CHAPTER 11 LESSON

Identifying the Substance

1 of the Gene
READING TOOL Sequence of Events As you read, pay attention to the experiments that were
carried out to help scientists understand genes and how DNA affects living things. Take notes on
the importance of each experiment in the graphic organizer below.

Griffith Avery Hershey-Chase

Lesson Summary
Bacterial Transformation
As you read, circle KEY QUESTION What clues did bacterial transformation
the answers to each Key yield about the gene?
Question. Underline any
Through experimentation and watching the process of
words you do not understand.
transformation in bacteria, scientists learned that DNA
stores and transmits genetic information from one
generation to the next.

136 Chapter 11 DNA Copyright Copyright © by Savvas Learning Company LLC. All Rights Reserved.
About a century ago, scientists who wanted to understand READING TOOL
genetics better began experimenting to learn the chemical Active Reading
nature of genes. In 1928, the British scientist Frederick Griffith was During his experiments, Griffith
investigating how certain types of bacteria produce pneumonia, figured out that the ”S” type
a serious lung disease. Griffith had isolated two very similar types bacteria caused pneumonia in
of bacteria from mice. Both types grew very well in culture plates mice, and the “R” type did not.
Why was Griffith surprised
in Griffith’s lab, but only one of them caused pneumonia. The
when the mice injected with both
disease-causing bacteria (the “S” type) grew into smooth-edged harmless and heat-killed bacteria
colonies on culture plates, whereas the harmless bacteria (the developed pneumonia and died?
“R” type) produced colonies with rough edges. The difference in
appearance made the two types easy to tell apart.

Griffith’s Experiments When Griffith injected mice with

disease-causing bacteria, they developed pneumonia, while
those injected with harmless bacteria remained healthy. An
injection combining heat-killed, disease-causing bacteria and
harmless bacteria still made the test mice sick.

Transformation Griffith identified that a chemical factor

turned dead and harmless bacteria into disease-causing bacteria
through a process called transformation. He determined that
the disease-causing ability was transferred to the bacteria’s BUILD Vocabulary
offspring; thus transformation was caused by a gene. transformation process in which
one strain of bacteria is changed by
The Molecular Cause of Transformation In 1944, a gene or genes from another strain
Oswald Avery and a team of scientists tried to repeat Griffith’s of bacteria
℮
experiments to identify the molecule in the heat-killed bacteria bacteriophage (bak-tir-ē- -fāj)
that caused the transformation. They first removed molecules type of virus that infects bacteria
from heat-killed bacteria and used enzymes that destroyed ROOT WORDS If you break the
term bacteriophage down into
their proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, and RNA. Despite this,
two parts—bacterio and phage—it
transformation still occurred. A second experiment, where may help you understand it better.
enzymes were used to destroy DNA, proved that when this From the definition, you can see
happened, transformation did not occur. Their experiment proved that phage is a type of virus. With
that DNA must be responsible for the process of transformation. bacterio at the beginning of it, you
can see the relation between the
two parts of the word. What
Bacterial Viruses does a bacteriophage inject into a
bacterial cell?
KEY QUESTION What role did bacterial viruses play in
identifying genetic material?
Experiments with bacterial viruses demonstrated that DNA and
not the cell’s protein coat carried genetic material.

Bacteriophages A bacteriophage is a virus that infects

bacteria. One way bacteriophages infect bacteria is by inserting
genetic information into a cell and reproducing until the
bacteria bursts.

The Hershey-Chase Experiment To determine which

part of the virus entered the bacterium, Hershey and Chase
grew viruses with radioactive isotopes. These identified which
molecules entered the bacteria—showing that DNA, not the
protein coat, held the genetic material.

Copyright Copyright © by Savvas Learning Company LLC. All Rights Reserved. 11.1 Identifying the Substance of the Gene 137
 The Role of DNA
KEY QUESTION What is the role of DNA in heredity?
DNA stores and copies genetic information, and then transmits
it to offspring. Through DNA, genes are expressed and cells
develop with specific characteristics.

Storing Information DNA’s primary job is to store genetic

information. It is the heredity molecule, and it controls cell
development. All information for a single cell to develop into a
complex organism is stored in DNA.

Copying Information DNA’s second job is to copy all of

its genetic information exactly.

Gene Expression DNA’s third job is to express the genetic

information into other cells so they develop into exactly what
they are coded to be.

Visual Reading Tool: Bacteriophages and the Hershey-Chase Experiment

T4 Bacteriophage

1. Label the parts of a bacteriophage.

2. What part of the bacteriophage gets injected into a bacterial cell?

3. What part of the bacteriophage attaches and anchors itself to the bacteria?

4. What type of organism is a bacteriophage? Circle your answer.

bacteria, virus, eukaryote

138 Chapter 11 DNA Copyright Copyright © by Savvas Learning Company LLC. All Rights Reserved.
CHAPTER 11
LESSON

2 The Structure of DNA

READING TOOL Connect to Visuals Refer to the given scientists and the associated textbook
figure numbers to help you understand the events that led to solving the structure of DNA. In the
boxes, write the names of the scientists and a short description of the experiment or discovery.

Scientist Summary of Experiment

Chargaff (Figure 11-10)

This page was left blank intentionally.

Franklin (Figure 11-7)
Move on to the next page.

Watson and Crick (Figure 11-8)

Copyright Copyright © by Savvas Learning Company LLC. All Rights Reserved. 11.2 The Structure of DNA 139
 Lesson Summary
The Components of DNA
As you read, circle KEY QUESTION What are the chemical components of DNA?
the answers to each Key
Question. Underline any DNA is a nucleic acid made of nucleotides joined into long
words you do not understand. strands or chains by covalent bonds.

Nucleic Acids and Nucleotides The monomer of nucleic

READING TOOL acids is a nucleotide. They are long chains that are somewhat
Cause and Effect Let’s explore acidic. Nucleotides include three basic components: a 5-carbon
cause and effect for a moment. sugar molecule, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base.
If Franklin had never used Nucleotides join together to form strands of DNA.
X-ray technology to take pictures
of DNA, how might Watson and
Crick’s work have been different?
Nitrogenous Bases The nucleotides that make up DNA
have four types of nitrogenous bases: adenine, guanine,
cytosine, and thymine. Each of these is often referred to
by its first initial: A, G, C, or T. Covalent bonds connect the
sugar of one nucleotide with the phosphate group of another
nucleotide—and these can join in any sequence.

Solving the Structure of DNA

KEY QUESTION What clues helped scientists to determine
the structure of DNA?
The data in Franklin’s X-ray pattern enabled Watson and Crick
to build a model that explained the specific structure and
properties of DNA.

Chargaff’s Rule Biochemist Erwin Chargaff discovered

similarities in the percentages of bases in DNA. He identified
that each sample of DNA included an equal percentage of
adenine (A) and thymine (T), as well as an equal percentage
of guanine (G) and cytosine (C). This realization created what’s
known as Chargaff’s rule: [A] = [T], and [G] = [C].

Franklin’s X-Rays Scientist Rosalind Franklin used X-ray

diffraction to study the structure of DNA molecules. After
stretching the DNA fibers to make the strands as parallel as
possible, she X-rayed the samples and recorded the patterns
they created. Although she was not able to fully determine the
structure of the molecule, her work provided insight into the
helix shape of DNA strands.

The Work of Watson and Crick James Watson and

Francis Crick were studying the structure of DNA at the same
time as Franklin. Although they were able to build three-
dimensional models of DNA, they still could not explain
its properties. After seeing Franklin’s X-ray of DNA, they
determined that its structure was that of a double helix.

140 Chapter 11 DNA Copyright Copyright © by Savvas Learning Company LLC. All Rights Reserved.
The Double-Helix Model
KEY QUESTION What does the double-helix model show
about DNA?
The double-helix model explains Chargaff’s rule of base pairing
and how two strands of DNA are held together. BUILD Vocabulary
base pairing principle that bonds
Antiparallel Strands The two strands of DNA’s double in DNA can form only between
helix run antiparallel, or in opposite directions. This structure adenine and thymine and between
connects the nitrogenous bases on each strand, and allows guanine and cytosine
DNA to carry nucleotides in a specific sequence. Related Words In genetics,
the word base is shorthand for
Hydrogen Bonds DNA strands are held together by nitrogenous base and generally
refers to A’s, T’s, C’s, and G’s.
hydrogen bonds formed between nucleotides. Nitrogenous
What are the three main parts
bases bond with certain other bases in a process called of a nucleotide?
base pairing. For DNA, adenine (A) bonds with thymine (T),
and guanine (G) bonds with cytosine (C).

Base Pairing Base pairing clarified how Chargaff’s rule

applied to DNA, and why (A) = (T) and (G) = (C). This led to
a Nobel Prize for Watson, Crick, and Franklin. Although base
pairing explained DNA structure and sequences, it did not
explain how DNA carried or used the genetic information.

Visual Reading Tool: Identifying Base Pairs

1. Fill in the missing nucleotides in the diagram.

2. What do you notice about the number of hydrogen bonds that exist between the nucleotides?

3. Who was the scientist who discovered the rule of base pairing?
4. On the diagram, what do the pentagons and spheres represent?

Copyright Copyright © by Savvas Learning Company LLC. All Rights Reserved. 11.2 The Structure of DNA 141
CHAPTER 11 LESSON

3 DNA Replication

READING TOOL Main Idea and Details As you read through this lesson, write the main ideas
and supporting details in the chart below.

• Main Idea:

Copying the Code

• Supporting Detail:

• Main Idea:

The Replication • Supporting Detail:

Process

• Main Idea:
The Role of
• Supporting Detail:
Enzymes

• Main Idea:

Telomeres
• Supporting Detail:

• Main Idea:

Replication of
Living Cells • Supporting Detail:

• Main Idea:

Prokaryotic
DNA Replication • Supporting Detail:

• Main Idea:

Eukaryotic DNA
• Supporting Detail:
Replication

142 Chapter 11 DNA Copyright Copyright © by Savvas Learning Company LLC. All Rights Reserved.
Lesson Summary
Copying the Code As you read, circle
the answers to each Key
KEY QUESTION What is the role of DNA polymerase in Question. Underline any
copying DNA? words you do not understand.

DNA polymerase, or the main enzyme involved in DNA

replication, joins nucleotides to synthesize a new complementary
BUILD Vocabulary
strand of DNA.
replication process of copying
DNA prior to cell division
The Replication Process The DNA duplication process
is called replication. During replication, DNA strands separate, DNA polymerase principal
enzyme involved in DNA replication
and two complementary strands are created—one from each
telomere repetitive DNA at the
matching the opposite. Each new DNA molecule has one
end of a eukaryotic chromosome
original and one new strand, making it identical to the original.
Using Prior Knowledge There
are three main differences between
The Role of Enzymes An enzyme disconnects bonds prokaryotes and eukaryotes. One
between base pairs and unwinds the strands. Each strand difference is that one does not
becomes the model for the complementary strand. Then an have a nucleus while the other
enzyme called DNA polymerase creates the bonds connecting does. Another difference is that the
prokaryote is unicellular, while the
nucleotides, and ensures that each new strand is an exact copy eukaryote can be either unicellular
of its original. or multicellular. What is the
third difference that you have
Telomeres The tips of eukaryotic chromosomes are called learned about in this lesson?
telomeres. These are hard to replicate, so the telomerase
enzyme makes this happen. Telomerase adds short, repeated
DNA sequences to telomeres during replication, and helps
prevent the genes near the ends of chromosomes from getting
lost or damaged during replication.

Visual Reading Tool: Structure Identification

1. Identify the following structures

on the diagram: DNA
polymerase, new strand,
nitrogenous bases, old strand,
replication fork.
2. On each side of the diagram,
draw arrows to show the
direction in which DNA
replication is moving.
3. What is the job of DNA
polymerase?

Copyright Copyright © by Savvas Learning Company LLC. All Rights Reserved. 11.3 DNA Replication 143
READING TOOL
Apply Prior Knowledge A
Replication in Living Cells
normal human cell will have 46 KEY QUESTION How does DNA replication differ in
chromatids before the S phase of prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells?
the cell cycle: 23 from the mother
and 23 from the father. How DNA replication in prokaryotic cells starts from one point and
many chromatids will a cell continues in two directions until replication is complete. In
contain after DNA replication? eukaryotic cells, it begins at multiple points and continues
outward until complete.

Prokaryotic DNA Replication Replication in most

prokaryotes begins at a single point and moves in two
directions until the entire chromosome is copied. Regulatory
proteins bind at a single point on a chromosome, sparking the
S phase and DNA replication. The two chromosomes produced
in this process are connected to separate points within a cell’s
membrane and get separated during cell division.

Eukaryotic DNA Replication Replication in eukaryotes

is more complex and begins at multiple places on the DNA
molecule, fanning out in two directions. Proteins ensure that
base pairs are matched correctly and no damage occurs.
Sometimes these proteins fail, and damaged sections of DNA
are replicated. This causes changes to DNA base sequences
and may have serious consequences for cell development.

Visual Reading Tool: Compare and Contrast

On each diagram below, label the following structures: New DNA, Origin of replication,
Replication fork, Unreplicated DNA.

Prokaryotic DNA Eukaryotic DNA

144 Chapter 11 DNA Copyright Copyright © by Savvas Learning Company LLC. All Rights Reserved.
 11 Chapter Review

Review Vocabulary
Match the vocabulary term to its definition.
1. a kind of virus that infects bacteria a. transformation

2. the process in which bacteria is changed by a gene b. bacteriophage

3. principle that explains how bonds in DNA will form c. base pairing
between specific nucleotides

4. process of copying DNA prior to cell division d. replication

Fill in the blanks with the correct terms to complete the sentence.

5. are unicellular organisms that have circular DNA, while have

linear DNA and can be unicellular or multicellular.

Review Key Questions

Provide evidence and details to support your answers.
6. Explain how studying viruses led to the discovery that DNA contains genetic material.

7. If DNA is charged with storing, copying, and expressing genetic traits, what might happen if
DNA got damaged?

8. Explain how the sugars, phosphate groups, and nitrogenous bases in one strand of DNA connect
to a complementary strand during replication.

9. Enzymes serve several functions during DNA replication. Name two of these functions.

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