PRI

MARYPRODUCTI
ONPROCESS-
I
7manuf
act
uri
ngpr
ocesses:

1. Casti
ng:Aprocesswher
eamol
tenmet
alr
etai
nst
hedesi
redshapeofamoul
dcav
ityaf
ter
sol
idi
fi
cat
ion.

2. Formingormetalworki
ng:Mater
ial
previ
ousl
ycastormouldedgoesthroughaseri
esoffor
ming
orsheari
ngoperat
ionst
oform amateri
alsui
tabl
eforaspeci
fi
coperat
ion.E.
g.col
drol
li
ng,wir
e
drawi
ng

3. Machini
ng:Remov
alofpor
ti
onsf
rom apar
ttoobt
ainadesi
redshapeorf
ini
sh.E.
g.Shapi
ng,
Dr
il
li
ng.

4. Joiningpr
ocesses:Joi
ningt
woormor
eel
ement
stomakeasi
ngl
epar
t.E.
g.Mechani
cal
fasteni
ng,
weldi
ng.

5. Fi
nishi
ngpr ocesses:Cl
eaning:
Removalofbur
nsl
eftbymachi
ningpr
ovi
ding
prot
ect
ion/decorati
vesurf
ace.
Surf
acetreatment:pai
nti
ng,gal
vani
zi
ng

6. Heatt
reat
ment
:Heat
ingorcool
i
ngofamet
alt
oal
teri
tsmechani
cal
ormet
all
urgi
cal
proper
ti
es.

7. Ot
herpr
ocessesl
ikei
nspect
ion,
test
ing.

CASTI
NG:
Thesui
tabi
l
ityofcast
ingpr
ocessdependson:

1. Mel
ti
ngt
emper
atur
eoft
hej
obandmoul
dmat
eri
al

2. Sol
ubi
li
ty&chemi
calr
eact
ionbet
weent
hej
obandmoul
dmat
eri
als

3. Sol
ubi
li
tyoft
heat
mospher
eint
hemat
eri
alatdi
ff
erentt
emper
atur
esdur
ingcast
ingoper
ati
on.

4. Ther
malpr
oper
ti
es,
suchasconduct
ivi
tyandcoef
f.Ofl
i
nearexpansi
onofmoul
dandj
ob.

Al
l
owancesi
napat
ter
n(t
hepat
ter
nismadesl
i
ght
lyl
argert
hant
hepar
ttobecast
):

1. Cont
ract
ionofl
i
qui
dfr
om pour
ingt
emper
atur
etof
reezi
ngt
emper
atur
e.

2. Cont
ract
ionduet
ochangei
nphasel
iqui
dtosol
id.

3. Cont
ract
ionofsol
i
dfr
om f
reezi
ngt
emper
atur
etor
oom t
emper
atur
e.

Pr
oper
ti
esofmoul
dingsand:

1. St
rengt
h(compr
essi
ve)
.

2. Per
meabi
li
ty(
gasf
lowr
atet
hrought
hespeci
menf
oraspeci
fi
edpr
essur
edi
ff
erence)
 3. Def
ormat
ion(
changei
nlengt
hofast
andar
dspeci
menatt
hepoi
ntoff
ail
ure)

4. Fl
owabi
li
ty(
abi
l
ityt
ofl
owov
erandar
oundt
hepat
ter
nwhent
hemoul
disr
ammed)

5. Ref
ract
ori
ness(
Abi
l
ityofsandt
oremai
nsol
i
dasaf
unct
ionoft
emper
atur
e)

Gr
eensandmoul
d:

70-
85%sand.10-
20%cl
ay.3-
6%wat
er.
1-6%or
gani
caddi
ti
ves.

Adv
ant
agesofcast
ing:

1. Int
ri
cateshapescanbemade,
sincemol
tenmet
alf
lowsi
ntoanysmal
lsect
ioni
nthemoul
d
cavi
ty

2. Anymat
eri
alcanbecastf
err
ousornon-
fer
rous.

3. Si
mpl
eandi
nexpensi
vet
ool
srequi
red.

4. Wei
ghtr
educt
ioni
ndesi
gn.

5. Nodi
rect
ionalpr
oper
ti
es(
expect
ed)becauset
heyar
ecool
edf
rom al
lsi
des.

6. Cer
tai
nmet
alsonl
ypr
ocessedbycast
ingduet
omet
all
urgi
cal
consi
der
ati
ons.

7. Cast
ingsofdi
ff
erentsi
zesandwei
ght
scanbemade.

Di
sadv
ant
agesofcast
ing:

1. I
nadequat
eDi
mensi
onalaccur
acyandsur
facef
ini
shbynor
mal
sandcast
ingpr
ocess.

2. Pr
ocessi
slabouri
ntensi
ve.

3. Di
ff
icul
ttor
emov
edef
ect
sduet
omoi
stur
epr
esenti
nsandcast
ings.

I
mpor
tantCast
ingt
erms:

Fl
ask St
ruct
urehol
dingthesandmoul
dint
act
.Hasdi
ff
erentpar
tscopeanddr
ag.
Woodenormetall
i
c.

Dr
ag Lowerpar
tofmoul
dingf
lask.

Cope Upperpar
tofmoul
dingf
lask.

Cheek I
nter
medi
atemoul
dingf
laskusedi
nthr
eepi
ecemoul
ding.

Par
ti
ngl
i
ne Di
vi
dingli
nebet
weentwomoul
dingf
lasks.I
nspl
i
tpat
ter
niti
sdi
vi
dingl
i
nebet
ween
t
wohalvesoft
hepat
ern.

Bot
tom boar
d Woodenboardusedatt
hestar
tofmouldmaki
ng,onwhicht
hepat
ter
niskeptt
hen
sandi
sspri
nkl
edandrammingist
hendonei
nthedrag.
Faci
ngsand Car
bonaceousmater
ialspr
inkl
edonthei
nnersur
faceoft
hemoul
dingcav
ityf
or
bet
tersur
facef
ini
shofthecasti
ngs.

Moul
dingsand Fr
eshlyprepar
edr ef
ractor
ymater
ialusedformaki
ngt
hemoul
dcav
ity
.
Si
li
ca+Clay+moist
ure.Surr
oundst
hepatter
n.

Backi
ngsand Mostoft
her
efr
act
orymat
eri
ali
nthemoul
d.Madeofusedandbur
ntsand.

Cor
e Sandshapeusedt
omakehol
lowcav
iti
es,
int
ernal
feat
uresi
ncast
ing.

Pour
ingbasi
n Smallf
unnelshapedcav
ityatt
het
opoft
hemoul
dint
owhi
chmol
tenmet
ali
s
pour
ed.

Spr
ue Passageconnect
ingt
hemoul
dcav
ityandpour
ingbasi
n.Cont
rol
sfl
owofmet
al.

Runner Passageway
sinthepar
ti
ngplanethr
oughwhi
chmol
tenmet
alf
lowi
sregul
ated
bef
oretheyr
eachthemoul
dcavit
y.

Gat
e Act
ualent
rypoi
ntofmol
tenmet
ali
ntot
hecav
ity
.

Chapl
et Usedt
osuppor
tthecor
eint
hemoul
dcav
ityagai
nstmet
all
ost
ati
cfor
ces.

Chi
l
l Metal
li
cobject
spl
acedi
nthemoul
dtoi
ncr
easecool
ingr
ate,
prov
idi
ngadesi
red
uni
for
mr at
e.

Ri
ser Reserv
oirofmol
tenmet
ali
nt hecasti
ng,
pr ov
idedsothatmorehotmet
alcanf
low
i
ntothecavi
tywhent
her
eisreducti
onofsizeduetosoli
dif
icat
ion.

Gr
eensandmoul
d:

1. Fr
eshl
ypr
epar
edf
rom si
l
icagr
ains,
clayandmoi
stur
e.

2. Met
ali
spour
edandi
mmedi
atel
ycasti
stakenout
.

3. Adapt
edf
orr
api
dpr
oduct
ion.

4. Lessf
loorspaceandnost
orager
equi
red.

5. LeastExpensi
ve.

6. Tendencyofhott
ear
ingofcast
ingi
sless.

7. Moul
der
osi
oni
scommon.
 8. Bl
owhol
esar
eli
kel
ytof
ormi
fper
meabi
l
ityi
snotpr
oper
lycont
rol
l
ed.

Dr
ySandmoul
ds:

1. Gsm’
sarecomplet
elydr
iedi
nanov
enat150-
350’
Cfor8-
48hour
s,dependi
ngont
hebi
nder
sof
moul
dingsand.

2. Hi
gherst
rengt
hthangsm,
lessl
i
kel
ytobedamageddur
inghandl
i
ng.

3. Usedf
ormedi
um andl
argecast
ings.

4. Bet
tersur
facef
ini
shanddi
mensi
onalaccur
acy
.

^Di
sadv
ant
ages:

1. Moul
ddi
stor
ti
ondur
ingbaki
ngpr
ocess.

2. Suscept
ibi
li
tyt
ohott
ear
ingsofcast
ingsandl
ongerpr
oduct
ioncy
cles.

3. Mor
eexpensi
vet
hangsm.

Ski
ndr
iedmoul
ds:

1. Compr
omi
seb/
wgsm anddsm.

2. Ski
noft
hecav
ityi
sdr
iedt
oadept
hof15-
25mm usi
ngt
orches,
ordr
iedi
nat
mospher
e.

3. Canbedonei
npi
tmoul
ding.

Shel
lMoul
dCast
ingPr
ocess:

1. Mountedpat
ternmadeoff er
rousmetaloral
umi
nium i
sheatedt
o175-370’
C,coat
edwi
tha
par
ti
ngagent(e.
g.si
l
icone)andclampedtoaboxcontai
ningafi
nesand.

2. 2.
5-4%t
her
moset
ti
ngr
esi
nbi
nder(
e.g.phenol
)coat
sthesandpar
ti
cles.

3. Theboxi
sei
therr
otat
edupsi
dedownort
hesandmi
xtur
eisbl
ownov
ert
hepat
ter
n,coat
ing
i
t.

4. Theassemblyi
splacedinanoven(amet
albox)
,complet
ingt
hecur
ingoft
her
esi
n.Theov
en
hasgasfi
redburner
sthatswi
ngovert
hemouldtocureit
.

5. Theshel
lhardensar
oundt
hepatt
ernandisremovedusingej
ect
orpi
ns.Twohal
fshel
l
sar
e
madeinthi
smannerandar
eclampedtoget
herinprepar
ati
onf
orpour
ing.

6. Cast
ingswi
thcl
oset
oler
ancesandgoodsur
facef
ini
shpr
oducedatl
owcost
.

Gr
avi
tyDi
ecast
ing:

1. Per
manentmouldmadeofmet alorgr
aphi
teisused.I
tiscoatedwi
thr
efr
act
orywashandl
amp
bl
ackt
oreducechi
ll
ingef
fectandeasetheremovalofcast
ing.

2. Pr
essur
eobt
ainedf
rom t
heheadoft
hemet
ali
nthemoul
d.

3. Usedf
orf
err
ousandnon-
fer
rouscast
ings(
Simpl
erduet
olowerpour
ingt
emper
atur
e).

4. Thecycl
econsi
stsofpour
ing,
cool
ing,
eject
ingt
hecast
ing,
blowi
ngoutt
hehotmoul
ds,
coat
ing
them.
 5. Bothmetalanddr
ysandcor
esar
eused.Met
alcor
esar
ewi
thdr
awnassoonast
hemet
alst
art
s
tosol
i
dif
y.

6. Casti
roni
scastusi
ngt
hismet
hod.

Di
ecast
ing:

1. Empl
oysahi
ghpr
essur
eof20-
100n/
mm2,
tof
orcet
hemol
tenmet
ali
ntot
hemoul
ds.

2. I
tisamor
erapi
dpr
ocesst
hanper
manentmoul
dcast
ing.

3. Usedf
orhi
ghermel
ti
ngpoi
ntmet
als.E.
g.copperal
l
oys.

4. Plungerorhotchambert ype:
a.Lowermel t
ingpointall
oy sofzi
nc,exter
nall
yfi
redcontai
nerholdst
hemol t
enall
oy.
b.Belowtheli
quidlevel,
thereisapressurechamberwher eanairact
uatedpl
ungerfor
ces
moltenall
oyintothedieormoul d.
c.Attheendofi t
sstroketheplungeruncoversaporttol
etinmol t
enall
oy.Asthepl
ungerbegi
ns
anotherst
rokethepor ti
sclosedandpr essur
edev el
opsagain.

5. Col
dchambert
ype:

a. Hi
ghermel
ti
ngpoi
ntal
l
oys.

b. I
nject
ionuni
tsepar
atef
rom mel
ti
nguni
t,mol
tenal
l
oyl
adl
edi
ntoi
nject
ioncy
li
nder
.

c. Pr
essur
esoft
heor
der50-
200N/
mm2.

GATI
NG:

Ty
pesofgat
ing:

Ver
ti
cal
:Li
quidmet al
pouredverti
call
ytofil
lthemouldwit
hatmospheri
cpressureatt
hebase.
Bott
om:Li qui
dmet alf
il
ledfrom bott
om tot
hetop,av
oidi
ngsplashingandoxi
dat
ion.
Horizont
al:Al
lowsdist
ribut
ionofliquidmet
alwit
hminimum tur
bulence.

Pour
ingt
ime:

Ver
ti
calGat
ingsy
stem

Ti
met
akent
ofi
l
l=
V
Agv3
Wher e,
V-volumeofmoul d
Ag-
Cr osssecti
onalar
eaofthegat
e
v3-veloci
tyatt
hebottom oft
hespr
ue

Bot
tom Gat
ingsy
stem:

Am 2
Ti
met
akent
ofi
l
l= (ht-hm)
Ag g
Am-Cr
osssect
ional
areaoft
hemoul
d
Ag-Cr
osssect
ional
areaoft
hegat
e.

Opt
imum pour
ingt
ime:

t=kW
whereW-weightoft
hemouldi
nkg.
k-Const
antdependi
ngonf
lui
dit
yoft
hemet
al.0.
8for50kgst
eel
cast
ing.

Gat
ingRati
o:
Rat
iooft
heareaoft
hechoke,
tot
alar unnera
eaofr ndt
otal
areaofgat
e.

Gat
ingr
ati
o=As:
Ar:
Ag
Pr
essurizedSystem:ArandAgar
esmall
erthanAs.Ensur
esr
api
dfi
l
li
ng.Suf
fi
cientbackpr
essur
eis
maint
ained.Forsteel
1:1:
0.7i
sempl
oyed.

Non-
pressuri
zedSyst
em:ArandAgaregreat
erthanAs.Thevel
oci
tyoft
hemet
ali
sreduced.Tur
bul
ence
i
sminimized.Usedi
nAl,
Mgal l
oys.ForAlr
ati
osare1:2:
2,1:
3:3et
c.

RI
SERS:

Fact
orsi
nri
serdesi
gn:

1. Vol
umeandnumberofr
iser
srequi
red.

2. Shapeoft
her
iser
s

3. Pr
operpl
acementi
nsui
tabl
elocat
ionsoft
hemoul
d

4. Yi
eldconsi
der
ati
ons

5. Ri
serr
emov
al

Chr
ori
nov
’sr
ule:

Thesoli
dif
icat
iont
imei
spr
opor
ti
onal
tot
hesquar
eoft
her
ati
ooft
hev
olumet
othesur
facear
eaoft
he
metalr
eservoi
r.

(AV) V2
()
2
s ∝
t = >t
s=k
A

V/ A=m=modul
us
ts=T i
meofsol
i
dif
icat
ion

Thef
oll
owi
ngi
sdesi
red
t
s(
riser)>t
s(
casti
ng)
Mriser>Mcasting

Ri
sershape:

1. Risermusthavemi
nimum sur
facear
eaandhi
ghmodul
us,
toconser
veheatanddel
ay
soli
dif
icat
iont
ime.

2. Spher
eisani
dealshapebuti
sdi
ff
icul
ttomoul
d,hemi
spher
esandcy
li
nder
sar
ethusused.
 3. TheH/
Drat
iooft
hecy
li
nderi
sgener
all
yfr
om 1t
o1.
5.

WELDI
NG:
Fact
orsofaj
ointonwhi
cht
hechoi
ceofaf
abr
icat
ionmet
hoddepends:

1. Ty
peofassembl
y:Per
manent
,Semi
-per
manent
,tempor
ary
.

2. Mat
eri
albei
ngj
oined:
Steel
s,casti
rons,
simi
l
arofdi
ssi
mil
armet
als.

3. Economyachi
eved.

4. Requi
redser
vice:
e.g.heav
yloadi
ng,
impactl
oadi
ng,
hight
emp.

I
mpor
tantWel
dingTer
ms:

Backi
ng Mat
eri
alsuppor
tpr
ovi
dedatt
her
ootsi
deofawel
d.Ai
dsi
ncont
rolofpenet
rat
ion.

Basemet
al Met
alt
obej
oinedorcut
.

Wel
dBead Beadi
sthemet al
addedduri
ngasi
ngl
epassofwel
ding.Appear
sasasepar
ate
mater
ial
from t
hebasemetal
.

Cr
ater Depressi
oninthewel
dmet
alpool
,att
hepoi
ntwher
ethear
cst
ri
kest
hebasemet
al
pl
ate.(
arcwel
ding)

Deposi
ti
onr
ate Wel
dmet
aldeposi
tedperuni
tti
me.I
nKg/
hrgener
all
y.

Fi
l
letwel
d Met
alf
usedi
ntot
hecor
nerofaj
ointmadeoft
wopi
ecespl
acedat90°
(appr
ox.
).

Penet
rat
ion Depthuptowhi
chwel
dmet
alhascombi
nedwi
thbasemet
almeasur
edf
rom t
op
sur
face.

Puddl
e Por
ti
onoft
hewel
dedj
ointmel
tedbyheatofwel
ding.

Root Poi
ntwher
etwopi
ecest
obej
oinedbywel
dingar
enear
est
.

Wel
dmet
al Met
alt
hati
ssol
idi
fi
edatt
hej
oint
.Maybebasemet
alorbase+f
il
lermet
al.

TackWel
d Smal
lwel
dusedt
otempor
ari
lyhol
dthet
wopi
ecest
oget
herdur
ingwel
ding.

Toeofwel
d Junct
ionbet
weenwel
dfaceandbasemet
al.

Tor
ch Mi
xesf
uelandoxy
genandcont
rol
sdel
i
ver
ytogett
hedesi
redf
lame.

Wel
dface Exposedsur
faceoft
hewel
d.

Wel
spass Asingl
emov
ementoft
hewel
dingt
orch/
elect
rodeal
ongt
hel
engt
hoft
her
odf
ormi
ng
abead.

HeatAf
fect
ed Zoneadj
acentt
ofusi
onzone.Basemet
alsubj
ect
edt
oel
evat
edt
emper
atur
esf
orbr
ief
Zone per
iodsoft
ime,
mayr
esul
tinst
ruct
ureandpr
oper
tychanges.

Oxy
-Acet
yleneFl
ames:

 I
nnerWhi
teconef
ormedduet
other
eact
ion:
C2H2+O2→2CO+H2+448kJ/
mol

 TheCOandH2pr oducedreactwi
that
mospher
icoxy
genTof
orm out
erbl
uishf
lame.
4CO+2H2+3O2→4CO2+2H2O+812kJ/mol

 Neutralf
lame(Complet
ecombustion)
:Usedtodi
rect
lymeltst
eelj
oint
s.
Carburi
zingfl
ame(l
essoxygenprovi
ded)
:Usedformater
ial
swhicharereadi
l
yoxi
dized.Al
sof
or
Hardsurfaci
nghi
ghspeedsteel
s.

I
ntermediatefl
amef eat
herduetoun-bur
ntacety
lene.
Oxidi
zingflame(excessoxygenpr
ovided)
:Veryhight
emper
atur
epr
oduced.Usedf
orwel
ding
non-f
errousall
oys,e.
g.Cubasedall
oys.

 Bl
uePar
toft
hef
lameusedf
orpr
eheat
ingt
hest
eel
s.

El
ect
ri
car
cwel
ding:

Wel
dpenet
rat
ionaf
fect
edbypol
ari
tyofwel
dingar
c:

1. 70%oft
heheati
sli
ber
atedneart
heanodei
ndcar
cwel
ding.

2. I
fmor eheatisrequi
redont
hewor kpi
eceside(CuAlwit
hhighthermal
conduct
ivi
ty)
,itcanbe
madet heanode.KnownasStr
aightpol
ari
ty,orDCEN(Di
rectCurr
entEl
ect
rodeNegati
v e)
.Hi
gh
penet
rati
on.

3. Fort
hinnermetal
s,l
esserheati
srequi
redf
ort
hewor
kpi
ece,
pol
ari
tyi
srev
ersed.Akar
ever
sed
pol
ari
ty,DCEP.

4. I
nACt
hebeadf
ormedhasapenet
rat
ionsomewher
ebet
weent
het
wodi
scussedear
li
er.

GasTungst
enar
cwel
ding(
GTAW orTI
G):

1. I
tisashi
eldedar
cwel
dingpr
ocess.Thor
iat
edt
ungst
enel
ect
rodesar
eusedsi
ncet
heycar
ry
morecur
rent.

2. DCEN,
DCEPorACpowersour
cesused.DCEPbr
eaksdownoxi
desont
hesur
faceofmet
alsl
i
ke
Al
.

3. El
ectr
odesar
enon-
consumabl
e.Theymustbef
reeofanyki
ndofcont
ami
nat
ionsuchasf
il
ler
metal
.

4. Atthecent
reoftheweldi
ngtor
chisthet
ungstenelectr
ode.I
nertgasi
ssuppliedtotheweldi
ng
zonethr
oughtheannul
arpathsurr
oundi
ngthetungstenel
ectr
ode,toef
fect
ivelydi
splacet
he
atmospher
earoundtheweldpuddl
e.

5. Thewel
dingt
echni
queandedgepr
epar
ati
oni
ssi
mil
art
ogaswel
ding.Backi
ngoft
hej
ointi
s
 pr
efer
abl
e.

Gasmet
alar
cwel
ding(
GMAW)
:

1. GMAW usedf
ort
hickersheet
s,si
ncet
hef
il
lermet
alr
equi
rementmakesGTAW di
ff
icul
ttouse.

2. Consumableel
ect
rodeinthefor
m ofawir
ereel
isf
edataconst
antr
atet
hroughf
eedr
oll
ers.
Theymighthav
edeoxidi
zersaddedtot
hem.

3. Thewel
dingt
orchi
sconnect
edt
oagassuppl
ycy
li
nderwhi
chpr
ovi
dest
hei
ner
tgas.

4. DCEPisusedforit
sstabi
li
tyandsmoothelect
rodemetalt
ransf
er.DCENr
esul
tsi
nlar
gespl
att
er,
coat
ingsoft
it
anium andcal
cium ont
heelectr
odespr
eventsthi
s.

5. Dependi
ngoncurr
entandvol
tageoft
hegivenel
ect
rode,
met
alt
ransf
erar
edonei
ndi
ff
erentway
s.
E.
g.shor
tci
rcui
tordi
p,spr
ay,gl
obul
ar,et
c.

6. Argonisusedwidel
yasashi
eldi
nggassi
ncei
treducesspl
att
er,
concent
rat
est
hear
cgi
vi
nga
deeperpenet
rat
ion.

Submer
gedAr
cWel
ding(
SAW)
:

1. Usedforfasterweldi
ngjobs.Largerel
ectr
odes(12mm)
,Ver
yhi
ghcur
rent
s(4000A)gi
ve
deposi
ti
onr atesof40kg/h,andhighpenetr
ati
on.

2. Bot
hACandDCareused.TheAr
cispr
oducedwhi
l
etheconsumabl
eel
ect
rodei
sfedi
ntot
he
wel
dzonej
ustl
i
keinGMAW.

3. Granul
atedfl
uxi
sdel
iv
eredaheadoft
hewel
dingelect
rodebymeansofafeedtube.Thearc
occurr
ingbet
weent
heelect
rodeandt
hewor
kpieceiscomplet
elysubmer
gedunderthefl
ux.

4. Thef
luxmel
tsandf
ormsasl
agwhi
chcov
erst
hewel
dmet
al.

5. Theunusedf
luxi
srecol
l
ect
edandused.

6. I
tcanonl
ybecar
ri
edouti
nthef
latposi
ti
on

7. Useoff
luxel
i
minat
esspl
att
er.Awel
dmet
albacki
ngi
sused.

Resi
stanceSeam Wel
ding:

1. Speci
ali
zedpr
ocessofspotwel
ding.

2. Discelect
rodesareused,
whi
charecont
inuousl
yrot
atedsothatt
hewor
kpi
ecesgetadv
anced
underneat
ht hem.Theyal
somai
ntai
nthepressur
eatthejoi
nt.

3. Thecur
renti
sappl
i
edt
hrought
heheav
ycopperel
ect
rodes,
inaser
iesofpul
sesatpr
oper
i
nter
val
s.

4. Theti
mingi
sadj
ust
edsot
hatt
hepul
sesov
erl
apeachot
herandt
husf
orm acont
inuousseam
j
oint
.