Module 1 : Sets

GED0103 Mathematics in the Modern World

Learning Outcomes
At the end of the lesson, you will be able to:
• understand the notion of sets and relations between them;
• apply operations on sets; and
• analyze and evaluate real - world problems involving sets.
Lesson Outline
We shall discuss the following:
• Set and Elements
• Relations on Sets

• Operations on Sets
• Cardinality Formulas
Sets
Sets
We have the following definition for a set.
A set is a well - defined collections of objects, that is, a collection having a
property that we can tell whether any given object is in the set or not. We
call the objects in the set as its elements.
Notation: Let X be a set.
• If 𝑥 is an element of set 𝑋, then we write 𝑥 ∈ 𝑋.
• If 𝑥 is NOT an element of set 𝑋, we write 𝑥 ∉ 𝑋.
Methods of Describing Sets
We have the following methods to describe the sets (and its elements).
• Roster method - lists the names of all elements of the set
• Rule method - describing a set using properties satisfied by its elements.
Examples
Roster Method
A = {1, 2, 3, 4}

Rule Method
A = {x : x is a counting number less than 5}

V = {a, e, i, o, u}

V = {x : x is a vowel in the English

alphabet}

E = {2, 4, 6, 8, . . . }

E = {x : x is a positive even number}

• In the example, we have

• 2 ∈ A but 0 ∉ A,
• i ∈ V but c ∉ V,
• 2 ∈ E but 9 ∉ E
Some Special Sets
We now give definitions to some special sets, for our next discussions.
• A universal set, denoted by 𝑈, is the set of all objects under discussion in

a particular setting.

• The empty set, denoted by ∅ or { }, is the set with no element.

• A set with only one element is called a singleton.

Note: From now on, unless stated otherwise, we assume that all sets are
subsets of a universal set 𝑈.
Relations on Sets
Relations on Sets
We now discuss the following relations between sets.
Let A and B be sets. We say that A is a subset of B (or B is a superset of A),
denoted
by A ⊆ B, whenever every element of A is also an element of B. Otherwise, we write
A ⊈ B.

Furthermore, if A ⊆ B, but B has an element not in A, then we say that A is a

proper
subset of B, denoted by A ⊂ B. Otherwise, we write 𝐴 ⊄ 𝐵.
Example: Consider the set V = {a, e, i, o, u} . Then we have
• {a, o} ⊆ V

{u, a , e, i, o} ⊆ V

• {a, o} ⊂ V

{u, a , e, i, o} ⊄ V

• {b, i} ⊈ V
Some Properties
Let A, B and C be sets. Then we have the following.
• A ⊆ A. (reflexivity)
• ∅ ⊆ A and A ⊆ U.
• If A ⊆ B and B ⊆ C, then A ⊆ C. (transitivity)
Relations on Sets
We now look at the following set relation.
We say that the sets A and B are equal, denoted by A = B, if A has exactly the
same elements with B.

Moreover, 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐵 and 𝐵 ⊆ 𝐴.
Example: Let L = {x : x is a vowel in "abstemious"}. Then we have the
following.
• L = {a, e, i, o, u} = V
• L ≠ E = {x : x is an even number }
Relations on Sets
Now, we discuss equivalence of sets.
Let A and B be sets. We say that A is equivalent to B, written as A ≈ B,
whenever A and B have exactly the same number of elements. Otherwise,
we write A ≉ B.
The number of elements in the set A is called its cardinality, denoted by η(A)
(or |A|).
Example: Let W = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}. Then V = {a, e, i, o, u} ≈ W, since
• η(V) = η(W) = 5.
Finite and Infinite Sets
We say that a set is finite if we can give a complete list of all its elements.
Otherwise, the set is said to be infinite.

Example:
• V = {a, e, i, o, u} is a finite set,

• E = {x : x is an even number } is infinite.

Operations on Sets
Venn Diagram
The rectangle represents the universal set.
The sets are represented by circles and
their elements may be represented by dots.
Operations on Sets
In the following discussions, we assume that all sets are subsets of a
universal set U.
Let A and B be sets. We define the intersection of A and B, denoted by A ∩
B, to be the set of elements common to A and B, that is,
𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = {𝑥 ∶ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵}.
On the other hand, the union of A and B, denoted by A ∪ B, is the set of
elements either in A or B, that is,
𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 = {𝑥 ∶ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵}.
Venn Diagram
Intersection

Union
Venn Diagram
Intersection

Union
Example
Consider the sets A = {1, 3, 7, 9}, B = {1, 7, 10}, C = {3, 4, 5}. Then we have
the following
A ∩ B = {1, 7}
B∩C={}
A ∪ B = {1, 3, 7, 9, 10}
B ∪ C = {1, 3, 4, 5, 7, 10}
Remark: If A ∩ B = ∅, then A and B are said to be disjoint.
Some Properties
Let A and B be sets such that A ⊆ B. Then we have the following.
A∪B=B
A∩B=A
Operations on Sets
Let A and B be sets. We define the complement of A, denoted by A𝑐 or A’, to be the
set of elements in U which are not in A, that is,
𝐴𝑐 = {𝑥 ∈ 𝑈 ∶ 𝑥 ∉ 𝐴}.
Similarly, the set difference, denoted by B\A or B – A , contains the elements in B
which are not in A, that is,
𝐵\𝐴 = {𝑥 ∶ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∉ 𝐴}.
Finally, we define the symmetric difference of A and B, denoted by A△B, to be the
set whose elements are in A or B, but not both, that is,
𝐴 △ 𝐵 = (𝐴\𝐵) ∪ (𝐵\𝐴).
𝑜𝑟 = 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 \ (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵)
Venn Diagram
Complement
Venn Diagram
Complement
𝐴𝑐
Venn Diagram
Set Difference
A\B

B\A
Venn Diagram
Set Difference
A\B

B\A
Venn Diagram
Symmetric Difference
A△B
Venn Diagram
Symmetric Difference
A△B
Examples
• Example: Consider the sets X = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9} and Y = {1, 5, 9, 13}.
• Then we have the following
• X \ Y = {3, 7},
• Y \ X = {13}, and
• X△Y = {3, 7, 13}.
Operations on Sets
Given sets A and B, we define the Cartesian product of A and B, denoted by
A×B, to be the set of ordered pairs from the elements of A and B, that is,
𝐴 × 𝐵 = {(𝑎, 𝑏) ∶ 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 ∈ 𝐵}.
Example: Consider the sets V = {1, 2, 3} and W = {a, b}. Then
V ×W = {(1, a), (1, b), (2, a), (2, b), (3, a), (3, b)}.
Some Properties
Let A,B and C be sets. Then we have the following properties of the union and
intersection.
A ∪ A = A and A ∩ A = A. idempotence
A ∪ ∅ = A and A ∩ ∅ = ∅.

A ∪ U = U and A ∩ U = A.
A ∪ B = B ∪ A and A ∩ B = B ∩ A. commutativity
A ∪ (B ∪ C) = (A ∪ B) ∪ C. associativity
A ∩ (B ∩ C) = (A ∩ B) ∩ C. associativity
A ⊆ A ∪ B and A ∩ B ⊆ A.
A ∪ (B ∩ C) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C). distributivity
A ∩ (B ∪ C) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C). distributivity
Some Properties
Let A,B and C be sets. Then we have the following properties.
A′′ = A. double complementation
A ∪ A′ = U and A ∩ A′ = ∅.

U′ = ∅ and ∅′ = U.
A \ B = A ∩ B′.
A \ ∅ = A and ∅ \ A = ∅.

A′ \ B′ = B \ A.
(A \ B) \ C = (A \ C) \ (B \ C).
(A ∩ B)′ = A′ ∪ B′ and (A ∪ B)′ = A′ ∩ B′. De Morgan’s Laws
Cardinality Formulas
Cardinality Formulas
Let A and B be subsets of some finite universal set U. Then we have the
following formulations.
• η(A ∪ B) = η(A) + η(B) − η(A ∩ B)

• η(AC) = η(U) − η(A)

• η(A \ B) = η(A) − η(A ∩ B)
• η(A × B) = η(A) · η(B)
Example 1
In a community of 200 residents, 135 persons have been exposed to
chemical X, 85 to chemical Y, and 40 to both chemicals X and Y. Find the
number of persons exposed to
• chemical X but not chemical Y,
• chemical Y but not chemical X,
• chemical X or chemical Y, and

• neither of the chemicals.

Example 1 Solution
In a community of 200 residents, 135 persons have been exposed to
chemical X, 85 to chemical Y, and 40 to both chemicals X and Y. Find the
number of persons exposed to
Let 𝑈 be the set of all residents in the community
Let 𝑋 be the set of residents exposed to chemical X

Let 𝑌 be the set of residents exposed to chemical Y

Example 1 Solution
In a community of 200 residents, 135 persons have been exposed to chemical X, 85
to chemical Y, and 40 to both chemicals X and Y. Find the number of persons
exposed to
Let 𝑈 be the set of all residents in the community
Let 𝑋 be the set of residents exposed to chemical X
Let 𝑌 be the set of residents exposed to chemical Y

Then
𝜂 𝑈 = 200,
𝜂 𝑌 = 85,

𝜂 𝑋 = 135 ,
𝜂 𝑋 ∩ 𝑌 = 40
Example 1 Solution
In a community of 200 residents, 135 persons have been exposed to
chemical X, 85 to chemical Y, and 40 to both chemicals X and Y. Find the
number of persons exposed to
• chemical X but not chemical Y,

𝜂(𝑋\Y)

• chemical Y but not chemical X, 𝜂(𝑌\X)

• chemical X or chemical Y, and, 𝜂(𝑋 ∪ 𝑌)

• neither of the chemicals,

𝜂 𝑋∪𝑌

𝑐
Example 1 Solution
In a community of 200 residents, 135 persons have been exposed to
chemical X, 85 to chemical Y, and 40 to both chemicals X and Y. Find the
number of persons exposed to
• chemical X but not chemical Y,

𝜂 𝑋\Y = 𝜂 𝑋 − 𝜂(𝑋 ∩ 𝑌)

• chemical Y but not chemical X, 𝜂(𝑌\X) = 𝜂 𝑌 − 𝜂(𝑋 ∩ 𝑌)

• chemical X or chemical Y, and, 𝜂 𝑋 ∪ 𝑌 = 𝜂 𝑋 + 𝜂 𝑌 − 𝜂(𝑋 ∩ 𝑌)

• neither of the chemicals,

𝜂 𝑋∪𝑌

= 𝜂 𝑈 − 𝜂(𝑋 ∪ 𝑌)
Example 1 Solution
In a community of 200 residents, 135 persons have been exposed to chemical X, 85 to
chemical Y, and 40 to both chemicals X and Y. Find the number of persons exposed to
• chemical X but not chemical Y,

𝜂 𝑋\Y = 𝜂 𝑋 − 𝜂 𝑋 ∩ 𝑌 = 135 − 40 = 95

• chemical Y but not chemical X, 𝜂 𝑌\X = 𝜂 𝑌 − 𝜂 𝑋 ∩ 𝑌 = 85 − 40 = 45

• chemical X or chemical Y, and, 𝜂 𝑋 ∪ 𝑌 = 𝜂 𝑋 + 𝜂 𝑌 − 𝜂 𝑋 ∩ 𝑌

= 135 + 85 − 40 = 180
• neither of the chemicals,

𝜂 𝑋∪𝑌

= 𝜂 𝑈 − 𝜂 𝑋 ∪ 𝑌 = 200 − 180 = 20
Example 2
In a survey of 200 students, 100 watched Meteor Garden (M), 80 watched
Itaewon Class (I), 60 watched Crash Landing on You (L), 40 watched both M
and I, 35 watched both M and L, 20 watched I and L and 15 watched all the
series. How many student watched
• Meteor Garden only,
• M or I,
• M but not L,
• exactly one of the series (E),
• none of the series (N).