AP Euro: Chapter 26 Notes and Outline

Lecture Outline 26-1 pp. 739-745

THE FUTILE SEARCH FOR STABILITY: EUROPE BETWEEN THE WARS 1919-1939

AN UNCERTAIN PEACE - THE SEARCH FOR SECURITY:

Europe after 1919 -

1. The Paris Peace Conference tried to solve the problems of nationalism
2. Redrawing borders
3. Creating new states - 11 new countries created
4. Unhappiness over borders still remained in Eastern Europe
5. Germany was angry, resentful, and humiliated - article 231 + reparations
6. The League of Nations - it was hoped that this could resolve conflicts and keep the peace
7. USA - does not join the League of Nations, turns its back on Europe = isolationism
8. Britain - focus on economic problems and ignore continental problems
9. France - isolated and without allies
10. Russia - communist = toxic = the outcast of Europe

The Little Entente = France forms alliance with Czechoslovakia + Romania + Yugoslavia (enlarged Serbia)
France forms alliance also with the new Poland

THE FRENCH POLICY OF COERCION (1919-1924):

1. Strict enforcement of the Treaty of Versailles

2. Tough policy towards Germany = must pay full reparations
3. In 1921 the reparations that Germany owed was set at 132 billion marks
4. Germany agrees and starts to pay reparations in 1921
5. In 1922 Germany says it is broke and can’t pay the reparations
6. France sends troops to occupy the Ruhr Valley in Germany - operate and use Ruhr mines and factories

Ruhr Valley - Germany’s mining and industrial heartland

Germans adopt policy of passive resistance

Germany begins printing money to pay debts = inflation

The policy of coercion adopted by France proves to be a loser for both Germany and France

THE HOPEFUL YEARS (1924-1929):

The second half of the 1920’s -

1. New governments in France, Britain, and Germany
2. New conciliatory approach to Germany and the reparations problem
3. Gustav Stresemann = new elected leader of the Weimar Republic
End passive resistance
Agree to obey the Treaty of Versailles
Seek a new settlement for the reparations problem
4. The Dawes Plan 1924 = American loans to Germany to assist economic recovery
5. The Treaty of Locarno 1925 = settles problems between Germany and France - “the spirit of Locarno”
6. Germany admitted to the League of Nations in 1926
7. The Kellogg-Briand Pact = treaty “making war illegal”
8. Disarmament - conferences and treaties designed to reduce weapons
THE GREAT DEPRESSION:

Global economic crisis and downturn begins in 1929 with the collapse of the American stock market

“Black Friday” - speculation and buying on margin

Agricultural overproduction = falling ag prices

Falling demand and prices for coal - shift to petroleum

Deflation

Causes of the Great Depression -

1. Internal domestic economic problems
2. International economic problems = trade and credit

American economic collapse - Americans withdraw investments and credit from Europe

Autarky

Protectionism and trade barriers = tariffs

Declining prices and declining demand = declining production = cutting of jobs

Unemployment

Political instability

THE DEMOCRATIC STATES IN THE 1920’S & 1930’S”

GREAT BRITAIN:
1. Economic problems - loss of markets and unemployment
2. The Labour Party emerges at the number two party in 1923
3. Ramsay MacDonald is elected the first Labour Party prime minister in 1923
4. From 1925-1929 the Conservatives controlled the government under PM Stanley Baldwin
5. The General Strike 1926 = starts in the coal industry and spreads/crisis/fear of revolution
6. The “National Government” in 1931 = coalition of all three parties runs Britain in the 1930’s
* Britain is consumed/totally focused on the economic problems in the 30’s - ignores foreign problems and
Cuts its military spending to devote more money to social welfare programs
Unprepared to deal with the rise of Hitler and the Nazis

FRANCE:

Raymond Poincare - major leader of France in the 1920’s

Great Depression = political instability in France - political chaos and changing governments’

Polarization of French politics = people begin to move to the extremes of the political spectrum

The rise of French Fascism =

1. Action Francaise
2. Croix de Feu

The Popular Front = all of the different competing leftist parties to agree to join together in an anti-fascist alliance
and coalition = socialists + communists + radicals
Leon Blum = the head of the first Popular Front government elected to lead France in 1936

* France, like Britain, was unprepared to deal with the rise of Hitler and the Nazis

Lecture Outline 26-2 pp. 746-750

RETREAT FROM DEMOCRACY - THE AUTHORITARIAN AND TOTALITARIAN STATES:

Totalitarianism

Totalitarian States =
1. Nazi Germany
2. Stalinist Russia

Aspects of Totalitarian regimes -

1. Extended the functions and power of the state
2. Active loyalty and commitment of the citizens
3. Modern mass propaganda and modern communications - conquer hearts and minds
4. Economic control
5. Political control
6. Social control
7. Intellectual control
8. Cultural control
9. Single leader or party
10. Rejection of liberalism - no constitutions, no limited govt, no civil liberties, no voting
11. Focus on the “will of the people” - which the leader or party determined
12. Transcended traditional political labels = it was both extreme left and extreme right

FASCIST ITALY:

Italy in 1919 -
1. Poor performance in WW I
2. Felt they were cheated at the Paris Peace Conference
3. Inflation and unemployment
4. Discontented veterans
5. Weak and ineffective government
6. Fear of communism and Bolshevik style revolution

MUSSOLINI AND THE ITALIAN FASCIST STATE:

Benito Mussolini -
1. Fails as a school teacher
2. Becomes a socialist and editor of a socialist newspaper
3. Supports Italian entry into WW I - becomes a nationalist - expelled from the socialist party
4. In 1919 forms a new political party called the Fascio di Combittimento = the League of Combat

Fasces = axe and bundle of rods/sticks that was the ancient Roman symbol of the power of the state

Fascism = the political party and ideology developed by Mussolini

The rise of Mussolini and the Fascists -

1. Growing political power of the socialists
2. Fear that Italy might have a communist revolution
3. Strikes, class conflict and violence rip through Italy
4. Business and middle class begin supporting Mussolini - protection from revolution
5. Mussolini’s beliefs = anti-communism/anti-strike activity/nationalism
6. Fascists from armed groups called the Squarest - attack socialist offices and newspaper
7. Alliance between the liberals and the Fascists
8. The March on Rome - Oct. 1922 = Mussolini plans to march to Rome and seize power
9. The government caves in before the march takes place and the King names Mussolini as Prime Minister

The Black Shirts = Mussolini’s followers

1924 national elections - the Fascists win 65% of the vote

1924 the Fascists assassinate the socialist leader Giacomo Matteotti - political crisis and Mussolini almost loses
power

1925 Mussolini begins the process of establishing a full dictatorship

By 1926 Mussolini had

1. Abolished freedom of the press
2. Rigged elections
3. Government ruled by decree
4. Political opponents were arrested
5. Labor unions disbanded
6. Schools were controlled by the fascists
7. Italy had become a one-party dictatorship

“Everything in the state, nothing outside the state, nothing against the state!”
Mussolini = he and his party were the state

Mussolini tried to create a totalitarian state =

1. Police/secret police - repression and intimidation
2. Propaganda
3. Control of education and brain washing of youth
4. Creation of numerous fascists organizations

But he never was able to accomplish it

1. The army remained independent
2. The monarchy remained independent
3. The church - The Lateran Accords 1929 = recognized the Vatican as an independent state and the in
Return urged people to support the Fascist regime of Mussolini

Mussolini was never able to destroy the old power structure and was never able to become all-powerful

Fascists supported social conservatism -

1. Divorce was abolished
2. “Woman into the Home!” - stay at home and produce babies
3. Female emancipation was “unfascist”
4. Tax imposed on bachelors
5. Laws passed encouraging larger families
6. Laws passed limiting the number of women allowed in the workforce

Fascist Italy was undemocratic and a dictatorship but never became totalitarian
Lecture Outline 26-3 pp. 750-758

HITLER AND NAZI GERMANY:

WEIMAR GERMANY:

1. A German democratic state was established after WW I called the Weimar Republic
2. Key political leaders in the 1920’s - Friedrich Ebert, Gustav Stresemann
3. Hated by the left and the right
4. Economic problems - inflation and unemployment
5. After the Great Depression - fear, discontent, and extremist parties

THE RISE OF THE NAZIS:

Adolf Hitler (1889-1945)

1. Born in Austria
2. Poor student who drops out at 14
3. Goes to Vienna -attempts to become an artist/rejected by art school
4. In Vienna he establishes his world view and philosophy
Extreme nationalism
Anti-Semitism
The will to power/need to dominate - the music of Wagner
5. Moves to Munich - the war starts and he joins the German army - salvation for Hitler
6. Serves at the rank of corporal - awarded the “Iron Cross”
7. The end of the war is shattering for Hitler - meaningless and betrayal
8. In 1919 after the war Hitler enters politics and joins the German Workers’ Party
9. By 1921 he takes control and renames the party the National Socialist German Workers’ Party =Nazi

Hitler and the Nazi Party -

1. In the early 20’s Hitler works to turn the Nazis into a mass political movement
2. SA = Storm Troops - the Nazi police force or militia
3. The Beer Hall Putsch 1923 = Hitler stages an armed uprising in Munich
4. Uprising crushed and Hitler sentenced to five years in prison - gains publicity and support
5. Mein Kampf (My Struggle) - writes a book in prison spelling out his ideas
6. Gets out of prison and reorganizes the party to win elections and take power legally
7. Fuhrerprinzip = the leadership principle = Hitler as the Fuhrer = leader
8. By 1929 the Nazis have become a national political party

THE NAZI SEIZURE OF POWER:

The Great Depression paves the way for Nazis’ rise to power

1932 - unemployment is 43% in Germany

Hitler begins promising economic, military, and political salvation

Hitler appeals to
1. Big business - break up the unions
2. Army leaders - overturn the Versailles Treaty
3. Youth - an active dynamic party

Election of 1930 - the Nazis are the second largest party behind the Social Democrats

Election of 1932 - the Nazis win the most seats in the Reichstag (parliament)
Majority leader of the Social Democrats, Chancellor Heinrich Bruning, convinces president Hindenburg to authorize
rule by decree

Bruning’s policies make the economic crisis worse

Business and military leaders believe they can use Hitler as a weapon against the communists

Hitler demands to be made chancellor - Jan. 30, 1933 Hitler is appointed chancellor

Hitler calls for new elections

The burning of the Reichstag = blamed on the communists/Hitler convinces Hindenburg to sign a decree giving
the government emergency powers - basic rights of citizens are suspended - Nazis can arrest and imprison whoever
they want

:Elections of March 1933 - Nazis win 44%

The Enabling Act - March 1933 = Reichstag passes legislation suspending the constitution and giving Hitler
dictatorial power
1. Nazis moves to take control of all social institutions
2. Becomes a one[-party state
3. Strike were outlawed and trade unions dissolved - replaced with the Nazi Labour Front
4. Universities and publishing houses brought under Nazi control

Army remains independent - Hitler agrees to eliminate the threat from his own personal army the SA - in return the
German army will support him as sole ruler of Germany

The Night of the Long Knives = Hitler murders Ernst Rohm and the leaders of the SA

August 1934 a national election approves Hitler as Fuhrer with 85% of the vote

THE NAZI STATE (1933-1939):

The Nazi creation of a totalitarian state -

1. Mass demonstrations, spectacles and parades - the Nuremberg rallies
2. Industry was not nationalized
3. Rearmament of Germany solved the unemployment problem
4. The German Labor Front - a state controlled union - all workers had obtain a “workbook” to get jobs
5. The SS - run by Heinrich Himmler was the Nazi secret police - use of terror and ideology
6. Churches, schools, and universities were controlled the Nazis
7. Hitler Jugend (Hitler Youth)

The Nazi total state was intended to be an Aryan racial state = anti-Semitic government policies
1. Jews excluded from professions - law, civil service, medicine, teaching, press, entertainment
2. The Nuremberg Laws 1935 = Jews are stripped of their citizenship
Forbade marriages between Jews and German citizens
Stripped Jews of political, social, and legal rights
3. Kristallnacht 1938 = the night of shattered glass - thousands of Jewish businesses and synagogues were
Destroyed
4. In 1938-39 thirty thousand Jews were rounded up and sent to concentration camps
5. The SS encouraged Jews to emigrate from Germany

Nazi policies towards women -

1. Women were expected to be wives and mothers
2. Mothers who had large families were awarded medals
3. Nazis pursued a campaign against women working in business and industry
Lecture Outline 26-4 pp. 758-762

THE SOVIET UNION:

The Russian Civil War ends in 1921 -

1. The Reds are victorious over the Whites
2. Key role played by the Red Army created by Leon Trotsky
3. During the war Lenin pursues a policy called “war communism”

War Communism -
1. Government nationalizes transportation, communication, banks, factories, and business
2. It was done during the time of crisis in the Civil War
3. The Communist Party basically seizes everything
4. Government assumes the right to take agricultural goods from the peasants
5. War communism is a disaster - production collapses and people turn to the black market
6. By 1920 industrial output was at only 20% of what is was in 1913

The New Economic Policy (the NEP) -

1. March 1921 Lenin ends war communism and established the NEP
2. Russia reverts to a modified version of the old capitalist system
3. Peasants are allowed to sell their products again
4. Retail stores and small industries are legalized
5. “the Commanding Heights” of the economy remain under the control of the government
6. Russian economy recovers under the NEP

In 1922 Lenin and the Communists create a new state to replace the old Russia - in its place is the Union of Soviet
Socialist Republics = USSR = Soviet Union

The death of Lenin in 1924 -

1. One-man rule under Lenin
2. Lenin does not name his successor
3. Struggle for power over the who will be heirs

The Politburo -
1. The ruling organ of the Communist Party
2. Made up of 7 members
3. The Left faction = wanted to end the NEP
Wanted rapid industrialization
Wanted to spread communism abroad
4. The Right faction = rejected the cause of world revolution
Focus on building communism in the Soviet Union
Favored continuing the NEP
5. Intense personal rivalry between Trotsky and Stalin

Joseph Stalin (1879-1953) -

1. Was a peasant from the region of Russia called Georgia
2. Joins the party in 1903
3. After the revolution he takes the dull bureaucratic position of General Secretary of the Party
4. He was a master of political infighting and a good organizer
5. His position as General Secretary gave him the power of appointing regional, district, city, and town party
Secretaries = this people became his allies
6. Stalin first refuses to join either the Right or the Left factions
7. Stalin then comes to favor the Right faction = “socialism in one country”
Stalin uses his position as General Secretary to gain control of the Communist Party
Stalin uses the Right faction to defeat Trotsky and has him expelled from the Party in 1927 and in 1929 Trotsky is
expelled from the Soviet Union

Later in 1940 Stalin has Trotsky murdered in Mexico where he was living in exile

By 1929 Stalin
1. Controlled the Party
2. Defeated Trotsky
3. Eliminates from the Politburo all the “Old Bolsheviks” who had led the revolution
4. Establishes a dictatorship and builds a totalitarian system

THE STALINIST ERA (1929-1939)

Stalin ends the NEP

Begins a program of “crash industrialization” = throw all resources towards industrializing the USSR

The Five Year Plans = Stalin’s economic policy of industrialization

1. Emphasis on heavy industry - steel, machinery. Oil production
2. Huge social and political costs involved with industrialization
3. Few or no resources were devoted to housing or consumer goods
4. Those who didn’t work hard enough or complain were labeled “enemies of the people”

The first five year plan begins in 1928 - Stalin sets goal to industrial output by 250%
*transform the Soviet Union from a peasant agricultural economy to industrial state overnight

Stalin declared economic war on the peasants

Collectivization = forced all the peasants to into large collective farms controlled by the government

1929 the peasants are forced to give up their land

The kulaks = better-off peasants/those who employed wage labor

The kulaks became the enemy and Stalin declared that they be “liquidated as a class”
The reality was that any peasant who opposed Stalin and collectivization was labeled a kulak
By 1932 60% of peasants were on collective farms
By 1938 93% were on collective farms
The number of horses, cattle, sheep, and goats fell by at least 50%
The state seized grain to feed the urban workers - millions die in a state directed famine in the Ukraine

*forced collectivization was an economic disaster

Rapid industrialization + the expansion of the party bureaucracy -

1. Those who resisted were sent into forced labor camps = the Gulag
2. Stalin’s wife publicly protests then commits suicide
3. In 1934 Stalin’s second in command in assassinated probably by Stalin - this gives him an excuse to
Eliminate the “old Bolsheviks” - all possible rivals within the Party

The Stalinist Purge - a reign of terror

Show Trials - people were tortured and forced to publicly “admit” to treason
Estimated that 8 million Russians were arrested
Millions die in Siberian forced labor camps

* Stalin was one of the greatest , if not the greatest, mass murderers in human history
In the totalitarian Stalinist state there always had to be either a real or imagined enemy to battle

Newspapers and films continually told of socialist achievements and capitalist plots
Art and literature became political tools
Russian history was rewritten/religion was persecuted/churches became “museums of atheism”
Stalin’s picture and image was everywhere
People lived on black bread and vodka
A lucky family was given one room and shared bathroom for housing

Many in the West fell in love with a romantic fantasy of a true socialist society = ignored or were blind to the
horrors and crimes of the Stalinist regime - he was creating “a new civilization”

The Western left wing love affair with Stalin and the Soviet Union ended when Stalin surprises everyone and signs a
corrupt cynical treaty with Hitler which allows WW II to begin - selling out Poland

Soviet workers did receive - free education, day care, medical care, and old age pensions - but standards of living
were very low and way behind the West

Unemployment and crime were almost nonexistence

Members of the Party received special privileges and lived better than other people

Social legislation and policies in the Soviet Union =

1. In the 1920’s - very progressive and liberated
2. In the 1930’s - became very traditional and conservative - abortion, homosexuality outlawed/women
urged to have large families

AUTHORITARIANISM IN EASTERN EUROPE:

The new states created in Eastern Europe were all organized as parliamentary and constitutionals governments

By the time mid-1930’s all except Czechoslovakia had became authoritarian dictatorial regimes
1. No tradition of liberalism or parliamentary government
2. No substantial middle class
3. States will largely rural and agricultural - dominated by large landowners
4. Fear of land reform, communist agrarian upheaval , ethnic conflict

Poland - Marshal Joseph Pilsudski = military dictatorship

Yugoslavia - King Alexander = royal dictatorship
Hungary - Admiral Horthy = military dictatorship
Austria - Engelburt Dolfuss = Christian Socialist party authoritarian government

DICTATORSHIP IN THE IBERIAN PENINSULA:

Spain and Portugal -

1. Agrarian
2. Illiterate peasants
3. Dominated by large landowners and the Catholic clergy
4. Parliamentary regimes fail in both countries

The Spanish monarchy collapses in 1931 and the Spanish Republic is created

Spanish Civil War (1936-1939) -

1. Popular Front government is formed in 1936
2. The army led by General Francisco Franco revolts against the government and starts a bloody civil war
3. Soviet Unions backs and assists the Republican government
4. Germany and Italy backs and assists Franco
5. Both sides used the Spanish Civil War to try out their new weapons
6. Franco’s forces win in 139

General Franco forms a forms a traditional, conservative, authoritarian dictatorship that is in power from 1939 to
1975

Guernica = first aerial bombing of city takes place in this Spanish town /down by German planes assisting Franco

Picasso paints a famous anti-war painting entitled Guernica depicting this event

Dr. Salazar establishes a dictatorship in Portugal in the early 1930’s which lasts for the next forty years

Lecture Outline 26-5 pp. 762-768

THE EXPANSION OF MASS CULTURE AND MASS LEISURE:

The Roaring Twenties = a time of vibrant and dynamic popular culture

Berlin became a center of theaters, cabarets, cinemas, and jazz clubs

Dance crazes - the Charleston, etc.

Josephine Baker

Flappers = new liberated, unconventional women

Jazz = new musical form that originated with African-American musicians in the USA
1. 1920’s called “the Jazz Age”
2. Improvised qualities and forceful rhythms
3. King Oliver, Bix Beiderbecke, Jelly Roll Morton

RADIO AND MOVIES:

A revolution in mass communications

Radio -
1. Marconi discovers “wireless” radio waves
2. Permanent radio broadcasting facilities set up in 1921-22
3. Mass production of radios/receiving set begins
4. 1926 the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) is established as public corporation

Motion Pictures -
1. Began as novelty in the 1890’s
2. First full-length motion pictures produced before WW I - Quo Vadis, Birth of a Nation
3. By 1939 forty of adults in industrialized nations attended movies once a week

Marlene Dietrich - German film actress/The Blue Angel

Radio and movies used for propaganda

Joseph Goebbels = Nazi minister of propaganda

The Triumph of the Will - documentary/propaganda film showing the 1934 Nazi party rally at Nuremberg
MASS LEISURE:

New work patterns allow for expanded amount of free time available - by 1920 the eight hour day was the norm in
Northern and Western Europe

Professional sports - football (soccer) and the creation of the World Cup in 1930
Stadium building in the 1920’s-30’s
The 1936 Olympics in Berlin
Travel as mass leisure activity -
1. The beginnings of air travel = just for the wealthy and elite
2. Trains, buses, and private cars made travel possible
3. Excursions to beaches and resorts - Brighton in England

Totalitarian regimes used mass leisure activities to control their populations -

1. The Dopolavoro (Afterwork) in Mussolini’s Italy - fascist organized and supervised recreation
2. Kraft durch Freude (Strength Through Joy) - Nazi recreation program

Mass culture and mass leisure =

1. Increasing homogeneity in national populations - everyone acting and becoming the same
2. Replacement of local culture with a national and international culture
3. Mass production and mass consumption - same products sold and bought by all

CULTURAL AND INTELLECTUAL TRENDS IN THE INTERWAR YEARS:

The culture of the avant-garde

The impact of WW I on art, culture, and ideas =

1. Disillusionment
2. Despair

The Decline of the West by the German writer Oswald Spengler = the decadence/collapse of Western civ.

Human beings were violent and irrational animals

The growth of fascism and totalitarianism = violence and the degradation of individual rights
The Great Depression = uncertainty

Social insecurities -
1. Break down of many traditional middle class values
2. New ideas of women - liberations/flappers
3. New ideas of sexuality
4. Birth control - family planning clinics started by Margaret Sanger

NIGHTMARES AND NEW VISIONS:

Art -
1. Abstract painting
2. Fascination with the absurd
3. Fascination with the contents of the unconscious

The Dada movement -

1. Expression of the purposelessness of life
2. Absurdity and ridiculousness
3. The creation of anti-art
Surrealism -
1. Exploration of the world of the unconscious
2. Portrayal of fantasies, dreams, and nightmares
3. Show the illogical and irrational - disturbing and evocative images
4. Salvador Dali - Spanish painter/master of Surrealism - The Persistence of Memory (drooping watches)

Modern Architecture -
1. Functionalism = buildings should look and be useful/fulfill the purpose for which they were constructed
2. Rejection of decoration and ornamentation
3. “Form follows function”

The Chicago School/style of architecture -

1. Louis Sullivan - “skyscrapers”/the elevator and reinforced concrete and steel
2. Frank Lloyd Wright - domestic architecture

Bauhaus -
1. A new school of architecture founded in the 1920’s in Germany
2. Walter Gropius - founder of the Bauhaus
3. Le Corbusier
4. Stripped down unornamented steel, concrete and glass boxes

Musical theater -
1. The blending of popular and classical music and theater
2. Influence of jazz
3. Kurt Weill’s The Threepenny Opera - gangsters and hookers/“Mac the Knife”
4. George Gershwin - Rhapsody in Blue

Rejection of modern art -

1. Traditionalists denounced modern art as degeneracy and decadence
2. Hitler and the Nazi said modern art was “degenerate” or “Jewish” art
3. Nazis favored a 19th century style of art which glorified the strong, healthy and heroic
4. The Soviet Union - “socialist realism” = a boy and his tractor/brawny factory workers

Modern Music -
1. Started with Stravinsky at the start of the 20th century
2. Atonal music - radical new style of music
3. Arnold Schonberg

THE SEARCH FOR THE UNCONSCIOUSNESS:

The Lost Generation -

1. American writers after WW I
2. New style of writing - simple and direct/less flowery
3. F. Scott Fitzgerald - The Great Gatsby
4. Ernest Hemingway - The Sun Also Rises

“stream of consciousness” = modernist style of writing/interior monologue

James Joyce -
1. Irish modernist writer
2. Use of stream of consciousness in his writing
3. Ulysses - his masterpiece novel /banned in the USA/ new, shocking, and scandalous
Virginia Woolfe -
1. British modernist writer
2. Use of stream of consciousness
3. Feminism - A Room of One’s Own

Herman Hesse -
1. German modernist writer
2. Interest and use of psychology in his novels
3. Interest in Eastern religions - Siddhartha

Popularization of Freudian ideas

Carl Jung - pupil of Freud’s/collective unconsciousness/archetypes/myths, religions and philosophy

THE HEROIC AGE OF PHYSICS:

Subatomic research

The splitting of the atom

The road to the atomic bomb

Ernest Rutherford

Werner Heisenberg - the uncertainty principle