taste, sound, and touch. These shows your reader rather
than tell them what happened

Planning your descriptive essay

 What do you want to describe?
 What is your reason for writing your description?
 What are the particular qualities you want to focus on?

4.ARGUMENTATIVE
It is a writing that requires the learner to investigate a topic, collect, generate and
evaluate evidence and establish a position on the topic in a concise manner. It calls for
extensive research. In this kind of essay we not only give information but also present
an argument with the pros(supporting ideas) and cons (opposing ideas) of an
argumentative issue. We could clearly take our stand and write as if we are trying to
persuade an opposing audience to adopt the new belief or behavior.
The structure of argumentative essay is held together by the following:
 A clear, concise, and defined thesis statement that occurs in the first
paragraph of the essay
 Clear and logical transition between the introduction, body and conclusion.
 Body paragraphs that include evidential support
 Evidential support
 The conclusion that does not simply restate the thesis but address a light of
evidence generated.

Examples
 Stress is good for human body
 Selling and using marijuana in public places should be considered illegal.

STEPS IN ESSAY WRITING PROCESS

54
 1. Decide on your topic.
2. Prepare an outline or diagram of your ideas.
a. Write main points.
b. Write the sub-topics
c. Elaborate on the sub-topics
3. Write your thesis statement.
4. Write introduction
5. Write the body.

6. Write conclusion
7. Add finishing touches

FUNCTIONAL WRITING

This refers to writing which aims at conveying specific information in generally

standardized ways in order to achieve a clearly defined purpose.

EXAMPLES OF FUNCTIONAL WRITING

i. Business letters
ii. Memorandum
iii. Notices
iv. Agenda
v. Minutes
vi. Advertisements
vii. Press releases
viii. Reports

1. Business letters
Business letters are messages that an individual, group, or a company writes and sends
to another individual, group or company with the purpose of conducting business.

They are written to request information, collect payments or to sell products.

A good letter should be structured in a way that it will arouse interest, create desire to
be read, carry with it conviction to induce action of the recipient.

Parts of a letter
55
 1. Your address
2. The dates
3. The inside address – the name and title and full address of the person of
whom you are writing.
4. The salutation- is a greetings to the addressee that precedes the
message. e.g dear Sir/madam.
5. Subject
6. The body of the letter
7. Complimentary clause
8. Courteous clause
9. The Signature consists name, designation and department.

The following parts of a letter only apply to some letters that you might write and
therefore are included for some specific purposes.

a. Enclosures:- refer to any documents that you may want to send to your
reader. These may be copies of your certificates and testimonials, copies of
earlier correspondence on the same or related subject, e.t.c.. Enclosures is
abbreviated as Enc.
b. Copies:- usually abbreviated as CC, indicate to whom else you would like to
share the information with main recipient of the letter.

There are four basic letter styles used in writing business letters.

i. Block style
ii. Modified block style
iii. Indented style
iv. Simplified style

56
1. Block style:- in this style all letter parts begin at the left margin.

57
2. Modified block style (semi block) :- it is a style in which the date,
complimentary clause and the writers name and the title begin at
the centre of the page. All other parts begin at the left margin and
the paragraphs are not indented.

58
3. Modified block style with Indented paragraph:- The paragraphs in the
body of the letter are indented five body spaces. In addition a subject line if
used is indented five spaces.

59
4. AMS Simplified style (Administrative Management Society):- which is a
managers professional organization has developed a business letter style that
saves letter preparation time. The AMS simplified style is letter style in
which the salutation is replaced by a subject line, the complimentary clause
is omitted and all letter parts begin at the left margin.

60
2. The memorandum

The name of this document is often shortened as memo.

A memo is written message from one person to another (or several people) within the
same organization. Memos are meant to serve several purposes:

 To provide information
 To request for information
 To inform of action or decision
 Or to request for action or decision

61
62
3. Notice

A notice of a meeting is a formal communication sent by the secretary summoning

members to attend a meeting. It is prepared by the secretary in collaboration with the
chairman. It must contain;

 Name of the organization calling for the meeting.

 Day and time of the meeting
 Venue of the meeting
 Signature of the secretary
 Agenda

63
4. Agenda

This is a programme of the details of the business to be discussed. It is normally sent

to the members to give them adequate time to prepare for their discussion. The agenda
must be signed by the secretary and chairperson to the meeting.

OKAME TECHNICAL AND VOCATIONAL COLLEGE

P. O. BOX 116-50400 BUSIA
TEL 0721910483 - Email:[email protected]
All correspondence must be addressed to the Principal

Our ref: OTVC/ADMN/BOG/VOL.1/012 22/06/2020

Dear Sir/Madam,

RE: FULL BOARD OF GOVERNORS MEETING

You are invited to attend the above meeting to be held on 29th June 2020 starting at 10.00am, via
zoom.
Agenda
1. Prayer
2. Notice of meeting
3. Apologies
4. Adoption of agenda
5. Declaration of interest
6. Principal’s brief
7. Chairman’s brief
8. CDTVET’s brief
9. Reading and confirmation of the previous minutes
10. Matters arising
11. Consideration and approval of the Human Resource Committee report
12. Consideration and approval of the Finance Committee report
13. B.O.G Work plan/ALMANAC for FY 2020/2021
14. Closing prayer

Yours faithfully,

SAMSON WEKESA NDEKE

PRINCIPAL/ SECRETARY BOG.

64
5. Press release

Is a news story that a company prepares about itself and furnishes to the news media.
They provide information about such events as appointments of new employees,
promotions of those already employed, relocation to new offices and the introduction
of new products and services.

(COAT OF ARMS)

REPUBLIC OF KENYA
THE NATIONAL TREASURY
THE PENSIONS DEPARTMENT
THE NATIONAL TREASURY
POBOX 20191 - 00200
NAIROBI
Telegraphic Address: 22921
Finance - Nairobi
FAXNO. 310833
Telephone: 2252299
Email: [email protected]
Email: [email protected]

When Replying Please Quote

1
Ref: EPN 171107"T A"/(49) 18 th April, 2019

To Editors

PRESS RELEASE

RE:UPDATE ON THE ONGOING MANDATORY HEAD

COUNT/PAYROLL LEANSING EXERCISE FOR
GOVERNMENT OF KENYA PENSIONERS AND
DEPENDANTS.
The Pensions Department under the National Treasury is conducting a mandatory head count of All Government
of Kenya pensioners, dependants and guardians in receipt of monthly pension. The exercise that commenced on
II th February 2019 is being conducted at respective Huduma Centres on scheduled dates and will end on s" May
2019.
Since the commencement of the exercise, a total of 138,194 dependants and pensioners have presented themselves
to be counted. The exercise is being conducted for 10 days in each of the Regions (former provinces) except
Nairobi where the exercise is running throughout the period ending 8thMay 2019 in its five Huduma Centres. The
affected pensioners are former employees of the Civil Service, TSC Teachers, the Judiciary, the Defence Forces,
Parliament (Members of Parliament) and dependants of deceased pensioners in receipt of monthly pension.
The exercise has been concluded in Coast, Rift valley, Central, Eastern but is on-going in the counties of Garissa,
Wajir and Mandera in the North Eastern Region where it will conclude on Friday 19thApril, 2019. The dates for
the pensioners head count exercise that had been earlier slated for 22nd April to 3rd May 2019 in the counties of
Western and Nyanza Regions has been rescheduled to commence on Wednesday 24th April, 2019 and conclude of
Tuesday s" May 2019 as a result ofthe Easter and Labour Day holidays.
Pensioners and guardians in receipt of monthly pension are required to present themselves in person and carry
along with them their original and photocopies of their national identity cards and bank /ATM card for the head
count. Dependants and guardians on the pension payroll are required to further produce originals and copies of
65
death certificates of deceased pensioner and birth certificates of children (below 24 years) of the deceased
pensioner. The total number of pensioners and dependants who had presented themselves for the head count as at
Iih April 2019 are as follows:

S.NO REGION TOTAL NUMBER COUNTED

1 Nairobi 23,479 (on going until 8th May, 2019)
2 Coast 9,122
3 Rift Valley 37,229
4 Central 32,968
5 Eastern 34,759
6 North Eastern 1,472 (on going until 14th April 2019)
7 Western To commence on 24th April and end on 18th May 2019
8 Nyanza To commence 0n 11th April and end on 8th May 2019
Total 139, 029

The Department is making arrangement on how the pensioners residing in the diaspora will be counted and once
all the modalities have been finalized, the Department will notify the affected pensioners and dependants through
the media and the department's social media platforms on when, where and how their head count will be
conducted.

SIGNED

SHEM NYAKUTU
PENSIONS SECRETARY IDIRECTOR OF PENSIONS

6. Advertisements

Is a form of communication for marketing and it is used to encourage or persuade an

audience (viewers, readers or listeners:- sometimes a specific group) to continue or
take some new action.

They are usually paid for by sponsors and viewed via various traditional media:-
including mass media such as newspapers, magazines, television, radio
advertisements e.t.c.

SUMMARY WRITING

A summary is a condensed version of a larger reading.

Summarizing correspondence
Summarizing a whole part or a part of a given
passage.
66
  Summarizing speeches
 Summarizing telephone conversation
Importance of summary writing

 It helps improve reading skills as you can pick main ideas of a reader
 Critical thinking skills are improved as one can decide on the main ideas of the
reading to include in the summary
 Writing and editing skills are improved as one drafts and edits the summary.
 Helps expand the students vocabulary as a student paraphrases the reading
 Useful when you have a lot of repetitive action.
 You get a whole or general meaning of an article.
 One is made to focus on the main ideas.

Consideration in summary writing

Length
 Vocabulary (paraphrase)
 Layout
 Continuity( Ideas must flow in a logical
manner)
 Interaction of a students with his own ideas

Steps in summary writing

Initially, summary writing seems like a challenging task. It requires careful reading
and reflective thinking about the article. Most of us, however, tend to skim read
without focused reflection, but with time and effort, the steps listed here can help you
become an effective summary writer.
67
►Read the article
►Reread the Article.
- Divide the article into segments or sections of ideas. Each segment deals
with one aspect of the central theme. A segment can comprise of one or
more paragraphs. Note: news magazine articles tend to begin with an
anecdote (a short funny story, eg tafakari ya babu.) This is the writer’s lead into the
article, but does not contain the
thesis or supporting ideas. Typically, a feature lead does not constitute a
segment of thought.
- Label each segment. Use a general phrase that captures the subject
matter of the segment. Write the label in the margin next to the segment.
- Highlight or underline the main points and key phrases.
►Write One-Sentence summaries.
- Write a one-sentence summary for each segment of thought on a separate
sheet of paper.
►Formulate the Thesis Statement.
- Formulate a central theme that weaves the one-sentence segment summaries
together. This is your thesis statement.
- In many articles, the author will state this directly. You may wish to take
this direct statement of the thesis and restate it in your own words. Note:
In news magazine articles, the thesis is often suggested through the
article’s title and sub-title.
- In other articles, you may have to write your own one-sentence thesis
statement that summarizes this central theme.
►Write Your First Draft.
- Begin with a proper citation of the title, author, source, and date of
publication of the article summarized.
- Combine the thesis statement and your one-sentence segment summaries
into a one-to-two-paragraph summary.
- Eliminate all unnecessary words and repetitions.
- Eliminate all personal ideas and inferences (an idea or conclusion drawn from
evidence and reasoning. An educated guess.)
- Use transitions for a smooth and logical flow of ideas.
- Conclude with a “summing up” sentence by stating what can be learned
from reading the article.
►Edit Your Draft. Check your summary by asking the following questions:
- Have I answered the who, what, when, why, and how questions?
68
- Is my grammar, punctuation, and spelling correct?
- Have I left out my personal views and ideas?
- Does my summary “hang together”? Does it flow when I read it aloud?
- Have someone else read it. Does the summary give them the main
ideas of the article?
►Write Your Final Draft.

POINTS TO NOTE WHEN WRITING A SUMMARY

1. Do not rewrite the original work
2. Keep your summary short
3. Use your own wording (paraphrase)
4. Refer to the central and main ideas of the original piece
5. Read with who, what, when, and how questions in mind
6. Do not put in your opinions of the issues or topics discussed in the original
piece

CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD SUMMARY

a) Brief: the summary should be short
b) Complete: it should be complete
c) Objective: you should not put in your opinions
d) Accurate: it should accurately represent the ideas in the original text.
e) Balanced: it should represent the balance and proportion of the original work
f) Unbiased: it should not misinterpret or twist the ideas in the source text.
g) Original: use your own words.

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REPORT WRITNG SKILLS

Definition of a report:-

A report is a document or oral presentation whether formal or informal, in which a

given problem is examined for the purpose of conveying information, reporting
findings, putting forward ideas or making recommendations.

- A report may be either oral or written

TYPES OF REPORTS
1. Solicited reports
2. Insolicited reports
3. Annual reports
4. Routine reports

 Management reports
 Operations /procedures reports
 Production schedule reports
 Maintenance, breakdown and accident reports
 Entreprenuership/ trade reports

REPORTS CAN BE CATEGORISED INTO THREE:-

1. ROUTINE REPORTS

Routine reports are produced on regular basis e.g. weekly, monthly, quarterly,
annually. Eg. performance appraisals, recruitment.

2. SPECIAL REPORTS

These are usually commission reports. They include investigators’ reports e.g Tana
Delta report, Baragoi incidence report e.t.c

3. OCCASIONAL REPORTS

Types of report written when the need arises e.g a report which is made on the events
leading to the accident. They are non-recurrent and deal with unique situations e.g
accident, disciplinary cases and status reports.

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THE IMPORTANCE OF REPORTS

 A report is a basic management tool used in decision making.

 Provision of information about incidents and accidents.
 A manager cannot keep a personal watch over all the activities, so one has to
depend on reports coming from the heads of the various departments.
 Organizations that want to diversify their production, explore new markets
potentials, set up new agencies, enter into collaboration projects, have to
depend upon relevant reports.
 Examination of a problem.
 Feedback on activities
 Giving progress on job assignments
 Record purposes and future reference
 Legal purposes.
 It helps implement policies and procedures
 Monitor and control operation
 To put forward new ideas.
 Analyze facts.
 To record a course of action
 For advocacy – to obtain new business or funding opportunities.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD REPORT

a) Precision: writer must be clear about the purpose of the report.

b) Accuracy: should be as factual as possible to assist in decision making.
c) Relevance: facts should have a bearing on the central purpose of the report.
d) Reader focused: always keep in mind the person who is going to read the
report.
e) Objectivity: conclusions to follow findings and recommendations to be based
on the conclusions.
f) Clarity: easy to understand, simple in language.
g) Comprehensiveness: must contain all the necessary information.
h) Presentable: good and attractive to look at. This can be achieved by use of
good font (size and type), line spacing, margins.
i) Concise: Short but complete.

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 PREPARATION FOR REPORT WRITING

Format and presentation

 Letter format

 Memorandum format

 Schematic format

Before writing a report, you should consider the following steps.

 Identify the audience, purpose and due date.

 Decide what the report will cover.
 Determine how long each part of the report will take to prepare and in what
order the parts must be completed.
 Decide on the report style (layouts and writing style. You will choose a writing
style based on your audience, the level of formality of the report and the
report’s purpose, among other things.
 Begin your research and collect your source list for the final report.
 Organize your findings and write your report introduction.
 Include your results in the body of your report.
 Form conclusions (and recommendations if appropriate).
 Enhance your report with graphics.
 Write the preliminary pages of your report (summary, table of contents, title
page).
 Revise for most effective layout design and writing style.

Layout/format

Most reports contain the following sections:

Formal reports usually have the following sections:

 a Contents page.
 Terms of reference.
 Introduction.
 Methodology.
 Findings.
 Conclusion.
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 Recommendations.
 Appendices.

1. Title page – it is the first page of a report. It includes:-

 Name of the authorizer or the person to whom it is being submitted.
 Name of the writer.
 Department of the originator
 Date of submission.

2. Acknowledgements – (usually written on long reports). A list of people or

organizations from within or outside.
3. Contents page – (always included in a report of more than four pages). It is a
clear well formatted list of all sections and sub-sections of the report. Don’t
forget to put the page numbers. Make sure the headings on the list
correspondence with those on the body of the report.
4. Executive summary – usually in long reports. – it is very brief outline of the
report to give the potential reader a general idea of what it’s about.
5. Introduction – always included in long reports. Include a little background
and indicate the reasons of writing the report.
6. Terms of reference/purpose and scope– a definition of the task; your specific
objective and purpose of writing.
7. Procedure – sometimes included.
8. Methods - included if applicable.
9. Main body – always included. It is the substance of the report.
10.Findings/Results – (possibly included in scientific report). This section
records the observation and would normally use statistics, tables or graphs.
11.Conclusion – always included. Your conclusion should draw out the
implication of your findings with deductions of facts described in the main
body. Don’t include any new material here.
12. Recommendation - they should follow all logically from conclusions. They
should be specific, measurable and achievable. They should propose how the
situation or problem could be improved by suggesting action to be taken.
13.References – always included. A list giving the full details of all the sources
to which you have made reference without the text.
14.Appendices – sometimes include, e.g questionnaires, tables, letters, charts. It
is supplementary information which you consider to be too long to include
in the main body.
15.Glossary – occasionally included. Include a glossary if the report includes a
lot of specialized vocabulary or acronyms which may not be familiar to the
reader.

Editing
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 Check ;

a. General layout
b. text organization
c. Coherence
d. grammar, spelling and punctuation
e. Referencing
f. Style
g. Make sure your discussion flows logically.
h. Read what you have written.

Dissemination

 Presentation
 Produce copies and distribute them to the relevant authority.

Referencing styles

Referencing is acknowledging the sources of information that you have used in your
written work. The various parts that constitute a reference are called bibliographic
details. These details concern the publication, distribution and ownership (authorship
of the book or place of publication).

They include:

 Author
 Title/edition statement
 Publisher

There are several different styles of referencing:

 APA
 MLA
 Oxford
 Harvard
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 Chicago

Each style has its own rules for properly citing sources.

 Author-date styles (e.g. APA, MLA, and Harvard) put the author's name inside
the text of the assignment
 Documentary-note styles (e.g. Chicago and Oxford) put the author's name in a
footnote at the bottom of each page, or in an endnote at the end of the assignment

All of the most common styles list every source used in a document at the end, in a
reference list or bibliography (see reference list vs. bibliography for the difference
between these).
The styles differ in format. For example, an APA in-text citation incorporates the
author's name, the year of publication, and sometimes the page number, separated by a
comma:
(Lazar, 2006, p. 52)
An MLA in-text citation, on the other hand, does not include the year or commas:
(Lazar 52)
Likewise, an APA reference list entry puts the year in brackets after the author's name:
Lazaro, J. (2006). Web usability: A user-centered design approach. Boston, MA:
Pearson Addison Wesley.
An MLA works cited entry puts the year at the end of the entry:
Lazar, Jonathan. Web Usability: A User-Centered Design Approach. Boston:
Pearson Addison Wesley, 2006.
There are other differences between these two styles: APA uses italics for book titles,
whereas MLA commonly underlines. APA gives first initials whereas MLA uses full
first names. When formatting a reference, follow the style you have been set closely.

 APA style is commonly used in Education, Business, and some Social Sciences
and Humanities disciplines.
 MLA style is often used in English and Media Studies.
 Oxford style is often used in History, Philosophy, and Classics.
 Harvard and Chicago styles are used by some individual disciplines.

If you are unsure what referencing style you are required to use, check your
introductory course materials. If a style is not specifically mentioned, ask your course
coordinator.

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Other styles
There are several styles that are not covered on OWLL. These are rarely used, but
some assignments will require you to follow styles such as the Australian Guide to
Legal Citation or styles specific to a print journal.
Vancouver style is sometimes used in science journals, for example. This style uses a
number to represent each source, and lists the sources in the reference list in the order
they were used.

CONDUCTING MEETINGS AND MINUTE WRITING

TERMINOLOGIES USED IN MEETINGS

A meeting is a gathering of two or more people that has been convened for the
purpose of achieving a common goal through verbal interaction such as sharing and
reaching an agreement.
A meeting is when two or more people come together to discuss one or more topics,
often in a formal or business setting, though, meetings also occur in a variety of other
environments. Many various types of meetings exist.
Official meeting means a meeting, assembly or gathering together at any time or
place or the simultaneous communication by conference telephone or other electronic
means of a majority of the members of a public body for the purpose of conducting
hearings, participating in deliberations, or voting upon or otherwise…

Consensus: a general agreement.

"there is a growing consensus that the current regime has failed"
: a generally accepted opinion; wide agreement.

Quorum : the number (as a majority) of members or officers that must be present to

conduct business lacked a quorum at the meeting of shareholders.
A quorum is the minimum number of members of a deliberative assembly (a body
that uses parliamentary procedure, such as a legislature) necessary to conduct ...

Lobbying : any attempt by individuals or private interest groups to influence the

decisions of government; in its original meaning it referred to efforts to influence the
votes of legislators, generally in the lobby outside the legislative chamber. Lobbying
in some form is inevitable in any political system.

TYPES OF MEETINGS
 Formal meetings
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  Informal meetings
 Committee meetings
 Command meetings (dominated by the manager who issues instructions to his
subordinates or shares information with his subordinates)

Formal meetings
Formal meetings follow rules set down in statutes, constitutions, and standing orders
for by-laws. They are preplanned meetings, have predetermined set of topics and
objectives that one wishes to achieve.

The records of these meetings are properly kept and they guide the subsequent
meetings. Examples of such meetings include: company general meetings, executive
committee meetings, and board of directors meetings, managerial meetings.

Documentation includes notice, agenda, motions and minutes.

Informal meeting
In these meetings, there are no formal rules or procedures. They take a more relaxed
approach. They are generally not planned in advance.
Documentation is not formally done, notes instead of minutes may be written.
Examples of such meeting include encounter meetings, brainstorming meetings,
working party meetings, and intradepartmental meetings, status update meetings.

Distinction between formality and informality is determined by the climate or

atmosphere generated within an organization.

PREPARATION FOR A MEETING

In preparing for a meeting, you will need to do the following:

 Determine the meetings objective

 Members must be given adequate time and notice of the meeting
 Workout the agenda that will achieve the objective
 The venue must be chosen in advance and should be suitable lighting,
ventilation and temperature of the room is adequate.
 The time of the meetings must be convenient and duration specified
 Determine sitting needs
 Arrange for light refreshments
 Select participants
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DOCUMENTS USED IN A MEETINGS
 Previous meetings’ minutes
 Attendance lists
 Agenda
 Notice
 Attachment to minutes
 Taking notes(minutes)
 Presentation papers

ROLES OF MEETINGS
 Gathering information.
 Is to coordinate activities e.g. a meeting of head of departments
 To provide the frame-work within which risks and sensitive issues can be
shared and discussed before action is taken
 To update participants on the current state of the affairs in the organization
e.g. measures being taken to eradicate problems within the organization
 It gives people an opportunity to solve their problems
 It brings people together to consult on key issues
 To exchange information or views
 To make policies for organization
 To express grievances
 To persuade people to agree with set proposals
 Conduct training
 Communicating information from the management to the workers

Conducting the meetings

1. Begin the meeting on time

2. Set clearly the objectives of the meeting which should be reinforced in the
opening introduction of the chairperson.
3. Verify that the group understands the objectives of the meeting.
4. Encourage participation from everyone
5. Control the meeting by following the announced agenda.
6. Make frequent summaries of the best alternative
7. Where appropriate appoint a committee for action
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 8. As a leader, express your opinion last.
9. Summarize and clarify meetings results.
10.At the conclusion of the meeting, should set a date for the next one and thank
the participants for the attendance and contributions
11. A true record of the minutes should be noted
12.Close/end the meeting in time

ROLE OF A CHAIRPERSON
In a more formal meeting, the chairperson will outline the purpose of the meeting and
remind members why they are there.
In such a meeting, there is little need to refer to this procedure as this is implicit in the
established etiquette, namely:
 The chair controls the meeting
 All remarks are addressed through the chair
 Members aim to reach a consensus
 A vote taken if consensus is not reached
 The majority wins the votes
 All members accept the majority decision.
When discussion is underway, It is the chairperson’s responsibility to ensure that it
continues to flow smoothly by involving all members present and not by not
permitting one or two people to dominate the meeting. Summarising by the
chairperson during the meeting can:
 Indicate progress, or lack of it
 Refocus discussion that has wandered off the point
 Conclude one point and lead into the next
 Highlight important points
 Assist the secretary if necessary
 Clarify misunderstanding
The chairperson should pace the meeting ensuring it runs to time. If the planning has
been properly executed, this should not prove to be a problem.
At the end of the meeting, the chairperson should remind members what they have
achieved and thank them for their contributions. Finally, the time and date of the next
meeting should be arranged.

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Duties of a Secretary before, during and after meetings

A secretary is one of the major officers of meetings; the other ones being the chairman
and the treasurer.

As we all know by now, a secretary is a person (male or female) who works in an

office typing letters, memos, keeping records, making and receiving telephone calls
and arranging meetings among several other important office duties.

Duties of a secretary before a meeting

Before a meeting starts a secretary is obligated to perform the following important

duties:

1. The secretary prepares and distributes a notice. A notice is a written

invitation to all the participants of a meeting. It is the secretary’s
responsibility to prepare this very important document and to also distribute
it.
2. The secretary consults with the chairperson of the meeting to prepare the
agenda of the meeting. The agenda of a meeting is basically the list of
subjects or issues to be discussed during a meeting.
3. The secretary is also responsible for choosing the location and venue for the
meeting. The secretary makes sure that the location or venue of the meeting
is at an appropriate place.
4. The secretary collects every important item needed for the upcoming
meeting. Some of these items include thinks like stationary, minutes, files,
attendance registers, etc.
5. The previous minutes of a meeting are circulated to participants of the
upcoming meeting by the secretary.

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 6. The secretary is responsible for making sure that vital statements or
documents are obtained from members who cannot attend the meeting, but
who have very important statements or documents that can contribute to the
success of the meeting.

Duties of a secretary during a meeting

Having done the above duties before the meeting, the secretary also performs other
equally important duties while the meeting is taking place. Some of these very vital
duties include the following:

1. During the meeting, the secretary sometimes assists the meeting’s chairman
by giving him certain important information on certain issues about the
meeting.
2. The secretary ensures that all members that have attended the meeting sign
the attendance register.
3. The secretary is also responsible for reading the minutes of the last meeting.
The minutes of a meeting are the written records of business of a meeting.
4. The decisions that are reached during the meeting are recorded by the
secretary.
5. All correspondences and reports are read by the secretary to the members or
participants of the meeting.

Duties of a secretary after the meeting

The secretary performs the last part of his or her meeting duties after the meeting has
ended. Some of the important duties that a secretary performs after a meeting has
ended are as follow:

1. The secretary prepares the minutes of the meeting and submits them to the
chairman for approval.
2. The secretary files all documents that are relevant to the meeting. The
purpose of this is to keep all important documents safe.
3. After the minutes have been approved by the chairman, the secretary goes on
to distribute the minutes to all members of the meeting.
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 4. It is the secretary’s job to ensure that all documents and items that were used
during the meeting be sent back to the office where they came from.
5. The secretary picks out the action points in the minutes and sends a message
to all people concerned in order that they can take the necessary actions.

From the above points, you can clearly see that a secretary’s job before, during and
after meetings is very essential. It is for this reason that a secretary should be a very
knowledgeable person and one who has good organizational abilities. Also a secretary
should be a good writer and have a strong command over the official language in
which he or she writes in.

Plan the meeting. Under the direction of the chairperson, send out notice of the
meeting to all participants well in advance. Along with the meeting notice include an
agenda, minutes of the last meeting and any handouts that will be discussed during
the meeting. Provide a paper copy of the agenda, minutes from the last meeting and
handouts, even if those items were e-mailed to participants ahead of time.

Record minutes during the meeting. Make sure the notes are thorough and easy to
transcribe afterward. If it's acceptable to the chairperson and other meeting
participants, use a tape recorder to record the minutes. Some organizations require
that the secretary read the minutes from the previous meeting so they can be
approved by the participants. The secretary is also expected to either take roll call or
pass around an attendance register at the beginning of the meeting.

Follow up after the meeting. Using the organization's standard minutes template or
the one provided in "Robert's Rules of Order," transcribe the notes from the meeting.
Then, submit the minutes to the chairperson for approval. If guest speakers were
present at the meeting, send thank-you notes to them. If meeting participants were
assigned tasks during the meeting, send them timely reminders of those tasks
afterward.

ROLE OF MEMBERS
While it is the role of the chairperson to run the meeting, the participation of all
members is also fundamental to the success of the meeting. To ensure an effective
meeting, all participants should:
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Undertake any necessary preparation prior to the meeting.
 Arrive on time
 Keep an open mind
 Listen to the opinions of others
 Participate
 Avoid dominating the proceedings
 Avoid conflict situations
 Avoid side conversations which distract others
 Ask questions to clarify understanding.
 Note down any action agreed upon

WHY MEETINGS MAY BE INEFFECTIVE

To ensure success of a meeting, good preparation is essential i.e. producing the
agenda in good time and circulating it to members so that they arrive for the meeting
knowing what is to be discussed and with sufficient background information to make
relevant contributions. The role of the chairperson is also paramount. It these
conditions are met, then all participants should leave the meeting feeling a sense of
accomplishment, not as if their time has been wasted.
The key skills of interpersonal communication and listening are also important
amongst the people attending the meeting.
Some of the factors leading to an ineffective meeting may include but are not limited
to:-
 The meeting is unnecessary and revolves around discussion of trivial issues,
thus wasting members’ valuable time.
 The meeting lacks a clarity of purpose, i.e., the aims and objectives are not
clearly defined.
 Inappropriate style of leadership, i.e., the chairperson dominates and closes
down or disregards other contributions.
 The chairperson exercises little control and allows one or two members to
dominate the proceedings.
 The meeting is too large thereby limiting the flow of discussion and
preventing all members being able to contribute.
 Decisions emerge that are not truly representative.
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  Problems are talked about rather than being talked through.
 Decisions are delayed or not acted upon
 No clear-cut decisions are made.
 Minutes are inaccurate or seen as being manipulated by the chairperson or
secretary for his /her own purposes.
 The wrong people are present, thus preventing the meeting proceeding
effectively, e.g., those present have to refer back to another person and are
therefore unable to comment effectively.

Advantages of meetings

I. Likely to develop solutions than any one individual could not do.
II. Provide free interchange of ideas, stimulates and clarifies thinking
III. Group decisions could promote more effective coordination of subsequent
action plans
IV. Group is likely to take bigger risk than any individual would
V. You can pool ideas, To increase efficiency meetings build good working
relationship between individuals have diverse opinions which are ready to be
shared and discussed
VI. Help assess progress in various departments.
VII. Meetings boost individual morale
VIII. Meetings enhance team building.

Disadvantages of meetings

i. May opt for first available solution

ii. may be difficult to make a decision from the many options
iii. may be difficult to pin responsibility to any individual in a meeting . It would
turn out to be ineffective if the organizer failed to properly facilitate the session
and if the meeting agenda is not observed.
iv. unnecessary repetition of old ideas from previous meeting is sometimes
pointless.
v. Impossible to control the meeting in case of problematic people.

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 vi. possible existence of conflicts- disagreements are expected in an interaction but
when arguments get out of hand the meeting will end up in conflict.
vii. confusion between meeting process and the contents of the agenda also
happens.
viii. Decisions can become hard to attain
ix. participants may loose focus on key issues
x. you cannot expect meeting to effective all the time
xi. some meeting participants resort to problem avoidance in a meeting where the
common is that every and no problems on issues should be discussed.
xii. there are possibilities of power tripping or manipulation (lobbying) by the
leader especially if personal objectives are involved

CHALLENGES OF MEETINGS

I. Run out of time keeping the agenda and the objectives in the participants
mind
II. Some participants rush to make decisions
III. Some do not want to participate
IV. When one or two participants take over the discussions some participant are
checking their mails or doing their work during meetings
V. Dealing with conflicts, when the person in charge has different objectives,
views than the participants
VI. Hard to keep everyone involved in discussions and decision making.
VII. Quorum
VIII. Late commers
IX. Financials constraints

MINUTE TAKING

Def: Minutes are written records of the previous meetings that were held by the
management, board or staff in the organisation

 Records of meetings must be written and stored to be retrieved when need

arises

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  In committees or group meetings there must be a chairman to spearhead the
meeting as well as a secretary to write the minutes as the meeting proceeds

Importance of Minutes

1. They are the official records of issues discussed and agreed upon.
2. They may be used in implementing organizational decisions.
3. They may be used as evidence in the courts of law

Types/ styles/ forms of minutes

1. Action/ decision only minutes/ minutes of resolution;

Records the decisions reached and actions to be taken without including the
discussions that went into making the decisions. It is the most common form of
minutes used. Useful for board, councils or hearing meetings, AGMs etc

2. Discussion/ anecdotal minutes/ minutes of narration ;

These are records of agreements of the discussions that lead to the decisions
and actions required. They include significant points made by the group and
avoid recording personal comments. They can be used for committee meetings
or staff meetings. They are often in paragraphs and neatly in sections and by
order of discussions. Minutes are taken by the secretary who in most cases is
excused from taking part in the discussion so as to be free to record the
minutes accurately.

3. Verbatim;
It is a word for word record of all discussions and decisions. Every single word
said at a meeting is recorded. They are often long and can be difficult to skim
for a particular piece of information. It is rarely necessary with the exception
of courtroom proceedings and congress. They focus mainly on the individual’s
comments and not the general agreement.

Points to note

i. Minutes are expected to be accurate, clear and complete before they are stored
as official records of the organization.
ii. The language used when writing minutes must be objective and non-biased.

iii. Minutes should focus on results and agreed-on actions.

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iv. Minutes should be highly summarized, not a burden to read – be brief;
summarize outcomes and points of agreement and disagreement; don’t record
detailed input.

Layout of Minutes

Heading - The name of the committee or other unit and the date, location, and starting
time of the meeting e.g.

Minutes ………meeting held in…………on………..at………

Members present
1. Chairman
2. Secretary
3. Member
In attendance
1. Transport officer
2. Chief security officer
3. Kenya School of law rep.
 Absent with apologies
 Absent
 Agenda
 Min. 1/9/5/2012: Communication from the chair
 Min. 2/9/5/2012: Confirmation of minutes
 Min. 3/9/5/2012: Matters arising
 Min. 4/9/5/2012:
 Min. 5/9/5/2012: A.O.B
 Min. 6/9/5/2012: Next Meeting
 Confirmation
Confirmed by:

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 1. Chairman Signature Date

1. Secretary Signature Date

INTERVIEWS

Definitions:
An interview:- is a conversation between two or more people (interviewer and
interviewee) where questions are asked by the interviewer to obtain information from
the interviewee.
Probing:- inquiring closely into something; searching.
"she asks some probing questions"

Prompting:- the action of saying something to persuade, encourage, or remind

someone to do or say something.
"after some prompting, the defendant gave the police his name"
-the act of trying to make someone say something: [ + to infinitive ] Kids of that age
really shouldn't need prompting to say thank you for .

Purpose of interview

 Recruitment of staff – communicate information about yourself, your

experience and your abilities
 Disciplinary action
 Investigating complains and staff grievances
 Performance appraisal
 It is an attempt to get the truth either about the person or what the person
thinks
 Seek further information about the position and the organization
 For separation of leaders and followers

PHASES OF CONDUCTING AN INTERVIEW

Most job interviews can be broken down into three phases: Introduction, Getting to

Know You, and Closing.  Here’s what you can expect at each stage:
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I. Introduction:

This phase is where the small talk happens and is typically when the interview
provides an overview of topics to be discussed.

The Introduction phase is your opportunity to make a positive first impression: be

aware of your non-verbal cues. Remember to turn off your cell phone before stepping
into the interview. Do not chew gum or eat candy. Offer a firm handshake and make
eye contact. Wait for the interviewer to offer you a seat. Find a comfortable, relaxed
sitting position. Lean forward slightly to convey interest, and smile naturally at
appropriate times. Convey confidence: keep your arms and legs uncrossed.

Show enthusiasm. Be positive and upbeat.

Appropriate questions for this phase:

 Why are you hiring for this role?

 What is expected of a person in this role?
 What does the day-to-day look like for a person in this role?

II. Getting to Know You

This is the question and answer phase of the interview. Be prepared to talk about your
work experience, skills, education, activities, and interests. You will be evaluated on
how well you will perform in the company’s environment.

Be prepared with specific examples of past accomplishments, and technical

experience. Be sure to highlight your strengths. Convey knowledge and interest: read
through the company’s website before the interview.

The interviewer is looking for clear and effective communication skills and ability to
work effectively with other team members. Show willingness and ability to adapt.
Show enthusiasm and interest. Talk about your relevant experience.

Common questions you can expect at this phase:

 “Tell me about yourself” — Briefly describe your experience and background.

If you are unsure of what the interview is seeking, clarify: “are there any areas
in particular you would like to know about?”
 “What is your greatest weakness?” Pick a skill you are trying to get better at
and talk about what you are doing to improve.
 “What do you know about our company? Why do you want to work here?” Be
sure to review the company’s website prior to the interview. Convey your

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 interest in working for the company by showing that you took the time to learn
about them. For example, “your company is an industry leader and growing…”
 Stay focused:
Avoid oversharing about your personal life. Keep all answers professional and
work-related.
 Avoid answering with an opinion, a theory, or a vague response.
 Avoid saying anything negative about past employers or co-workers. This will
leave the interview wondering what the other side has to say about you.
 You do not have to talk continuously. The interviewer needs time to take notes
and think about questions so don’t worry about periods of silence.

Questions you can ask for this phase:

 What are the company’s current challenges? What does a typical day look like
for this role? How long has this position been open?

III. Closing

This phase is your opportunity to ask questions that haven’t been discussed as well as
get information about the next step in the process. Take advantage of this opportunity
to bring up additional benefits to hiring you. Tell them why you would make a good
fit and why you are excited about the position. Ask when the decision will be made
and what the next steps will be.

And most importantly, ask for the job!

Types of interviews

 The screening interviews

This refers to the preliminary interview which is done when there are many
applicants for a given vacancy. The aim of screening interview is to eliminate
unqualified applicants and prepare a short list of qualified applicants.

 The selection test interviews

These kind of interview takes place to decide whether or not somebody will be
given a job or vacancy. The interviewer who is one or more senior staff
members will ask questions about the candidates background and experience,

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 ambitions and general interest and any other subject which will help in
assessing his or her suitability for post in question.

 Promotion interviews

This take place when an employee has applied for job at a higher level within
an organization. They are conducted in manner similar to selection interview,
and aim to discover whether the applicant has the necessary qualification and
abilities to perform the job in question. A person or people in positions of some
seniority within the organization generally conduct them, perhaps in a group so
that the applicant suitability can be assessed from a number of viewpoints.

 Disciplinary interviews

These are the least pleasant kind of interviews, as they are carried out by a
senior employee when a worker has been accused of committing a breach of
regulations. Preparation must include a complete study of facts and the
interview should be guided solely by these facts. Personal bias and any other
considerations that might cloud the judgement of the interviewer should be
avoided. The interview must be conducted with complete impartiality and the
decision reached should be just.

 Appraisal interviews

They are sometimes called update interviews and provide a way of assessing
the work done, and progress made by an individual employee. They generally
take place at yearly intervals, and are conducted by departmental or section
head.
The interviewer reviews the workers progress during the past year and moves
on to consider future prospect such as the likelihood of promotion, staff
promotion and possible transfer to other tasks to a different department.

 The group interviews

Several job candidates are interviewed at once. The interviewer(s) are trying to
separate the leaders from the followers. May also be trying to find out if are a
team player.
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  Investigative interviews

This is also another type of interview, which is very common in organizations.

Included in this category are interviews with experts, interviews by survey
research firms or by researchers who collect data from different sources on
one or more topics.

 Exit interviews
 An exit interview is an activity that allows a departing employee and their
organization to exchange information, usually on that employee's last day of
work.

 Exit interview is the final meeting, formal or informal, between management

and the departing employee. Exit interviews are performed in order to
gather ...

 Many employers conduct exit interviews at the end of an employee’s tenure at

their organization to gain context around why an employee is leaving their position.
This meeting is an opportunity for you to provide feedback and offer suggestions for
the company to help them improve.

Preparation by the interviewer

(a) Have a thorough knowledge of the company, its profile, operation and
employment policies.
(b) Know the nature and profile of the job to be filled.
(c) Know the type of personality, character or temperament required for the job.
(d) Make proper seating arrangements for candidates in the waiting room.
(e) Make the interview room conducive for the interview that is with no
interruptions.
(f) Supply each member of the committee with a copy of the candidate’s bio-
data.
(g) Decide before hand who is going to initiate the interview.

Briefing

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 a) Greet the interviewee in a friendly and professional manner.
b) Introduce yourself and everyone else who is participating.
c) Make sure the interviewee is comfortable.
d) Introduce a small friendly talk to ease the tension (break the ice) that
interviewees generally have.

How to conduct an interview (interviewer)

a) Welcome the candidate in a friendly way, offer warm smile to the candidate,
talk to him in a friendly tone of voice, hold a small talk with him/her in an area
he/she is familiar.
b) After the candidate has been made comfortable then you should start talking
to him/her on the subject you want to know about. You will want to know for
example, the candidate’s qualifications (ability to do the job), aspiration
(willingness to do the job), social effectiveness and emotional balance
(relationship with others) character (trustworthiness).
c) Preview for the applicant how the interview will proceed.
d) It is good to start with easy open ended questions which will help the applicant
to relax.
e) Avoid unstructured overly general questions.
f) Avoid yes/no question, guessing game questions and all personalized
questions.
g) Make notes about the candidate and discuss the notes with other panelists
when the candidate has left.
h) Give the candidate time to ask questions.
i) If a decision has to be made immediately let the candidate know shortly after
the discussion.
j) Thank the candidate for his/her time and tell him/her by when he/she should
expect a response from you.

More effective questions should be based on the following areas:

 Interest in the organization.

 General or specific work related questions.
 Education and training career goal.
 Previous job performance.
 Salary and benefits

Preparation by the interviewee

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 a) Make sure you know everything there is to know about yourself such as
academic qualifications, ambition, hobbies etc.
b) Gather as much information about the company as possible.
c) Watch the news the night before the interview incase you are asked about the
current events.
d) Prepare a list of questions you predict the interview may ask.
e) Prepare appropriate answers for your predicted questions.
f) Prepare questions you would like to ask during the interview.
g) Plan how you will look i.e dressing. Be well groomed.
h) Arrive for the interview on time i.e. ten to fifteen minutes before time.
i) Organize all the documents you will carry for the interview e.g certificates.

How to conduct yourself at the interview

a) Be punctual for the interview.

b) Walk carefully into the interview room, do not wear a scowl (an angry or bad
tempered expression) or a stupid smile when entering the interview room.
c) Greet the interviewers politely avoid shaking hands unless the interviewers
stretch their hands to you.
d) Do not sit down until you have been asked to do so, adopt a natural and
upright composed posture when seated.
e) Pay attention to what is being said and do not interrupt the interviewer.
f) When responding give relevant answers only and be audible enough for all the
panelists to hear you.
g) Do not boast of your capabilities or qualifications.
h) If there is something you don’t know admit it.
i) Give the interviewers your cooperation and respect.
j) Be calm throughout the interview do not lose your temper.
k) Adopt a positive approach throughout the interview.
l) Avoid mannerisms e.g chewing gum, shifting in your seat, chewing fingers,
smoothing you hair or playing with the pen or paper.
m) When asked of previous employer, be frank but do not criticize your former
employer.
n) Ask questions where full information has not been provided by the
interviewer.
o) When the interview is over do not forget to thank the interviewer.

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Debriefing

a) The interviewer should explain to the interviewee what will happen next and
possibly give a time frame.
b) Once the decision is made communicate with the interviewee as soon as
possible.

PUBLIC RELATIONS AND CUSTOMER CARE

DEFINITIONS

Public

Public refers to the innumerable distinct groups of people with common interests
which police organization comes into contact with e.g. women, children, students,
hawkers, teachers, street urchins, religious groups, mungiki adherents, transporters,
Matatu touts etc.

Public Relations: This is a deliberate, planned and sustained effort to establish and
maintain mutual understanding between an organization and its public. It is therefore a
customer focus relationship built on client friendly service. Public relations thus,
consist of all communication with all the people an organization has contact with.

Customer :- a customer is any person who comes to our organization because they
need certain services. Such persons include;- reporters, victims of crime, informers,
witness to crimes, all arrested persons and their relatives, all suspected law breakers,
those seeking information from us, those working with us and generally every
member of public who interacts with us.

Customer care:- Customer care is the activity of taking care of customers and
helping them with any complaint or problem.

Different Types of Customers

Customers play the most significant part in business. In fact the customer is the actual
boss in a deal and is responsible for the actually profit for the organization. Customer
is the one who uses the products and services and judges the quality of those products
and services. Hence it’s important for an organization to retain customers or make
new customers and flourish business. To manage customers, organizations should
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follow some sort of approaches like segmentation or division of customers into groups
because each customer has to be considered valuable and profitable.
Customers can be of following types:
1. Loyal Customers- These types of customers are less in numbers but promote
more sales and profit as compared to other customers as these are the ones
which are completely satisfied. These customers revisit the organization over
times hence it is crucial to interact and keep in touch with them on a regular
basis and invest much time and effort with them. Loyal customers want
individual attention and that demands polite and respectful responses from
supplier.
2. Discount Customers- Discount customers are also frequent visitors but they
are only a part of business when offered with discounts on regular products and
brands or they buy only low cost products. More is the discount the more they
tend towards buying. These customers are mostly related to small industries or
the industries that focus on low or marginal investments on products. Focus on
these types of customers is also important as they also promote distinguished
part of profit into business.
3. Impulsive Customers- These customers are difficult to convince as they want
to do the business in urge or caprice. They don’t have any specific item into
their product list but urge to buy what they find good and productive at that
point of time. Handling these customers is a challenge as they are not
particularly looking for a product and want the supplier to display all the useful
products they have in their tally in front of them so that they can buy what they
like from that display. If impulsive customers are treated accordingly then there
is high probability that these customers could be a responsible for high
percentage of selling.
4. Need Based Customers- These customers are product specific and only tend to
buy items only to which they are habitual or have a specific need for them.
These are frequent customers but do not become a part of buying most of the
times so it is difficult to satisfy them. These customers should be handled
positively by showing them ways and reasons to switch to other similar
products and brands and initiating them to buy these. These customers could
possibly be lost if not tackled efficiently with positive interaction.
5. Wandering Customers- These are the least profitable customers as sometimes
they themselves are not sure what to buy. These customers are normally new in
industry and most of the times visit suppliers only for confirming their needs on
products. They investigate features of most prominent products in the market
but do not buy any of those or show least interest in buying. To grab such
customers they should be properly informed about the various positive features
of the products so that they develop a sense of interest.

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NB:- An organization should always focus on loyal customers and should expand or
multiply the product range to leverage impulsive customers. For other types of
customers strategies should be renovated and enhanced for turning out these
customers to satisfy their needs and modify these types of customers to let them fall
under loyal and impulsive category.

TYPES OF CUSTOMERS AND CUSTOMER COMPLAINTS

We need to actively seek customer complaints, recognize the type of customer that is
complaining and respond appropriately to the person complaining.
At least five types of complainers can be identified. Each type is motivated by
different beliefs, attitudes and needs. The following are definitions of the types of
customers, how one might respond to them and the danger of not handling them
effectively.

1. The meek customer

-Generally will not complain.
Response: Must work hard at soliciting comments and complaints
and act appropriately to resolve complaints.

2. The Aggressive Customer

-Opposite of the Meek Customer. Readily complains, often loudly and at
length.

Response: Listen carefully ask ‘’what else?’’, agree that a problem exists
and indicate what will be done to resolve it and when.

Danger: Being aggressive in return .The Aggressive customer does not

respond well to excuses or reasons why the service was unsatisfactory.

3. The High Roller Customer

-Expects the absolute best and is willing to pay for it. Likely to complain in a
reasonable manner, unless a hybrid of the Aggressive Customer.

Response: Is interested in results and what you are going to do to

recover from the customer service breakdown. Always listen respectfully and
actively to fully determine cause. Ask ‘’what else?’’ and correct the situation.

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 Like the Aggressive Customer, the High-Roller Customer is not interested in
excuses.

4. The Rip-off Customer: The goal is not to get the complaint satisfied but rather
to win by getting something the customer is not entitled to receive. A constant
and repetitive ‘’not good enough’’ response to efforts to satisfy this customer
is a sure indicator of a rip-off artist.

Response: Remain unfailingly objective. Use accurate quantified data

to back-up your response. Be sure the adjustment is in keeping with what the
organization would normally do under the circumstances. Consider asking
‘’what can I do to make things right?’’ after the first ‘’not good enough’’

5. The Chronic Complainer Customer:

-Is never satisfied; there is always something wrong. This customer’s mission is
to whine. Yet he is your customer, and as frustrating as this customer can be,
he cannot be dismissed.

Response: Extraordinary patience is required. One must listen carefully

and completely and never let one’s anger get aroused. A sympathetic ear, a
sincere apology, and an honest effort to correct the situation are likely to be
the most productive.

Unlike the Rip-Off Customer, most Chronic Complainer Customer will accept
and appreciate your efforts to make things right. This customer wants an
apology and appreciates it when you listen. Tends to be a good customer (in
spite of his constant complaining) and will tell others about your positive
response to his complaints.

ROLE OF PUBLIC RELATIONS AND CUSTOMER CARE IN POLICE

ORGANISATION

1. Citizens can make their complaints or work of the police made known
through Telephone lines and web forms.
2. Enables Police communicate and work with the media e.g. newspapers,
radio and television stations. Police use these channels for example to
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 communicate with the public about important events such as abduction
and the like.
3. Police may engage in public relations activities that attempt to strengthen
the ties of communication and trust between citizens and the police. These
range from youth anti-drug programs, community advisory boards to
citizens, blood donations, sports e.tc.
4. Good Public relations and customer care can also help the Police
organization achieve the following benefits.

They help;-
(a) Build customer loyalty through positive customer service experience
(b) Improve the image of the organization
(c) Police officers receive desired co-operation and assistance from the public
(d) Attract new customers via word of mouth
(e) Improve the police performance in terms of efficiency and effectiveness
(f) Reduce customer complaints and complaints handling resources and costs.
(g) Improve ease of dealing with organization for customers
(h) Increase customer retention
(i) Creates mutual understanding between the organization and the public
(j) Enhances effective communication with all the publics thereby creating
mutual understanding between the police and the publics
(k) Improve relationship and acceptance of the police by the publics

CUSTOMER CARE AND PUBLIC RELATION SKILLS

Police Public relations and customer care officers must poses the following skills so as
to enhance the reputation of the police organization.
1. Empathy-Ability to listen with feeling so as to understand how the customer
feels.
2. Communication skills-Ability to communicate clearly and effectively to attract
customers.
3. Social skills-Ability to communicate and persuade and to interact with the
publics without causing any conflict or disagreement.

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 4. Negotiation skills-Ability to volunteer in a discussion for the safety and security
of all.
5. Stress handling skills –Ability to deal with emotional/stressful customers.
6. Active listening skills-Ability to listen and understand what the customer says
to be able to solve the problem effectively.
7. Team-working- working together to build the image of the organization
8. Problem solving skills-Ability to solve and handle customer complaint.
9. Customer service management skills-Ability to understand the policy, duties
and co values of the organization.
10.Counseling skills

CAUSES OF POOR POLICE/PUBLIC RELATIONS AND CAUSES OF CUSTOMER

COMPLAINTS

The following are some of the causes of poor police public relations that may weaken
trust between the citizens and the police.
 Lack of communication
 Corruption
 Brutality, harassment and torture
 Misuse of firearms
 Abuse of power
 Poor methods of investigation
 Involvement of criminal activities
 False charges
 Unlawful confinement
 Inefficiency
 Slow response to calls of distress
 Poor recruitment methods
 Nepotism
 Lack of accountability and transparency
 Ignorance of law
 Improper handling of complaints against police
 Lack of courtesy to the members of public
 Failure to observe human rights etc
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CHALLENGES FACED IN PUBLIC RELATION AND CUSTOMER CARE

1. Lack of commitment by some officers leading to customer complaints

2. Incompetent staff who are not trained in public relations and handling
customer complaints
3. Customer demands which are not realistic
4. Interference by politicians when handling police matters
5. Lack of knowledge of law and police procedures by some publics
6. Uncooperative customers due to lack of trust and patience.
7. Lack of accountability and transparency by police officers
8. Improper handling of complaints against police
9. Lack of communication equipments
10.Lack of enough staff to handle police duties.

What Are the Functions of a Corporate Communication Department?

Corporate communications departments play a key role in how investors, employees and
the general public perceive a company. They often report directly to a company’s chief
executive officer and serve as advisers in managing a company’s reputation. They help
leaders prepare for media interviews, develop messages to deliver to investors and
employees and suggest new initiatives to keep companies on the cutting edge of
communication with their stakeholders.

Media Relations and Communications

This may be the function for which corporate communication managers are best known.
Media relations work includes writing and distributing news releases and responding to
media inquiries. Corporate communicators oversee all planning for news conferences,
including selecting the site for an event, arranging for banners and other graphics to be
displayed at the event, preparing packets of information to distribute to the media and
preparing executives to speak at news conferences.

Media relations also involves arranging for spokespersons to appear on local television
and radio programs. Corporate communicators monitor newspapers, television news
broadcasts and other outlets to see what the media is saying about the company and to
devise strategies to address misinformation.

Customer and Public Relations

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Building relationships with customers and responding to inquiries from the public fall
under the public relations function of corporate communications. Duties in this area
include producing newsletters, brochures and other printed materials designed for the
general public.

Corporate communicators also manage a company’s website and social media presence,
which includes monitoring what customers and clients are saying about the company on
social networking websites and responding to inaccurate posts or requests for
information.

Communication professionals may respond directly to calls and emails from citizens and
customers with questions about a company’s plans or activities. They arrange for
speakers from the company to make presentations to local community groups and may
facilitate group tours of a company’s operations.

Advising in Crisis Communication

When an event occurs that threatens public safety or a company’s reputation, corporate
communicators function as advisers to CEOs and senior leaders in managing the crisis.
Special training in the issues unique to crisis communication helps corporate
communicators prepare for events such as chemical spills, violence in the workplace, an
accidental death on the job, layoff announcements and allegations of company
wrongdoing. They often work with staff throughout their organizations to develop crisis
communication plans before disaster strikes.

A crisis may require communications staff to work with attorneys, government regulators,
political officials, emergency response personnel and communications staff from other
companies when developing crisis messages.

Internal Employee Communications

In addition to conveying a company’s messages to external audiences, corporate
communicators may also be called on to function as employee communications
managers, which includes designing printed publications and writing emails to announce
company news, benefits information and training opportunities. Corporate communicators
may facilitate focus groups to learn what issues matter most to front-line employees. They
advise senior leaders on how to improve relationships with their staff and gain support for
their initiatives. The corporate communications staff may also manage a company’s
Intranet and internal blogs.

EMERGING TRENDS AND ISSUES IN COMMUNICATION

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New communication technologies such as the internet, electronic mail, facsimile and
cellular phones have changed the way in which in which we like, learn and work,
unlike in the past in which we used to communicate by means of drums, horns and
smoke as well as sending people on an errand to deliver messages. Even letter writing
is becoming a thing of the past.
Each of the new technologies permits us to communicate with more people regardless
of the distance between us.
Technology has made the world smaller (a global village), communication more rapid
and access to information much easier. It has also created a new set of problems and
new issues regarding the proper use of all the new gadgets available to us. Therefore
knowing how to communicate using the new technologies is important for anyone
coming of age ink this century.
The key to using the technologies effectively is sensitivity to communication
situations, purposes, audiences and methods.
These new technologies for communication comprise the following
I. Computers
II. Telecommunication
a) E-mail
b) Internet
-Facebook
-Twitter -social sites such as
-Blog spots
c) Website
iii).Telephone
iv) Radio
v) Newspapers
vi) Cellular phones e.t.c

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 i. Computers
By use of computers, many people are able to create and share
information with both outside and outside the organization. The
networking technology in computers has greatly extended the
connectivity between and within the departments and organizations i.e.
L.A.N –LOCAL Area Network and WAN Wide Area Network
ii. Telecommunication
a) Electronic mail
Uses the computers and telecommunication links to store
and send messages .messages are sent electronically to
other people. It allows many people to receive messages
promptly. Assignments can be remitted through mail
b) Internet
This is the largest world computer network .This is basically
a bunch of computers hooked together. It is an
amalgamation of interrelated computer networking which
permits electronic communication on a global scale. It
started in a small scale for the defence personnel in the
USA but has now grown to a world network.
iii. Telephone
Has been improved to have new features such as waiting
for a call where a beep indicates an incoming call and forwarding call
which allows the user to forward calls to another number.

iv. Cell phones

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 Mobile phones offer quick contact from any location. It is a
remote communication device that has become an effective
media of communication

v. The modem
Makes it possible for people to transfer data from the desk top
computer to standard dial- up telephone lines.
vi. Facsimile (exact copy, especially of written or printed material)
machines
It sends or transmits hard copy of text , pictures and illustrations
over the telephone line. It uses digital process to learn and
encode what is fed into the machine. The receiving fax decodes
the message and prints out the document.

vii. Video conferencing

Is a way of meeting people in different locations .the images of
each group are transmitted by video to other locations. Interviews
can be held by people from different countries.
viii. Voice mails
Is a computerized mailbox. The voice mail messages are stored
into a computer disk.
ix. Video phones
Include a small video camera and screen. This allows both parties
to speak and see each other.

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 CHALLENGES POSED BY EMERGING ISSUES AND TRENDS IN COMMUNICATIION.

1. New trends in communication such as the use of computers has eased work.
However this has also led to loss of employment as work that would have
been done by so many people can be performed by one person.
2. New trends in communication have led to the invention of modern
communication devices which are expensive to buy and maintain.
3. Technological advancement in communication is moving at a faster rate thus it
is difficult to cope up with. One thus needs to be updated on daily basis to
catch up with the latest trend. This has brought a toll on time and money.
Most of the communication devices are also being invented day in day out and
as such more devices are becoming obsolete hence the need to replace
obsolete devices regularly. This has proved expensive.
4. Communication device such as video conferencing is an efficient way of
communicating instead of travelling long distances to hold meetings. It is
however expensive to maintain.
5. A social site such as facebook and twitter has eased communication between
people. It has also led to high rate of infidelity and breakage of families.
However it has also made people to get their soul mates, spouses, and
business partners’ e.t.c.
6. Most of these new communication devices has limited area of use thus cannot
be accessed by many people, for example a mobile phone can only operate in
areas that are covered by a network provider, a computer mainly needs
electricity for sufficient operation.

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7. Criminals have also taken advantage of the new trends in communication.
For, example mobile phones have become attractive to thieves who make
easy money by selling stolen phones. They also use new technology to con
people of their money.
8. Learning has been revolutionized. Many students study online, use online
library, and employ e-learning and virtual university. This has compromised
the standard of education.

WAYS OF COPING WITH EMERGING ISSUES AND TRENDS.

Communication is a very important feature of every person’s life regardless of

his/her occupation, responsibility, authority, station in life, age or gender.
Technological advancement however has revolutionized communication as a
process greatly. It is therefore imperative to keep up to date with these
emerging trends to remain relevant.
This calls for continuous training on the use of these new methods and trends
in communication. There is also need for replacement of old and outdated
means /medium that does not suit our current world. This calls for finance and
purchase of new equipment.
Guidance on the use of these means also need to be incorporated especially
to the youth as some may lead to erosion of morality and humanity. They
should not be given free hand in the access of some sites that may be morally
misleading.
People also need to be dynamic and embrace the new ways. most people are
however resistant to change and always want to maintain the status quo. This
may be detrimental to an organization.

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 REFERENCES

Adler, R. B. and Rodman, G (1997) understanding communication, Orlando, Holt,

Rinehart and Winston, Inc.

Bovee, C. L. and Thrill, J. V. (1992) Business communication Today, New York:

McGraw – Hill

Clark, L.R. et al. (1990) Business English and Communication: Teachers Edition,

McGraw Hill Ryerson (Fourth Canadian Edition)

Davies, J. W. (2001) Communication skills: A guide for Engineering and Applied

Sciences Students, London, Pearson Education Ltd.

Sillars S. (1988) Success in Communication. London, John Murray Publishers.

Peel M. (1988) How to make meetings work. London, Keegan Page limited,

https://diplomatmagazine.com/diplomatic - persuasion/

PUBLIC RELATIONS
Definition of Organizational Functions of Public Relations
ByEryn Travis


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Too often, business leaders assume that public relations amounts simply to an industry
spokesperson spinning a message designed to benefit her organization. But the
organizational functions of public relations contain several specialties designed to help a
company manage its relationships with key stakeholders. A small business owner can
capitalize on these functions

 to expand his business,

 increase brand awareness,

 widen employee engagement and

 influence local or federal regulations.

Investor Relations
Investor relations specialists combine financial, business and public relations expertise to
build and maintain communication between the company and its investors and regulators.
Duties of an investors relations specialist may include

 writing the company's annual report,

 running shareholder meetings,

 participation in financially related news conferences,

 and overseeing compliance with federal regulations such as the Sarbanes-Oxley

Act.

Internal Relations
Internal relations specialists foster communication between an organization and one of its
most important assets: its employees. Internal relations specialists help companies to

 manage organizational change,

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  establish employee feedback systems

 and help create a leadership response,

 and report company news to employees through newsletters, websites or emails.

Media Relations
Managing relationships with journalists can help a small business build name or brand
recognition with its industry, consumers or community. Media relations professionals build
trust between an organization and journalists by providing timely and accurate
information, facilitating interview requests and supplying pictures, graphics or story ideas.
They also train company leaders to succeed in news interviews. In addition, crisis
planning falls to media relations specialists. Working with company leaders, they monitor
issues that may erupt into a communications crisis, plan talking points and arrange
logistics such as reserving space for an impromptu press room.

Government Relations
Government relations specialists ensure that organizations have a voice in federal, state
or local regulation affecting their operations. Such specialists

 monitor legislation,
 educate lawmakers about how an initiative will affect the business,

 and mobilize employees, shareholders or other stakeholders to contact legislators

in support of or opposition to a proposal.

Research
Research allows a company to predict the success of its communications initiatives and
measure their impact. Research specialists use a range of tools, such as surveys, focus
groups, content analysis and face-to-face interviews, to define a communication
challenge or opportunity facing an organization, or evaluate the impact of a company's
media campaign. Often, public relations professionals depend on research specialists to
provide the hard financial data that can persuade company leadership to invest time or
resources into a communication proposal.

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Stakeholders are individuals or groups who are interested in the operations of a business
because they see themselves as potentially affected by the business. Such perceptions
might lead stakeholders to take actions that positively or negatively impact the operations
of a business. Therefore, it's critical that a business communicate with its stakeholders to
develop shared interests and shared values and to resolve any issue before it negatively
impacts business operations. Key to communications between a business and its
stakeholders is the presence of a senior management advocate, a communications
research team, a communications team, a communications team lead, a communications
staff and internal stakeholders

Senior Management Advocate

Successful stakeholder communications requires the identification of a senior manager to
serves as a communications program advocate. The manager alerts company leadership
to the merits of the program to best ensure it is originally funded. The manager then
updates company leadership to prevent the premature curtailment of stakeholder
communications efforts. The senior manager also engages leadership of other
organizations and members of a community of interest to encourage activities that benefit
shared interests, such as providing updates to regulators about the industry's
environmental performance.

Communications Research Team

Effective communication with stakeholders requires that the interested parties be
identified, their concerns be defined and the relationship between company operations
and these stakeholders be specified. A corporate research department is critical to
gathering key information in this regard such as the individuals who most frequently
articulate a community's concerns, the region's key media personnel and the government
and corporate decision makers in the community. The research department also identifies
stakeholders' concerns such as the environmental impact of a specific project or the
regulations that influence plant operations.

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Communications Project Team
A foundation of successful stakeholder communications is a team consisting of
employees representing different business functions who, as a result, frequently engage
with different stakeholders. Essential responsibilities of the team include the development
and implementation of a communications plan which includes communication objectives,
the selected forms of communication, a detailed work schedule and tasks such as the
identification of stakeholders and the exchange of information with stakeholders.

Communications Project Team Lead

A team lead serves as a point of contact for stakeholders for a particular communications
project. A team lead who understands the company's relationship with the community and
who has established relationships with key stakeholders influences the degree to which
the company is able to build relationships with stakeholders. The team lead's decisions
regarding factors including team member selection, the communications budget and
project reports relayed to upper management also affect the degree to which the
communications project objectives are met.

Communications Staff
The reliance on a corporate communications staff to develop a communication strategy
and support the formulation of a communication plan designed specifically to engage
particular stakeholders enhances the probability that appropriate messages will be
conveyed to intended recipients. Communications professionals also have the skills
necessary to pretest messages for clarity, and evaluate the feedback received. This
testing best ensures that key themes are conveyed consistently across time and from one
group of stakeholders to another.

Internal Stakeholders
Staff members are both a part of the stakeholder community and effective emissaries for
a business. Stakeholder relationships are influenced by the participation of well-informed
staff members in planned stakeholder communications activities as well as informal
conversations that occur in social settings.

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An investor who holds stock in a company is a partial owner of that company.
Management wants to foster and maintain a good relationship with shareholders. By
devoting staff to investor relations' activities and setting clear business goals for them,
companies ensure that investors have a point of contact to provide business information
and listen to their feedback about the company.

Communication
One goal of the investor relations team is to coordinate relevant, targeted
communications to shareholders. The group uses its webpage, direct mail, e-mail and
social media to keep investors informed about changes in leadership, upcoming product
lines, new hires, the latest corporate initiatives and the like. Achieving these individual
objectives generates regular communication from the company that tells investors the
company appreciates their commitment and helps them understand the full value of their
investment.

Connection
Another goal of investor relations is to help establish an emotional connection between
the investor and the company. An investor who feels like a VIP may be more likely to
invest more money in the business and to hold onto the company's stock when market
fluctuations cause stock prices to fall. To help establish a connection, investor relations
staff identify the company's significant shareholders, establish personal relationships with
them and make sure the company's investor communication strategy meets their needs.

Documentation
The investor relations staff also provides necessary documentation to investors. In a
publicly held company, a corporation's quarterly earnings reports are a matter of public
record and accessible to all investors via the Internet. Staff should be adept at finding this
information online and directing investors to it. A small company must know what
documentation it has agreed to provide to its investors, such as balance sheets and
inventory reports. The investor relations team makes sure the company fulfills its
documentation requirements.
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 Annual Meeting of Shareholders
The bylaws of many corporations require an annual meeting of shareholders. The
investor relations team manages every aspect of the meeting. The group's duties may
include notifying investors of the meeting, mailing proxy statements and arranging travel
for members of the board of directors. The investor relations team also handles the event-
planning tasks that any meeting involves, such as selecting a venue and providing
adequate technology, seating and refreshments.

TERMS OF REFERENCE
They define the:
 vision, objectives, scope and deliverables (i.e. what has to be achieved)
 stakeholders, roles and responsibilities (i.e. who will take part in it)
 resource, financial and quality plans (i.e. how it will be achieved)
 work breakdown structure and schedule (i.e. when it will be achieved)
Terms of reference (TOR) define the purpose and structures of
a project, committee, meeting, negotiation, or any similar collection of people who have agreed to work
together to accomplish a shared goal.[1][2]
Terms of reference show how the object in question will be defined, developed, and verified. They
should also provide a documented basis for making future decisions and for confirming or developing a
common understanding of the scope among stakeholders. In order to meet these criteria, success
factors/risks and constraints are fundamental. They define the:

 vision, objectives, scope and deliverables (i.e. what has to be achieved)

 stakeholders, roles and responsibilities (i.e. who will take part in it)
 resource, financial and quality plans (i.e. how it will be achieved)
 work breakdown structure and schedule (i.e. when it will be achieved)

TORs should include:[3][citation needed]

 success factors, risks and constraints.

Although the terms of reference of a project are sometimes referred to as the project charter,[4] there are
significant differences between the two. This article describes a TOR containing detailed definitions,
while a project charter has high-level requirements, assumptions, constraints and descriptions as well as
a budget summary without detail, and a milestone-only schedule.[5]

Project life-cycle[edit]
The terms of reference are created during the earlier stages of project management by the founders of
the project in question, immediately after the approval of a project business case. They are documented
by the project manager and presented to the project sponsor or sponsors for approval. Once the terms

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have been approved, the members of the project team have a clear definition of the scope of the project.
They will then be ready to progress with implementing the remaining project deliverables.
This phrase "terms of reference" often refers to the task(s) assigned to a consultant or adviser. Such a
consultant or adviser may be engaged via a contract with general terms of engagement that also
incorporate the terms of reference that specifically describe the consultant's task.

questionnaires

Circulars

Posters

Telegrams/telex/cables

Communication patterns in firms

 Vertical internal communication

 Lateral internal communication
 Diagonal internal communication
 Grapevine communication.

Language in communication
 Written
 Spoken

Summary writing
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Summarizing correspondence
Summarizing a whole part or a part of a given
passage
Consideration in summary writing
Length
 Vocabulary
 Layout
 Continuity
 Interaction of a students own ideas
 Summarizing speeches
 Summarizing telephone conversation

Types of minutes

Cue:-a thing said or done to signal an actor or a

performer to enter or begin her/his performance.
Superlative :– best / highest form eg.
bright= brightest,
brave= bravest

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PANEL DISCUSSION:- A GROUP OF PEOPLE
GATHERED TO DISCUSS A TOPIC IN
FRONT OF AN AUDIENCE.
CONFERENCE:- A FORMAL MEETING OF
PEOPLE WITH SHARED INTEREST,
TYPICALLY ONE THAT TAKES PLACE
OVER SEVERAL DAYS.

Aspects of non-verbal communication

1. Facial expressions
2. Body movements and posture
3. Gestures
4. Eye contact
5. Touch
6. Space
7. Voice

A rider as used in a meeting refers to an

attachment, schedule, amendment, or other
writing that is annexed (added) to a document in
order to modify it. The changes may be small or
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large, but in either case the primary purpose of the
rider is to avoid rewriting or redrafting the
document entirely.

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