Dr.

Muhammad Umar Manzoor

 Introduction to Materials
• There are, it is said, more than 50,000 materials available to the
engineer.
• In designing a structure or device,
• How is the engineer to choose from this vast menu the material which
best suits the purpose?
• Mistakes can cause disasters.
• During the Second World War,
one class of welded merchant ship
suffered heavy losses, not by
enemy attack, but by breaking in
half at sea:
• the fracture toughness of the steel
— and, particularly, of the welds
was too low.
 Introduction to Materials
• Three Comet aircraft were lost before it was realized that the design
called for a fatigue strength that —given the design of the window
frames —was greater than that possessed by the material.
• These bulk properties are listed
in Table, along with other
common classes of property
that the designer must consider
when choosing a material.
 Materials
• More engineering components are made of metals and alloys than of any
other class of solid.
• Polymers are replacing metals because they offer a combination of
properties which are more attractive to the designer.
• New ceramics are an emerging class of engineering material, permit more
efficient heat engines, sharper knives, and bearings with lower friction.
• The engineer can combine the best properties of these materials to make
composites (the most familiar is fiberglass, GFRP, CFRP) which offer
specially attractive packages of properties.
• And — finally — one should not ignore natural materials like wood and
leather which have properties which — even with the innovations of today’s
materials scientists — are hard to beat.
 Metals
• Chemical elements that are solid (with relatively high melting points), hard,
strong, durable, shiny, good conductors of electricity and heat, and easy to
work into various different shapes and forms (such as thin sheets and wires).
• Nonmetals, mean everything else.
• Sometimes, people refer to semimetals or metalloids, which are elements whose
physical properties and chemical properties are somewhere in between those of
metals and nonmetals.
• Semimetals include such elements as silicon and germanium—semiconductors
(materials that conduct electricity only under special conditions) used to
make integrated circuits in computer chips and solar cells.
• Other semimetals include arsenic, boron, and antimony (all of which have been
used in the preparation—"doping"— of semiconductors).
 Polymers
• Plastics (or polymers) are generally organic compounds based upon
carbon and hydrogen.
• They are very large molecular structures.
• Usually they are low density and are not stable at high temperatures.
• They can be readily formed into complex shapes.
• Their strength, stiffness, and melting temperatures are generally
much lower than those of metals and ceramics.
• Their light weight, low cost, and ease of forming make them the
preferred material for many engineering applications.
 Composites
• Composites are made by combining two or more natural or artificial materials to maximize their
useful properties and minimize their weaknesses.
• One of the oldest and best-known composites, glass-fiber reinforced plastic (GRP), combines
• glass fibers (which are strong but brittle) with
• plastic (which is flexible)
• to make a composite material that is tough but not brittle.
• Composites are typically used in place of metals because they are equally strong but much lighter.
• Most composites consist of fibers of one material tightly bound into another material called
a matrix.
• The matrix binds the fibers together somewhat like an adhesive and makes them more resistant to
external damage, whereas the fibers make the matrix stronger and stiffer and help it resist cracks
and fractures.
• Fibers and matrix are usually (but not always) made from different types of materials.
• The fibers are typically glass, carbon, silicon carbide, or asbestos, while the matrix is usually
plastic, metal, or a ceramic material (though materials such as concrete may also be used).
 Composites
• Three types of matrix produce three common types of composites:
• Polymer matrix composites (PMCs), of which GRP is the best-known example,
use ceramic fibers in a plastic matrix.
• Metal-matrix composites (MMCs) typically use silicon carbide fibers embedded
in a matrix made from an alloy of aluminum and magnesium, but other matrix
materials such as titanium, copper, and iron are increasingly being used.
• Typical applications of MMCs include bicycles, golf clubs, and missile guidance
systems; an MMC made from silicon-carbide fibers in a titanium matrix is
currently being developed for use as the skin (fuselage material) of the US
National Aerospace Plane.
• Ceramic-matrix composites (CMCs) are the third major type and examples
include silicon carbide fibers fixed in a matrix made from a borosilicate glass.
• The ceramic matrix makes them particularly suitable for use in lightweight, high-
temperature components, such as parts for airplane jet engines.
 Ceramics
• Ceramics once referred purely to pottery and to articles made by firing materials extracted from Earth.
• Today, Ceramics are generally thought of as inorganic and nonmetallic solids with a range of useful
properties, including very high hardness and strength, extremely high melting points, and
good electrical and thermal insulation.
• The best-known ceramics are pottery, glass, brick, porcelain, and cement.
• At one end of the scale, ceramics include simple materials such as graphite and diamond, made up from
different crystalline arrangements of the element carbon.
• But at the other end of the scale, complex crystals of yttrium, barium, copper, and oxygen make up the
advanced ceramics used in so-called high-temperature superconductors (materials with almost no
electrical resistance).
• Most ceramics fall somewhere between these extremes.
• Many are metal oxides, crystalline compounds of a metal element and oxygen.
• Others are silicides, borides, carbides, and nitrides, respectively made from silicon, boron, carbon, and
nitrogen.
• Some of the most advanced ceramic materials are combinations of ceramics and other materials known as
ceramic matrix composites (CMCs).
 Cermet = Ceramic + metal
• Why would you want to combine a metal and a ceramic?
• Metals, though versatile, aren't capable of withstanding the incredibly high
temperatures you typically encounter in airplane jet engines or space
rockets.
• Ceramics are brilliant at high temperatures and able to resist attack by
chemicals and things like oxygen in the air, but their sheer inertness means
they're just pretty boring most of the time.
• Brilliant for teapots and false teeth, but fairly hopeless when it comes to
doing interesting things like conducting electricity or heat or bending
and flexing.
• If you want something that can survive in really tough environments and
still behave in interesting ways, you need to switch your attention to things
like alloys, composites and cermets.
 Course Contents
• Theory of Elasticity
• Plasticity
• Relationship between Stress and Deformation,
• Principal of Stress-Strain Curves,
• Introduction to Stress Strain Diagram,
• Working Stresses,
• Analysis of bi-axial Stresses,
• Mohr’s circles of Bi-axial Stress.
• Strain Energy in Tension and Compression
 Course Contents
• Unsymmetrical Bending and Shearing
• Horizontal Shearing Stresses,
• Shear Flow,
• Flow deflection due to Shear,
• Moment of Inertia along Different Axes.
• Ellipse of Inertia,
 Course Contents
• Determination of Principal Axes.
• Principal Planes,
• General case of Plane Stresses,
• Principal Stress in Shear Stresses due to combined Bending and
Torsion Plane Strain.
• Torsion of Circular Shafts,
• Torsion of non-circular Sections.
• Stresses in thin walled Pressure Vessels.
• Strain Energy in Shear and Torsion of thin walled tubes,
 Course Contents
• Fault plate,
• Rectangular and Circular plates sample supported and clamped at the
ends,
• Thermal Stresses,
• Buckling.
• Photo-elastic Method.
• Unit Design,
• Coiled Helical Spring,
 Recommended Books
• William Nash, Merle C Potter, “Strength of Materials”, The McGraw Hill
• P. P. Benham, R. J. Crawford and J. P. Armstrong, “Mechanics of
Engineering Materials”, Pitman, 2000.
• F. P. Beer, “Mechanics of Materials”, McGraw-Hill, 2005.
• M. F. Ashby and D. R. H. Jones, “Engineering Materials 1: An
Introduction to Their Properties and Applications”, Butterworth-
Heinemann, 2005.
• M.Vable, “Mechanics of Materials”, OUP, 2002.
• J. M. Gere and S. P. Timoshenko, “Mechanics of Materials”, PWS Kent,
1997.
• Materials
• Stresses
• Tension
• Compression
• Shear
• Bending
 Examples of materials selection
• A typical screwdriver has a shaft and blade made of carbon steel, a metal.
• Steel is chosen because its modulus is high. The modulus measures the resistance of the
material to elastic deflection or bending.
• If you made the shaft out of a polymer like polyethylene instead, it would twist far too much.
• A high modulus is one criterion in the selection of a material for this application.
• But it is not the only one. The shaft must have a high yield strength.
• If it does not, it will bend or twist if you turn it hard (bad screwdrivers do).
• And the blade must have a high hardness, otherwise it will be damaged by the head of the
screw.
• Finally, the material of the shaft and blade must not only do all these things, it must also
resist fracture
• Glass, for instance, has a high modulus, yield strength, and hardness, but it would not be a
good choice for this application because it is so brittle.
• More precisely, it has a very low fracture toughness.
• That of the steel is high, meaning that it gives a bit before it breaks.
 Examples of materials selection
• The handle of the screwdriver is made of a polymer or plastic, in this instance polymethylmethacrylate,
otherwise known as PMMA, plexiglass or perspex.
• The handle has a much larger section than the shaft, so its twisting, and thus its modulus, is less important.
• You could not make it satisfactorily out of a soft rubber (another polymer) because its modulus is much too
low, although a thin skin of rubber might be useful because its friction coefficient is high, making it easy to
grip.
• Traditionally, of course, tool handles were made of another natural polymer — wood — and, if you measure
importance by the volume consumed per year, wood is still by far the most important polymer available to the
engineer.
• Wood has been replaced by PMMA because PMMA becomes soft when hot and can be molded quickly and
easily to its final shape.
• Its ease of fabrication for this application is high.
• It is also chosen for aesthetic reasons: its appearance, and feel or texture, are right; and its density is low, so
that the screw driver is not unnecessarily heavy.
• Finally, PMMA is cheap, and this allows the product to be made at a reasonable price.
 Examples of materials selection
• A second example from low technology to
the advanced materials design involved in
the turbofan aero engines which power large
planes.
• Air is propelled past (and into) the engine
by the turbofan, providing aerodynamic
thrust.
• The air is further compressed by the
compressor blades, and is then mixed with
fuel and burnt in the combustion chamber.
• The expanding gases drive the turbine
blades, which provide power to the turbofan
and the compressor blades, and finally pass
out of the rear of the engine, adding to the
thrust.
 Examples of materials selection
• The turbofan blades are made from a titanium alloy, a metal.
• This has a sufficiently good modulus, yield strength, and fracture toughness.
• But the metal must also resist fatigue (due to rapidly fluctuating loads), surface wear (from
striking everything from water droplets to large birds) and corrosion (important when taking off
over the sea because salt spray enters the engine).
• Finally, density is extremely important for obvious reasons: the heavier the engine, the less the
payload the plane can carry.
• In an effort to reduce weight even further, composite blades made of carbon-fiber reinforced
polymers (CFRP) with density less than one-half of that of titanium, have been tried.
• But CFRP, by itself is simply not tough enough for turbofan blades — a ‘‘bird strike’’ demolishes a
CFRP blade.
• The problem can be overcome by cladding, giving the CFRP a metallic leading edge.
• Process of covering one material with another material and bond them together under high
pressure and temperature
 Examples of materials selection
• Turning to the turbine blades (those in the hottest part of the engine)
even more material requirements must be satisfied.
• For economy the fuel must be burnt at as high a temperature as
possible.
• The first row of engine blades (the ‘‘HP1’’ blades) runs at metal
temperatures of about 950C, requiring resistance to creep and to
oxidation.
• Nickel-based alloys of complicated chemistry and structure are used
for this exceedingly stringent application; they are one pinnacle of
advanced materials technology.
 Examples of materials selection
• An example which brings in somewhat
different requirements is the spark plug of an
internal combustion engine.
• The spark electrodes must resist thermal
fatigue (from rapidly fluctuating temperatures),
wear (caused by spark erosion), and oxidation
and corrosion from hot upper-cylinder gases
containing nasty compounds of sulphur.
• Tungsten alloys are used for the electrodes
because they have the desired properties.
 Examples of materials selection
• The insulation around the central electrode is an example of a
nonmetallic material — in this case, alumina, a ceramic.
• This is chosen because of its electrical insulating properties and
because it also has good thermal fatigue resistance and resistance to
corrosion and oxidation (it is an oxide already).
 Assignment I
• Design of a sailing Cruiser
• Different parts of the Cruise
• Selection of Material
• Properties
• It was weekend in the office, completely digged into job.
• Exactly at 5'o clock in evening, boss (external force) instructed us to
stay for next 2 hours (stretch), mind starts opposing it (stress).
• After 2 hours, at, 7 Boss (more external force) insisted to extend 1
more hour (stretch building up) and mind starts opposing it more
(more stress, thought of missing date with girlfriend starts pushing
hard). Again at 8, Boss asked for 1 more hour, volcano erupted, what
the f. Now starts arguing with him, it reached limit, completely
stressed out and left the office
 Axially Loaded Bar
• Consider a metal bar of constant cross section, loaded at its ends by a
pair of oppositely directed forces coinciding with the longitudinal axis
of the bar and acting through the centroid of each cross section.
• For static equilibrium the magnitudes of the forces must be equal. If
the forces are directed away from the bar, the bar is said to be in
tension; if they are directed toward the bar, a state of compression
exists.
 Axially Loaded Bar
• Under the action of this pair of applied forces, internal resisting forces are set up within the bar and their
characteristics may be studied by imagining a plane to be passed through the bar anywhere along its length
and oriented perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the bar. Such a plane is designated as a-a.

• If for purposes of analysis the portion of the bar to the right of this plane is considered to be removed, as in
Fig, then it must be replaced by whatever effect it exerts upon the left portion.

• By this technique of introducing a cutting plane, the originally internal forces now become external with
respect to the remaining portion of the body.
• For equilibrium of the portion to the left this ‘‘effect’’ must be a horizontal force of magnitude P.
• However, this force P acting normal to the cross section a-a is actually the resultant of distributed forces
acting over this cross section in a direction normal to it.
• At this point it is necessary to make some assumption that the applied force P acts through the centroid it is
commonly assumed that they are uniform across the cross section.
• When SI units are used, force is expressed in newtons (N) and area in
square meters (m2).
• Consequently, stress has units of newtons per square meter (N/m2),
that is, pascals (Pa).
• However, the pascal is such a small unit of stress that it is necessary to
work with large multiples, usually the megapascal (MPa).
1 N/m2 = 1 Pa
 Normal Stress
• Instead of speaking of the internal force acting on some small element of
area, it is better for comparative purposes to treat the normal force acting
over a unit area of the cross section.
• The intensity of normal force per unit area is termed the normal stress and
is expressed in units of force per unit area, N/m2.
• If the forces applied to the ends of the bar are such that the bar is in tension,
then tensile stresses are set up in the bar; if the bar is in compression we
have compressive stresses.
• The line of action of the applied end forces passes through the centroid of
each cross section of the bar.
 Normal Strain
• Let us suppose that the bar has tensile forces gradually applied to the
ends.
• The elongation per unit length, which is termed normal strain and
denoted by ε, may be found by dividing the total elongation ∆ by the
length L, i.e.,
ε = ∆/L
• The strain is usually expressed in units of meters per meter and
consequently is dimensionless.
 Engineering vs. True
• Engineering stress is the applied load divided by the original cross-sectional area of a material. Also known
as nominal stress.
𝑷
𝝈=
𝑨𝟎
• True stress is the applied load divided by the actual cross-sectional area (the changing area with respect to
time) of the specimen at that load
𝑷
𝝈𝒕 =
𝑨
• Engineering strain is the amount that a material deforms per unit length in a tensile test. Also known as
nominal strain.
∆
𝜺=
𝑳𝟎
• True strain equals the natural log of the quotient of current length over the original length
𝑳
𝜺𝒕 = 𝒍𝒏
𝑳𝟎
• Where P is original load, A is cross sectional area of specimen before deformation, A0 is cross-sectional area
of specimen at which the load is applied, ∆ is total elongation, L0 original value of the gage length and L is
successive values of the length as it changes
 Stress-Strain Curve
• As the axial load is gradually increased, the total elongation over the
bar length is measured at each increment of load and this is continued
until fracture of the specimen takes place.
• Knowing the original cross-sectional area of the test specimen, the
normal stress, denoted by σ, may be obtained for any value of
the axial load by the use of the relation
Ϭ = P/ A
• where P denotes the axial load in Newton and A the original cross-
sectional area
 Stress-Strain Curve
• Having obtained numerous pairs of values of normal stress Ϭ and
normal strain ε, experimental data may be plotted with these quantities
considered as ordinate and abscissa (ab-sis-uh), respectively.
• This is the stress-strain curve or diagram of the material for this type
of loading.
• Stress-strain diagrams assume widely differing forms for various
materials.
 Stress-Strain Curve
• The stress-strain diagram for a medium-carbon structural steel,
• The stress-strain diagram for an alloy steel,
 Stress-Strain Curve
• The stress-strain diagram for hard steels and certain nonferrous alloys.
• The stress-strain diagram for a For nonferrous alloys and cast iron.
 Ductile and Brittle Materials
• Metallic engineering materials are commonly classified as either
• ductile or
• brittle materials.
• A ductile material is one having a relatively large tensile strain up to the
point of rupture (for example, structural steel or aluminum)
• Significant plastic deformation and energy absorption (toughness) before
fracture.
• Characteristic feature of ductile material - necking
• whereas a brittle material has a relatively small strain up to this same point.
• Little plastic deformation or energy absorption before fracture.
• Characteristic feature of brittle materials – fracture surface perpendicular to
the stress.
• An arbitrary strain of 0.05 mm/mm is frequently taken as the dividing line
between these two classes of materials.
• Cast iron and concrete are examples of brittle materials.
• Ductility
• Ability of a material to undergo permanent deformation through elongation
(reduction in cross-sectional area) or bending at room temperature without
fracturing.
• Brittleness
• Tendency of a material to fracture or fail upon the application of a relatively
small amount of force, impact, or shock.
• Toughness
• Property of a material that enables it to absorb and distribute within itself
relatively large amounts of energy (both stresses and strains) of repeated
impacts and/or shocks, and undergo considerable deformation before
fracturing or failing.
 % Elongation
• Ductility may be expressed quantitatively as either percent elongation or percent
reduction in area.
• The percent elongation %EL is the percentage of plastic strain at fracture, or

• where lf is the fracture length and l0 is the original gauge length.

• In as much as a significant proportion of the plastic deformation at fracture is
confined to the neck region, the magnitude of %EL will depend on specimen
gauge length.
• The shorter l0, the greater is the fraction of total elongation from the neck and,
consequently, the higher the value of %EL.
• Therefore, l0 should be specified when percent elongation values are cited; it is
commonly 50 mm (2 in.).
 % Area Reduction
• Percent reduction in area %RA is defined as

• where A0 is the original cross-sectional area and Af is the cross-

sectional area at the point of fracture.
• Percent reduction in area values are independent of both l0 and A0.
 Hooke’s Law
• For any material having a stress-strain curve, it is evident that the
relation between stress and strain is linear for comparatively small
values of the strain.
• This linear relation between elongation and the axial force causing it is
called Hooke’s law.
• To describe this initial linear range of action of the material we may
consequently write
Ϭ = Eε
• where E denotes the slope of the straight-line portion of the curve.
 Young’s Modulus
• The quantity E, i.e., the ratio of the unit stress to the unit strain, is the
modulus of elasticity of the material in tension, or, as it is often called,
Young’s modulus.
• Since the unit strain ε is a pure number.
• E has the same units as does the stress, N/m2.
• For many common engineering materials the modulus of elasticity in
compression is very nearly equal to that found in tension.
• Elastic limit is defined by the maximum stress that a material can
withstand before plastic deformation.
• the stress level at which the material starts to deform plastically is
called elastic limit.
• proportional limit is defined as the greatest stress for which stress
and strain are linear.
• On the other hand the stress level at which the graph experiences a
deviation from linearity, in the elastic region, is called proportional
limit.
 Mechanical Properties of Materials
• Proportional Limit
The ordinate of the point P is known as the proportional limit, i.e.,
the maximum stress that may be developed during a simple
tension test such that the stress is a linear function of strain.
• “proportional limit is defined as the greatest stress that a material
is capable of sustaining without experiencing any deviation from
the law of proportionality of stress to strain ( Young’s modulus)”
• “Proportionality limit is the point where linear relation between
stress and strain with regards to Hooke's law ends..”
• For some materials having the stress-strain curve, there is no
proportional limit.
 Mechanical Properties of Materials
• Elastic Limit
The ordinate of a point almost coincident with P is known as the elastic
limit, i.e., the maximum stress that may be developed during a simple
tension test such that there is no permanent or residual deformation
when the load is entirely removed.
• “Elastic limit is defined by the maximum stress that a material can
withstand before plastic deformation”
• “Elastic limit is the point beyond which body will deform permanently”
• For many materials the numerical values of the elastic limit and the
proportional limit are almost identical and the terms are sometimes used
synonymously.
• In those cases where the distinction between the two values is evident,
the elastic limit is almost always greater than the proportional limit
 Mechanical Properties of Materials
• Elastic and Plastic Ranges
The region of the stress-strain curve extending from the
origin to the proportional limit is called the elastic
range.
• The region of the stress-strain curve extending from the
proportional limit to the point of rupture is
called the plastic range.
 Mechanical Properties of Materials
• Yield Point
The ordinate of the point Y, denoted by σyp at which there is
an increase in strain with no increase in stress, is known as
the yield point of the material.
• After loading has progressed to the point Y, yielding
(material begins to deform plastically) is said to take place.
• Some materials exhibit two points on the stress-strain curve
at which there is an increase of strain without an increase of
stress.
• These are called
• upper yield points and
• lower yield points.
Yield Point Phenomenon
• Mild steels having considerable amount of carbon atoms
as interstitials have yield point phenomenon.
• As the material is loaded and it reaches its proportional
limit, dislocations generated gets locked by these
interstitial atoms.
• Stress needed to free these dislocations increases till it
reaches a critical level which is upper yield point.
• As it reaches UYP large amount of disloctions gets
unpinned and thus stress drops.
• The stress at which it drops is called as lower yield
point.
• Eventually the preceding dislocations sometimes go
through a series of locking and unlocking process at the
same LYP which is manifested in the curve as short
serrations over a period of strain.
• This is called Luders band propagation.
 Dislocation
• a dislocation is a crystallographic defect, or irregularity, within a
crystal structure
 Mechanical Properties of Materials
• Ultimate Strength or Tensile Strength
The ordinate of the point U, the maximum ordinate to
the curve, is known either as the ultimate strength or the
tensile strength of the material.

• Breaking Strength
The ordinate of the point B is called the breaking
strength of the material.
 Mechanical Properties of Materials
• Modulus of Resilience
The work done on a unit volume of material, as a simple
tensile force is gradually increased from zero to such a
value that the proportional limit of the material is reached,
is defined as the modulus of resilience.
• This may be calculated as the area under the stress-strain
curve from the origin up to the proportional limit and is
represented as the shaded area in Fig.
• The unit of this quantity is Nm/m3 in the SI system.
• Thus, resilience of a material is its ability to absorb energy in
the elastic range.
 Mechanical Properties of Materials
• Modulus of Toughness
The work done on a unit volume of material as a simple
tensile force is gradually increased from zero to the
value causing rupture is defined as the modulus of
toughness.
• This may be calculated as the entire area under the
stress-strain curve from the origin to rupture.
• Toughness of a material is its ability to absorb energy in
the plastic range of the material.
 Mechanical Properties of Materials
• Percentage Reduction in Area
The decrease in cross-sectional area from the original area
upon fracture divided by the original area and multiplied by
100 is termed percentage reduction in area.
• When tensile forces act upon a bar, the cross-sectional area
decreases, but calculations for the normal stress are usually
made upon the basis of the original area.
• As the strains become increasingly larger it is more
important to consider the instantaneous values of the cross-
sectional area (which are decreasing), and if this is done the
true stress-strain curve is obtained.
• Such a curve has the appearance shown by the dashed line.
 Mechanical Properties of Materials
• Percentage Elongation
The increase in length of a bar after fracture divided by
the initial length and multiplied by 100 is the percentage
elongation.
• Both the percentage reduction in area and the percentage
elongation are considered to be measures of the ductility
of a material.
 Mechanical Properties of Materials
• Working Stress
• When designing machine parts, it is desirable to keep the stress
lower than the maximum or ultimate stress at which failure of the
material takes place.
• This stress is known as the working stress or design stress.
• It is also known as safe or allowable stress.
• Such a stress is determined merely by dividing either the stress at
yield or the ultimate stress by a number termed the safety factor.
• Selection of the safety factor is based upon the designer’s
judgment and experience. Specific safety factors are sometimes
specified in design codes.
• Safety Factor = Max. Stress/ Working or Design Stress
 Mechanical Properties of Materials
• Strain Hardening
If a ductile material can be stressed considerably beyond
the yield point without failure, it is said to strain harden.
• This is true of many structural metals.
 Mechanical Properties of Materials
• Yield Strength
The ordinate to the stress-strain curve such that the material has a
predetermined permanent deformation or ‘‘set’’ when the load is
removed is called the yield strength of the material.
• The permanent set is often taken to be either 0.002 or 0.0035 mm
per mm.
• In Fig below a set ε1 is denoted on the strain axis and the line O′Y
is drawn parallel to the initial tangent to the curve.
• The ordinate of Y represents the yield strength of the material,
sometimes called the proof stress.
 Mechanical Properties of Materials
• Tangent Modulus
The rate of change of stress with respect to strain is
known as the tangent modulus of the material.
• It is essentially an instantaneous modulus given by
Et = dσ/dε
 Mechanical Properties of Materials
• Coefficient of Linear Expansion
This is defined as the change of length per unit length of a
straight bar subject to a temperature change of one degree
and is usually denoted by α.
• The value of this coefficient is independent of the unit of
length but does depend upon the temperature scale used.
• The coefficient for steel is 12 × 10–6/°C.
• Temperature changes in a structure give rise to internal
stresses, just as do applied loads.
• The thermal strain due to a temperature change ∆T is
εt = α ∆T
 Mechanical Properties of Materials
• Poisson’s Ratio (Negative Strain)
When a bar is subjected to a simple tensile loading there is
an increase in length of the bar in the direction of the load,
but a decrease in the lateral dimensions perpendicular to the
load.
• The ratio of the strain in the lateral direction to that in the
axial direction is defined as Poisson’s ratio.
• It is denoted by the Greek letter ν.
• For most metals it lies in the range 0.25 to 0.35.
• For cork, ν is very nearly zero.
• The use of cork as a stopper for wine bottles is the result of the fact that
cork has a Poisson ratio of practically zero.
• This means that, as the cork is inserted into the bottle, the upper part which
is not yet inserted will not expand as the lower part is compressed.
• The force needed to insert a cork into a bottle arises only from the
compression of the cork and the friction between the cork and the bottle.
• If the stopper were made of rubber, for example, (with a Poisson ratio of
about 0.5), there would be a relatively large additional force required to
overcome the expansion of the upper part of the rubber stopper.
• because it would expand when compressed into the neck of the bottle and
would jam.
 Mechanical Properties of Materials
• Poisson’s Ratio for
• structural materials 0.0 ≤ ν < 0.5
• For most metals 0.25–0.35
• For concrete and ceramics, 0.10
• For cork 0
• For rubber, 0.5 to 3
• A material for which ν = 0.5 is called incompressible
 General Form of Hooke’s Law
• The simple form of Hooke’s law has been given for axial tension when the
loading is entirely along one straight line, i.e., uniaxial.
• Only the deformation in the direction of the load was considered and it was
given by
Ϭ = Eε
• In the more general case an element of material is subject to three mutually
perpendicular normal stresses σx, σy, σz which are accompanied by the
strains εx, εy, εz, respectively.
• By superposing the strain components arising from lateral contraction due
to Poisson’s effect upon the direct strains we obtain the general statement
of Hooke’s law:
• pulling of an object in one direction causes stress in only that direction,
and causes strain in all three directions.
σy = σz = 0
So

• For 3D materials, applying a load in the x direction causes a normal stress in

that direction, and the same is true for normal stresses in
the y and z directions.
• The ratio of transverse strain to axial strain is known as Poisson's
ratio (ν).
• A negative sign is needed to show that the changes are usually of
opposite type (+ extension, vs. − contraction).

• Shear Modulus/ Modulus of Rigidity

• E = 2(1 + ν)G
 Hooke’s Law from Compliance
Homogeneous, Isotropic, Linearly Elastic
y y
z

x x x x

yx
z
y
y x y
z
z
1  
x direction x  x  y  z
E E E
 1 
y direction y   x  y  z
E E E
  1
z direction z   x  y  z
E E E
 Numerical Problems
1. Determine an expression for the total elongation of an initially
straight bar of length L, cross-sectional area A, and modulus of
elasticity E if a tensile load P acts on the ends of the bar.
 Numerical Problems
3. A piece of copper originally 305 mm (12 in.) long is pulled in
tension with a stress of 276 MPa (40,000 psi). If the deformation is
entirely elastic, what will be the resultant elongation? E = 110 GPa.
(7cal1) (0.76 mm)
4. A tensile stress is to be applied along the long axis of a cylindrical
brass rod that has a diameter of 10 mm (0.4 in.). Determine the
magnitude of the load required to produce a 2.5x10-3 mm (10-4 in.)
change in diameter if the deformation is entirely elastic. (exa 7.2 cal)
(5600N)
 Numerical Problems
5. The tensile stress–strain behavior for
the brass specimen shown in Figure,
determine the following:
• (a) The modulus of elasticity. (75GPa)
• (b) The yield strength at a strain offset of
0.002. (250 Mpa)
• (c) The maximum load that can be
sustained by a cylindrical specimen
having an original diameter of 12.8 mm
(0.505 in.). (57905 N)
• (d) The change in length of a specimen
originally 250 mm (10 in.) long that is
subjected to a tensile stress of 345 MPa
(50,000 psi). Callister 7.3 (15 mm)
 Numerical Problems
6. A steel rod 1m long and 20 mm x 20 mm in cross-section is subjected to a
tensile force of 40 kN. Determine the elongation of the rod, if modulus of
elasticity for the rod material is 200 Gpa. (0.5 mm)
7. A hollow cylinder 2 m long has an outer diameter of 50 mm and inside
diameter of 30 mm. if the cylinder is carrying a load of 25 kN, find the
stress in the cylinder. Also find the deformation of the cylinder, if the
value of modulus of elasticity for the cylinder material is 100 Gpa. (19.9
Mpa, 0.39 mm)
8. A load of 5 kN is to be raised with the help of a steel wire. Find the
minimum diameter of the steel wire, if the stress is not to exceed 100
Mpa. (8mm)
 Numerical Problems
9. In an experiment a steel specimen of 13 mm diameter was found to
elongate 0.2 mm in a 200 mm gauge length when it was subjected to
a tensile force 26.8 kN. If the specimen was tested within the elastic
range, what is the value of Young’s Modulus for the steel
specimen?(202 Gpa)
10. A hollow steel tube 3.5 m long has external diameter of 120 mm. in
order to determine the internal diameter, the tube was subjected to a
tensile load of 400 kN and an extension was measured to be 2 mm. if
the modulus of elasticity for the tube material is 200 Gpa, determine
the internal diameter of the tube. (99.7 mm)
 Numerical Problems
11. Two wires, one of steel and the other of copper, are of the same
length and are subjected to the same tension. If the diameter of the
copper wire is 2 mm, find the diameter of the steel wire, if they are
elongated by the same amount. Take E for steel as 200 Gpa and that
for copper as 100 Gpa. (1.41mm)
 Deformation of body due to self weight
• Notes
 Numerical Problems
12. A copper alloy wire of 1.5 mm diameter and 30 m long is hanging
freely from a tower. What will be its elongation due to self weight?
Take specific weight of the copper and its modulus of elasticity as
89.2 kN/m3 and 90 GPa respectively? (0.446mm)
13. An alloy wire of 2 mm2 cross sectional area and 12 N weight hangs
freely under its own weight. Find the maximum length of the wire, if
its extension is not to exceed 0.6 mm. Take E for the wire material as
150 Gpa. (30 m)
 Numerical Problems
14. A steel wire ABC 16 m long having cross sectional area of 4 mm2
weighs 20 N as shown in fig. If the modulus of elasticity for the wire
material is 200 GPa, find the deflections at C and B.
A
(0.15 mm, 0.2mm) 8m

8m

C
Length Al
of Al

1.5 m

Length Steel
of Steel