Connecting Devices

• The Networking devices which are going to be discussed are

• Repeater
• Hub
• Switch
• Bridges
• Router
• Modem
1. Reapeter
• Repeaters are network devices operating at physical layer of the OSI model
• Repeaters amplify or regenerate an incoming signal before retransmitting it.
• They are incorporated in networks to expand its coverage area. They are
also known as signal boosters.
Why are Repeaters needed?
•When an electrical signal is transmitted via a channel, it gets attenuated depending
upon the nature of the channel or the technology. This poses a limitation upon the
length of the LAN or coverage area of cellular networks. This problem is alleviated by
installing repeaters at certain intervals.
• Repeaters amplifies the attenuated signal and then retransmits it. Digital repeaters
can even reconstruct signals distorted by transmission loss. So, repeaters are popularly
incorporated to connect between two LANs thus forming a large single LAN. This is
shown in the following diagram −
Advantages of Repeaters
1. Repeaters are simple to install and can easily extend the length or the coverage area
of networks.
2. They are cost effective.
3. Repeaters don’t require any processing overhead. The only time they need to be
investigated is in case of degradation of performance.
4. They can connect signals using different types of cables.
Disadvantages of Repeaters
1. Repeaters cannot connect dissimilar networks.
2. They cannot differentiate between actual signal and noise.
3. They cannot reduce network traffic or congestion.
4. Most networks have limitations upon the number of repeaters that can be deployed.

Note: Repeaters Traditionally, any discussion of networking components would include

repeaters, but today repeaters are a little outdated.
2. Hub
• hubs are network devices operating at physical layer of the OSI model
•Computers connect to a hub via a length of twisted-pair cabling
•hub to be connected to another hub to create larger networks which is called
cascading, done through BNC connectors
•Typically hub can connect from 8 to 24 connections together.
• There are three types of hubs Active hub Passive Hub and Intelligent hub .
•Active hub : Active regenerate a signal before forwarding it to all the ports on the
device and requires a power supply. Small workgroup hubs normally use an external
power adapter, but on larger units the power supply is built in.
•Passive hubs which today are seen only on older networks, do not need power and
they don’t regenerate the data signal. It is just a connector connects the wires coming
from different branches
•Intelligent hub regenerates the signal ,performs network management and intelligent
path selection
Functions:
• like repeater hubs can also regenerate signal
• The basic function of a hub is to take data from one of the connected devices and
forward it to all the other ports on the hub. This method of operation is inefficient
because, in most cases, the data is intended for only one of the connected devices
•Due to the inefficiencies of the hub system and the constantly increasing demand for
more bandwidth, hubs are slowly but surely being replaced with switches
What is the difference between a hub and a repeater?
Repeater has two ports: one for incoming signal and another one for “boosted”
outgoing signal. Hub is able to join more than two signals. It takes the signal,
“boosts” it, and transmits to all its ports. Typically hub can connect from 8 to 24
connections together.
Advantages
•It supports various types of Network Media.
•It is very cheap that anyone can use it.
•Using the Hub does not make any difference in Network performance.
•Many different media types can be easily connected with Hub.

Disadvantages
•Network cannot Reduce traffic.
•It can not select Network's Best Path.
•The Hub network cannot divide into the Segment.
•There is no mechanism of any kind to reduce network traffic.
3. Bridge
•Bridge is another device which functions on the second layer of the OSI Model, the
Data Link Layer.
•Bridges are networking devices that connect networks. Sometimes it is necessary to
divide networks into subnets to reduce the amount of traffic on each larger subnet or for
security reasons. Once divided, the bridge connects the two subnets and manages the
traffic flow between them.
•A Bridge also allows two different networks to connect to each other and transfer
information independently to each other.
• The basic purpose of a bridge is to forward the frames to their destination. It is true
that each frame comes with an associated MAC Address of the location where it is
supposed to be sent. Hence, a Bridge is a device which takes these frames as input and
forwards them to their destination MAC Addresses. In fact, it is the responsibility of a
Bridge to decide that which MAC address is associated to each Frame and then act
accordingly.
•If the address is not on the other side of the bridge, the data is blocked from passing.
Bridges "learn" the MAC addresses of devices on connected networks by "listening" to
network traffic and recording the network from which the traffic originates.
• Today, network switches have largely replaced bridges
Types of Bridges
Three types of bridges are used in networks. You don’t need detailed knowledge
of how each bridge works, but you should have an overview:
Transparent bridge—A transparent bridge is invisible to the other devices on the
network. Transparent bridges perform only the function of blocking or forwarding
data based on the MAC address; the devices on the network are oblivious to these
bridges’ existence. Transparent bridges are by far the most popular types of
bridges.
Translational bridge—A translational bridge can convert from one networking
system to another. As you might have guessed, it translates the data it receives.
Translational bridges are useful for connecting two different networks, such as
Ethernet and Token Ring networks.
Source-route bridge—Source-route bridges were designed by IBM for use on
Token Ring networks. The source-route bridge derives its name from the fact that
the entire route of the frame is embedded within the frame. This allows the bridge
to make specific decisions about how the frame should be forwarded through the
network. The diminishing popularity of Token Ring makes the chances that you’ll
work with a source-route bridge very slim.
Advantages
1. bridges are simple and significant.
2. By preventing unnecessary traffic from crossing onto other network segments, a
bridge can dramatically reduce the amount of network traffic on a segment.
3. Bridges also make it possible to isolate a busy network from a not-so-busy one,
thereby preventing pollution from busy nodes.
4. Bridges increase the available bandwidth to individual nodes because fewer nodes
share a collision domain
5. Bridges reduce collisions
6. Some bridges connect networks using different media types and architectures.
Disadvantages
Following are the disadvantages of Bridges:
1.It is slower compare to repeaters due to filtering.
2. It does not filter broadcasts.
3. It is more expensive compare to repeaters.
4. Switches
•It can perform in both the second and the third layer of the OSI Model, the Data-Link
and the Network layer respectively.
•Layer 2 switch: While in the Data-Link layer, it can successfully perform the task of a
Switch by forwarding all the frames to the required devices using the MAC Addresses.
•Layer3 switch: Furthermore, it can also perform the task of a Router; it can receive
data Packets and successfully forward them to their destination IP Addresses to make
sure that they reach their destination
•Rather than forwarding data to all the connected ports like hub, a switch forwards data
only to the port on which the destination system is connected. It looks at the Media
Access Control (MAC) addresses of the devices connected to it to determine the correct
port. A MAC address is a unique number that is stamped into every NIC. By forwarding
data only to the system to which the data is addressed, the switch decreases the
amount of traffic on each network link dramatically.
•Switches can also further improve performance over the performance of hubs by using
a mechanism called full-duplex . In full-duplex mode it can send and receive data on the
connection at the same time. In a full-duplex connection, the maximum data
throughput is double that for a half-duplex connection
Switching Methods
Switches use three methods to deal with data as it arrives:
Cut-through—In a cut-through configuration, the switch begins to forward the packet as
soon as it is received. No error checking is performed on the packet, so the packet is
moved through quickly. The downside of cut-through is that because the integrity of the
packet is not checked, the switch can propagate errors.
Store-and-forward—In a store-and-forward configuration, the switch waits to receive the
entire packet before beginning to forward it. It also performs basic error checking.
Fragment-free—Building on the speed advantages of cut-through switching, fragment-
free switching works by reading only the part of the packet that enables it to identify
fragments of a transmission.
As you might expect, the store-and-forward process takes longer than the cut-through
method, but it is more reliable. In addition, the delay caused by store-and-forward
switching increases with the packet size. The delay caused by cut-through switching is
always the same—only the address portion of the packet is read, and this is always the
same size, regardless of the size of the data packet. The difference in delay between the
two protocols is high. On average, cut-through switching is 30 times faster than store-
and-forward switching.
It might seem that cut-through switching is the obvious choice, but today’s switches are
fast enough to be able to use store-and-forward switching and still deliver high
performance levels.
Data transmission speed in switches can be double that of other network devices like
hubs used for networking. This is because switch shares its maximum speed with all the
devices connected to it. This helps in maintaining network speed even during high
traffic. In fact, higher data speeds are achieved on networks through use of multiple
switches.
Benefits or advantages of Switches
Following are the benefits or advantages of Switches:
➨They increase the available bandwidth of the network.
➨They help in reducing workload on individual host PCs.
➨They increase the performance of the network.
➨Networks which use switches will have less frame collisions. This is due to the fact that
switches create collision domains for each connection.
➨Switches can be connected directly to workstations.

Drawbacks or disadvantages of Switches

Following are the disadvantages of Switches:
➨They are more expensive compare to network bridges.
➨Network connectivity issues are difficult to be traced through the network switch.
➨Broadcast traffic may be troublesome.
➨If switches are in random mode, they are vulnerable to security attacks e.g. spoofing
IP address or capturing of ethernet frames.
➨Proper design and configuration is needed in order to handle multicast packets.
➨While limiting broadcasts, they are not as good as routers.
5.Routers
• Routers are networking devices operating at layer 3(Network layer) or a network
layer of the OSI model.
•They are responsible for receiving, analysing, and forwarding data packets among
the connected computer networks. When a data packet arrives, the router inspects
the destination address, consults its routing tables to decide the optimal route and
then transfers the packet along this route.
•It connects different networks together and sends data packets from one network
to another.
•A router can be used both in LANs (Local Area Networks) and WANs (Wide Area
Networks).
•It transfers data in the form of IP packets. In order to transmit data, it uses IP
address mentioned in the destination field of the IP packet.
•Routers have a routing table in it that is refreshed periodically according to the
changes in the network. In order to transmit data packets, it consults the table and
uses a routing protocol.
•In order to prepare or refresh the routing table, routers share information among
each other.
•Routers provide protection against broadcast storms.
•Routers are more expensive than other networking devices like hubs,bridges and
switches.
Routing Table
The functioning of a router depends largely upon the routing table stored in it. The routing
table stores the available routes for all destinations. The router consults the routing table
to determine the optimal route through which the data packets can be sent.
A routing table typically contains the following entities −
1. IP addresses and subnet mask of the nodes in the network
2. IP addresses of the routers in the network
3. Interface information among the network devices and channels
Routing tables are of two types −
Static Routing Table − Here, the routes are fed manually and are not refreshed
automatically. It is suitable for small networks containing 2-3 routers.
Dynamic Routing Table − Here, the router communicates with other routers using routing
protocols to determine the available routes. It is suited for larger networks having large
number of routers.
Functions of a Router:
Forwarding –
Router receives the packets from its input ports, checks it header, performs some basic functions like
checking checksum and then looks upto the routing table to find the appropriate output port to dump
the packets onto, and forwards the packets onto that output port.
Routing –
Routing is the process by which the router ascertains what is the best path for the packet
to reach the destination, It maintains a routing table which is made using different
algorithms by the router only.
Types of Routers
A variety of routers are available depending upon their usages. The main types of
routers are −
Wireless Router − They provide WiFi connection WiFi devices like laptops,
smartphones etc. They can also provide standard Ethernet routing. For indoor
connections, the range is 150 feet while its 300 feet for outdoor connections.
Broadband Routers − They are used to connect to the Internet through telephone and
to use voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) technology for providing high-speed Internet
access. They are configured and provided by the Internet Service Provider (ISP).
Core Routers − They can route data packets within a given network, but cannot route
the packets between the networks. They helps to link all devices within a network thus
forming the backbone of network. It is used by ISP and communication interfaces.
Edge Routers − They are low-capacity routers placed at the periphery of the networks.
They connect the internal network to the external networks, and are suitable for
transferring data packets across networks. They use Border Gateway Protocol (BGP) for
connectivity. There are two types of edge routers, subscriber edge routers and label
edge routers.
Benefits or advantages of Routers
Following are the benefits or advantages of Routers:
➨It provides connection between different network architectures such as
ethernet & token ring etc.
➨It can choose best path across the internetwork using dynamic routing
algorithms.
➨It can reduce network traffic by creating collision domains and also by creating
broadcast domains.
➨It provides sophisticated routing, flow control and traffic isolation.
➨They are configurable which allows network manager to make policy based on
routing decisions.
Drawbacks or disadvantages of Routers
Following are the drawbacks or disadvantages of Routers:
➨They operate based on routable network protocols.
➨They are expensive compare to other network devices.
➨Dynamic router communications can cause additional network overhead. This
results into less bandwidth for user data.
➨They are slower as they need to analyze data from layer-1 through layer-3.
➨They require considerable amount of initial configurations.
➨They are protocol dependent devices which must understand the protocol they
are forwarding.
5. Modem
Modem is abbreviation for Modulator – Demodulator.
•Modems are used for data transfer from one computer network to another computer
network through telephone lines. The computer network works in digital mode, while
analog technology is used for carrying massages across phone lines.
• When an analog facility is used for data communication between two digital devices
called Data Terminal Equipment (DTE), modems are used at each end. DTE can be a
terminal or a computer.
• The modem at the transmitting end converts the digital signal generated by DTE
into an analog signal by modulating a carrier. This modem at the receiving end
demodulates the carrier and hand over the demodulated digital signal to the DTE.

The transmission medium between the two modems can be dedicated circuit or a
switched telephone circuit. If a switched telephone circuit is used, then the
modems are connected to the local telephone exchanges. Whenever data
transmission is required connection between the modems is established through
telephone exchanges.
• The main function of the modem is to convert digital signal into analog and vice
versa. Modem is a combination of two devices − modulator and demodulator.
The modulator converts digital data into analog data when the data is being sent by
the computer. The demodulator converts analog data signals into digital data when
it is being received by the computer.
Types of Modem
Modem can be categorized in several ways like direction in which it can transmit data,
type of connection to the transmission line, transmission mode, etc.
Depending on direction of data transmission, modem can be of these types −
1.Simplex − A simplex modem can transfer data in only one direction, from digital device
to network (modulator) or network to digital device (demodulator).
2 Half duplex − A half-duplex modem has the capacity to transfer data in both the d
directions but only one at a time.
3. Full duplex − A full duplex modem can transmit data in both the directions
simultaneously
Advantages of the modem:
• More useful in connecting LAN with the internet
• Speed depends on the cost
• Slow speed when compared to the hub
• A limited number of a system can be connected
• A modem is most probably widely used in data communication roadway
• A modem converts that the digital signal into an analog signal
Disadvantages of the modem:
• Acts just as an interface between LAN and internet
• No traffic maintenance is present
• A modem is not understood the intermediate process
• The modem does not know about the own destination path