Computer Network Types

A computer network is a group of computers linked to each other that enables the
computer to communicate with another computer and share their resources, data, and
applications.

A computer network can be categorized by their size. A computer network is mainly

of four types:

o LAN(Local Area Network)

o PAN(Personal Area Network)
o MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)
o WAN(Wide Area Network)

LAN(Local Area Network)

o Local Area Network is a group of computers connected to each other in a small
area such as building, office.
o LAN is used for connecting two or more personal computers through a
communication medium such as twisted pair, coaxial cable, etc.
o It is less costly as it is built with inexpensive hardware such as hubs, network
adapters, and ethernet cables.
o The data is transferred at an extremely faster rate in Local Area Network.
o Local Area Network provides higher security.
PAN(Personal Area Network)
o Personal Area Network is a network arranged within an individual person,
typically within a range of 10 meters.
o Personal Area Network is used for connecting the computer devices of personal
use is known as Personal Area Network.
o Thomas Zimmerman was the first research scientist to bring the idea of the
Personal Area Network.
o Personal Area Network covers an area of 30 feet.
o Personal computer devices that are used to develop the personal area network
are the laptop, mobile phones, media player and play stations.
There are two types of Personal Area Network:

o Wired Personal Area Network

o Wireless Personal Area Network

Wireless Personal Area Network: Wireless Personal Area Network is developed by

simply using wireless technologies such as WiFi, Bluetooth. It is a low range
network.15OOPs Concepts in Java

Wired Personal Area Network: Wired Personal Area Network is created by using the
USB.
MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)
o A metropolitan area network is a network that covers a larger geographic area by
interconnecting a different LAN to form a larger network.
o Government agencies use MAN to connect to the citizens and private industries.
o In MAN, various LANs are connected to each other through a telephone
exchange line.
o The most widely used protocols in MAN are RS-232, Frame Relay, ATM, ISDN,
OC-3, ADSL, etc.
o It has a higher range than Local Area Network(LAN).
WAN(Wide Area Network)
o A Wide Area Network is a network that extends over a large geographical area
such as states or countries.
o A Wide Area Network is quite bigger network than the LAN.
o A Wide Area Network is not limited to a single location, but it spans over a large
geographical area through a telephone line, fibre optic cable or satellite links.
o The internet is one of the biggest WAN in the world.
o A Wide Area Network is widely used in the field of Business, government, and
education.

Examples Of Wide Area Network:

o Mobile Broadband
o Last mile
o Private network
Internetwork
o An internetwork is defined as two or more computer network LANs or WAN or
computer network segments are connected using devices, and they are
configured by a local addressing scheme. This process is known
as internetworking.
o An interconnection between public, private, commercial, industrial, or
government computer networks can also be defined as internetworking.
o An internetworking uses the internet protocol.
o The reference model used for internetworking is Open System
Interconnection(OSI).

Types Of Internetwork:
1. Extranet: An extranet is a communication network based on the internet protocol
such as Transmission Control protocol and internet protocol. It is used for
information sharing. The access to the extranet is restricted to only those users who
have login credentials. An extranet is the lowest level of internetworking. It can be
categorized as MAN, WAN or other computer networks. An extranet cannot have a
single LAN, atleast it must have one connection to the external network.

2. Intranet: An intranet is a private network based on the internet protocol such

as Transmission Control protocol and internet protocol. An intranet belongs to an
organization which is only accessible by the organization's employee or members. The
main aim of the intranet is to share the information and resources among the
organization employees. An intranet provides the facility to work in groups and for
teleconferences.

Components:

Computer network components are the major parts which are needed to install the software.
Some important network components are NIC, switch, cable, hub, router, and modem.
Depending on the type of network that we need to install, some network components can also
be removed. For example, the wireless network does not require a cable.
Topology defines the structure of the network of how all the components are
interconnected to each other. There are two types of topology: physical and logical
topology.

Physical topology is the geometric representation of all the nodes in a network.

Bus Topology
 o The bus topology is designed in such a way that all the stations are connected
through a single cable known as a backbone cable.
o Each node is either connected to the backbone cable by drop cable or directly
connected to the backbone cable.
o When a node wants to send a message over the network, it puts a message over
the network. All the stations available in the network will receive the message
whether it has been addressed or not.
o The bus topology is mainly used in 802.3 (ethernet) and 802.4 standard networks.
o The configuration of a bus topology is quite simpler as compared to other
topologies.
o The backbone cable is considered as a "single lane" through which the message
is broadcast to all the stations.
o The most common access method of the bus topologies is CSMA (Carrier Sense
Multiple Access).

CSMA: It is a media access control used to control the data flow so that data integrity is
maintained, i.e., the packets do not get lost. There are two alternative ways of handling
the problems that occur when two nodes send the messages simultaneously.

o CSMA CD: CSMA CD (Collision detection) is an access method used to detect

the collision. Once the collision is detected, the sender will stop transmitting the
data. Therefore, it works on "recovery after the collision".
 o CSMA CA: CSMA CA (Collision Avoidance) is an access method used to avoid
the collision by checking whether the transmission media is busy or not. If busy,
then the sender waits until the media becomes idle. This technique effectively
reduces the possibility of the collision. It does not work on "recovery after the
collision".

Ring Topology

o Ring topology is like a bus topology, but with connected ends.

o The node that receives the message from the previous computer will retransmit
to the next node.
o The data flows in one direction, i.e., it is unidirectional.
o The data flows in a single loop continuously known as an endless loop.
o It has no terminated ends, i.e., each node is connected to other node and having
no termination point.
o The data in a ring topology flow in a clockwise direction.
o The most common access method of the ring topology is token passing.
o Token passing: It is a network access method in which token is passed
from one node to another node.
o Token: It is a frame that circulates around the network.

Working of Token passing

 o A token moves around the network, and it is passed from computer to computer
until it reaches the destination.
o The sender modifies the token by putting the address along with the data.
o The data is passed from one device to another device until the destination
address matches. Once the token received by the destination device, then it
sends the acknowledgment to the sender.
o In a ring topology, a token is used as a carrier.

Star Topology

o Star topology is an arrangement of the network in which every node is connected

to the central hub, switch or a central computer.
o The central computer is known as a server, and the peripheral devices attached
to the server are known as clients.
o Coaxial cable or RJ-45 cables are used to connect the computers.
o Hubs or Switches are mainly used as connection devices in a physical star
topology.
o Star topology is the most popular topology in network implementation.
Tree topology

o Tree topology combines the characteristics of bus topology and star topology.
o A tree topology is a type of structure in which all the computers are connected
with each other in hierarchical fashion.
o The top-most node in tree topology is known as a root node, and all other nodes
are the descendants of the root node.
o There is only one path exists between two nodes for the data transmission. Thus,
it forms a parent-child hierarchy.

Mesh topology
o Mesh technology is an arrangement of the network in which computers are
interconnected with each other through various redundant connections.
o There are multiple paths from one computer to another computer.
o It does not contain the switch, hub or any central computer which acts as a central
point of communication.
o The Internet is an example of the mesh topology.
o Mesh topology is mainly used for WAN implementations where communication
failures are a critical concern.
o Mesh topology is mainly used for wireless networks.
o Mesh topology can be formed by using the formula:
Number of cables = (n*(n-1))/2;

Where n is the number of nodes that represents the network.

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Mesh topology is divided into two categories:

o Fully connected mesh topology

o Partially connected mesh topology
 o Full Mesh Topology: In a full mesh topology, each computer is connected to all
the computers available in the network.
o Partial Mesh Topology: In a partial mesh topology, not all but certain
computers are connected to those computers with which they communicate
frequently.

Hybrid Topology
 o The combination of various different topologies is known as Hybrid topology.
o A Hybrid topology is a connection between different links and nodes to transfer
the data.
o When two or more different topologies are combined together is termed as
Hybrid topology and if similar topologies are connected with each other will not
result in Hybrid topology. For example, if there exist a ring topology in one
branch of ICICI bank and bus topology in another branch of ICICI bank,
connecting these two topologies will result in Hybrid topology.

Transmission modes
o The way in which data is transmitted from one device to another device is known
as transmission mode.
o The transmission mode is also known as the communication mode.
 o Each communication channel has a direction associated with it, and transmission
media provide the direction. Therefore, the transmission mode is also known as a
directional mode.
o The transmission mode is defined in the physical layer.

The Transmission mode is divided into three categories:

o Simplex mode
o Half-duplex mode
o Full-duplex mode

Simplex mode

o In Simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, i.e., the data flow in one
direction.
o A device can only send the data but cannot receive it or it can receive the data
but cannot send the data.
o This transmission mode is not very popular as mainly communications require the
two-way exchange of data. The simplex mode is used in the business field as in
sales that do not require any corresponding reply.
 o The radio station is a simplex channel as it transmits the signal to the listeners but
never allows them to transmit back.
o Keyboard and Monitor are the examples of the simplex mode as a keyboard can
only accept the data from the user and monitor can only be used to display the
data on the screen.
o The main advantage of the simplex mode is that the full capacity of the
communication channel can be utilized during transmission.

Half-Duplex mode

o In a Half-duplex channel, direction can be reversed, i.e., the station can transmit
and receive the data as well.
o Messages flow in both the directions, but not at the same time.
o The entire bandwidth of the communication channel is utilized in one direction at
a time.
o In half-duplex mode, it is possible to perform the error detection, and if any error
occurs, then the receiver requests the sender to retransmit the data.
o A Walkie-talkie is an example of the Half-duplex mode. In Walkie-talkie, one
party speaks, and another party listens. After a pause, the other speaks and first
party listens. Speaking simultaneously will create the distorted sound which
cannot be understood.

Computer Network Models

A communication subsystem is a complex piece of Hardware and software. Early
attempts for implementing the software for such subsystems were based on a single,
complex, unstructured program with many interacting components. The resultant
software was very difficult to test and modify. To overcome such problem, the ISO has
developed a layered approach. In a layered approach, networking concept is divided
into several layers, and each layer is assigned a particular task. Therefore, we can say
that networking tasks depend upon the layers.

Layered Architecture
o The main aim of the layered architecture is to divide the design into small pieces.
o Each lower layer adds its services to the higher layer to provide a full set of
services to manage communications and run the applications.
o It provides modularity and clear interfaces, i.e., provides interaction between
subsystems.
o It ensures the independence between layers by providing the services from lower
to higher layer without defining how the services are implemented. Therefore,
any modification in a layer will not affect the other layers.
o The number of layers, functions, contents of each layer will vary from network to
network. However, the purpose of each layer is to provide the service from lower
to a higher layer and hiding the details from the layers of how the services are
implemented.
o The basic elements of layered architecture are services, protocols, and interfaces.
o Service: It is a set of actions that a layer provides to the higher layer.
o Protocol: It defines a set of rules that a layer uses to exchange the
information with peer entity. These rules mainly concern about both the
contents and order of the messages used.
o Interface: It is a way through which the message is transferred from one
layer to another layer.
o In a layer n architecture, layer n on one machine will have a communication with
the layer n on another machine and the rules used in a conversation are known
as a layer-n protocol.

Let's take an example of the five-layered architecture.

 o In case of layered architecture, no data is transferred from layer n of one machine
to layer n of another machine. Instead, each layer passes the data to the layer
immediately just below it, until the lowest layer is reached.
o Below layer 1 is the physical medium through which the actual communication
takes place.
o In a layered architecture, unmanageable tasks are divided into several small and
manageable tasks.
o The data is passed from the upper layer to lower layer through an interface. A
Layered architecture provides a clean-cut interface so that minimum information
is shared among different layers. It also ensures that the implementation of one
layer can be easily replaced by another implementation.
o A set of layers and protocols is known as network architecture.

Why do we require Layered architecture?

o Divide-and-conquer approach: Divide-and-conquer approach makes a design

process in such a way that the unmanageable tasks are divided into small and
manageable tasks. In short, we can say that this approach reduces the complexity
of the design.
 o Modularity: Layered architecture is more modular. Modularity provides the
independence of layers, which is easier to understand and implement.
o Easy to modify: It ensures the independence of layers so that implementation in
one layer can be changed without affecting other layers.
o Easy to test: Each layer of the layered architecture can be analyzed and tested
individually.

Full-duplex mode

o In Full duplex mode, the communication is bi-directional, i.e., the data flow in
both the directions.
o Both the stations can send and receive the message simultaneously.
o Full-duplex mode has two simplex channels. One channel has traffic moving in
one direction, and another channel has traffic flowing in the opposite direction.
o The Full-duplex mode is the fastest mode of communication between devices.
o The most common example of the full-duplex mode is a telephone network.
When two people are communicating with each other by a telephone line, both
can talk and listen at the same time.

OSI Model
 o OSI stands for Open System Interconnection is a reference model that
describes how information from a software application in one computer moves
through a physical medium to the software application in another computer.
o OSI consists of seven layers, and each layer performs a particular network
function.
o OSI model was developed by the International Organization for Standardization
(ISO) in 1984, and it is now considered as an architectural model for the inter-
computer communications.
o OSI model divides the whole task into seven smaller and manageable tasks. Each
layer is assigned a particular task.
o Each layer is self-contained, so that task assigned to each layer can be performed
independently.

Characteristics of OSI Model:

o The OSI model is divided into two layers: upper layers and lower layers.
o The upper layer of the OSI model mainly deals with the application related issues,
and they are implemented only in the software. The application layer is closest to
the end user. Both the end user and the application layer interact with the
software applications. An upper layer refers to the layer just above another layer.
o The lower layer of the OSI model deals with the data transport issues. The data
link layer and the physical layer are implemented in hardware and software. The
 physical layer is the lowest layer of the OSI model and is closest to the physical
medium. The physical layer is mainly responsible for placing the information on
the physical medium.

Functions of the OSI Layers

There are the seven OSI layers. Each layer has different functions. A list of seven layers
are given below:

1. Physical Layer
2. Data-Link Layer
3. Network Layer
4. Transport Layer
5. Session Layer
6. Presentation Layer
7. Application Layer
Physical layer

o The main functionality of the physical layer is to transmit the individual bits from
one node to another node.
o It is the lowest layer of the OSI model.
o It establishes, maintains and deactivates the physical connection.
o It specifies the mechanical, electrical and procedural network interface
specifications.

Functions of a Physical layer:

o Line Configuration: It defines the way how two or more devices can be
connected physically.
o Data Transmission: It defines the transmission mode whether it is simplex, half-
duplex or full-duplex mode between the two devices on the network.
o Topology: It defines the way how network devices are arranged.
o Signals: It determines the type of the signal used for transmitting the
information.

Data-Link Layer
 o This layer is responsible for the error-free transfer of data frames.
o It defines the format of the data on the network.
o It provides a reliable and efficient communication between two or more devices.
o It is mainly responsible for the unique identification of each device that resides
on a local network.
o It contains two sub-layers:
o Logical Link Control Layer
o It is responsible for transferring the packets to the Network layer of
the receiver that is receiving.
o It identifies the address of the network layer protocol from the
header.
o It also provides flow control.
o Media Access Control Layer
o A Media access control layer is a link between the Logical Link
Control layer and the network's physical layer.
o It is used for transferring the packets over the network.

Functions of the Data-link layer

o Framing: The data link layer translates the physical's raw bit stream into packets
known as Frames. The Data link layer adds the header and trailer to the frame.
The header which is added to the frame contains the hardware destination and
source address.

o Physical Addressing: The Data link layer adds a header to the frame that
contains a destination address. The frame is transmitted to the destination
address mentioned in the header.
o Flow Control: Flow control is the main functionality of the Data-link layer. It is
the technique through which the constant data rate is maintained on both the
sides so that no data get corrupted. It ensures that the transmitting station such
as a server with higher processing speed does not exceed the receiving station,
with lower processing speed.
o Error Control: Error control is achieved by adding a calculated value CRC (Cyclic
Redundancy Check) that is placed to the Data link layer's trailer which is added to
the message frame before it is sent to the physical layer. If any error seems to
occurr, then the receiver sends the acknowledgment for the retransmission of the
corrupted frames.
o Access Control: When two or more devices are connected to the same
communication channel, then the data link layer protocols are used to determine
which device has control over the link at a given time.
Network Layer

o It is a layer 3 that manages device addressing, tracks the location of devices on

the network.
o It determines the best path to move data from source to the destination based
on the network conditions, the priority of service, and other factors.
o The Data link layer is responsible for routing and forwarding the packets.
o Routers are the layer 3 devices, they are specified in this layer and used to
provide the routing services within an internetwork.
o The protocols used to route the network traffic are known as Network layer
protocols. Examples of protocols are IP and Ipv6.

Functions of Network Layer:

o Internetworking: An internetworking is the main responsibility of the network

layer. It provides a logical connection between different devices.
o Addressing: A Network layer adds the source and destination address to the
header of the frame. Addressing is used to identify the device on the internet.
 o Routing: Routing is the major component of the network layer, and it determines
the best optimal path out of the multiple paths from source to the destination.
o Packetizing: A Network Layer receives the packets from the upper layer and
converts them into packets. This process is known as Packetizing. It is achieved by
internet protocol (IP).

Transport Layer

o The Transport layer is a Layer 4 ensures that messages are transmitted in the
order in which they are sent and there is no duplication of data.
o The main responsibility of the transport layer is to transfer the data completely.
o It receives the data from the upper layer and converts them into smaller units
known as segments.
o This layer can be termed as an end-to-end layer as it provides a point-to-point
connection between source and destination to deliver the data reliably.

The two protocols used in this layer are:

o Transmission Control Protocol

o It is a standard protocol that allows the systems to communicate over the
internet.
 o It establishes and maintains a connection between hosts.
o When data is sent over the TCP connection, then the TCP protocol divides
the data into smaller units known as segments. Each segment travels over
the internet using multiple routes, and they arrive in different orders at the
destination. The transmission control protocol reorders the packets in the
correct order at the receiving end.
o User Datagram Protocol
o User Datagram Protocol is a transport layer protocol.
o It is an unreliable transport protocol as in this case receiver does not send
any acknowledgment when the packet is received, the sender does not
wait for any acknowledgment. Therefore, this makes a protocol unreliable.

Functions of Transport Layer:

o Service-point addressing: Computers run several programs simultaneously due

to this reason, the transmission of data from source to the destination not only
from one computer to another computer but also from one process to another
process. The transport layer adds the header that contains the address known as
a service-point address or port address. The responsibility of the network layer is
to transmit the data from one computer to another computer and the
responsibility of the transport layer is to transmit the message to the correct
process.
o Segmentation and reassembly: When the transport layer receives the message
from the upper layer, it divides the message into multiple segments, and each
segment is assigned with a sequence number that uniquely identifies each
segment. When the message has arrived at the destination, then the transport
layer reassembles the message based on their sequence numbers.
o Connection control: Transport layer provides two services Connection-oriented
service and connectionless service. A connectionless service treats each segment
as an individual packet, and they all travel in different routes to reach the
destination. A connection-oriented service makes a connection with the transport
layer at the destination machine before delivering the packets. In connection-
oriented service, all the packets travel in the single route.
 o Flow control: The transport layer also responsible for flow control but it is
performed end-to-end rather than across a single link.
o Error control: The transport layer is also responsible for Error control. Error
control is performed end-to-end rather than across the single link. The sender
transport layer ensures that message reach at the destination without any error.

Session Layer

o It is a layer 3 in the OSI model.

o The Session layer is used to establish, maintain and synchronizes the interaction
between communicating devices.

Functions of Session layer:

o Dialog control: Session layer acts as a dialog controller that creates a dialog

between two processes or we can say that it allows the communication between
two processes which can be either half-duplex or full-duplex.
o Synchronization: Session layer adds some checkpoints when transmitting the
data in a sequence. If some error occurs in the middle of the transmission of data,
 then the transmission will take place again from the checkpoint. This process is
known as Synchronization and recovery.

Presentation Layer

o A Presentation layer is mainly concerned with the syntax and semantics of the
information exchanged between the two systems.
o It acts as a data translator for a network.
o This layer is a part of the operating system that converts the data from one
presentation format to another format.
o The Presentation layer is also known as the syntax layer.

Functions of Presentation layer:

o Translation: The processes in two systems exchange the information in the form

of character strings, numbers and so on. Different computers use different
encoding methods, the presentation layer handles the interoperability between
the different encoding methods. It converts the data from sender-dependent
format into a common format and changes the common format into receiver-
dependent format at the receiving end.
 o Encryption: Encryption is needed to maintain privacy. Encryption is a process of
converting the sender-transmitted information into another form and sends the
resulting message over the network.
o Compression: Data compression is a process of compressing the data, i.e., it
reduces the number of bits to be transmitted. Data compression is very important
in multimedia such as text, audio, video.

Application Layer

o An application layer serves as a window for users and application processes to

access network service.
o It handles issues such as network transparency, resource allocation, etc.
o An application layer is not an application, but it performs the application layer
functions.
o This layer provides the network services to the end-users.

Functions of Application layer:

 o File transfer, access, and management (FTAM): An application layer allows a
user to access the files in a remote computer, to retrieve the files from a
computer and to manage the files in a remote computer.
o Mail services: An application layer provides the facility for email forwarding and
storage.
o Directory services: An application provides the distributed database sources and
is used to provide that global information about various objects.

TCP/IP model
o The TCP/IP model was developed prior to the OSI model.
o The TCP/IP model is not exactly similar to the OSI model.
o The TCP/IP model consists of five layers: the application layer, transport layer,
network layer, data link layer and physical layer.
o The first four layers provide physical standards, network interface,
internetworking, and transport functions that correspond to the first four layers
of the OSI model and these four layers are represented in TCP/IP model by a
single layer called the application layer.
o TCP/IP is a hierarchical protocol made up of interactive modules, and each of
them provides specific functionality.

Here, hierarchical means that each upper-layer protocol is supported by two or more
lower-level protocols.

Functions of TCP/IP layers:

Network Access Layer

o A network layer is the lowest layer of the TCP/IP model.

o A network layer is the combination of the Physical layer and Data Link layer
defined in the OSI reference model.
o It defines how the data should be sent physically through the network.
o This layer is mainly responsible for the transmission of the data between two
devices on the same network.
o The functions carried out by this layer are encapsulating the IP datagram into
frames transmitted by the network and mapping of IP addresses into physical
addresses.
o The protocols used by this layer are ethernet, token ring, FDDI, X.25, frame relay.

Internet Layer

o An internet layer is the second layer of the TCP/IP model.

o An internet layer is also known as the network layer.
 o The main responsibility of the internet layer is to send the packets from any
network, and they arrive at the destination irrespective of the route they take.

Following are the protocols used in this layer are:

IP Protocol: IP protocol is used in this layer, and it is the most significant part of the
entire TCP/IP suite.

Following are the responsibilities of this protocol:

o IP Addressing: This protocol implements logical host addresses known as IP

addresses. The IP addresses are used by the internet and higher layers to identify
the device and to provide internetwork routing.
o Host-to-host communication: It determines the path through which the data is
to be transmitted.
o Data Encapsulation and Formatting: An IP protocol accepts the data from the
transport layer protocol. An IP protocol ensures that the data is sent and received
securely, it encapsulates the data into message known as IP datagram.
o Fragmentation and Reassembly: The limit imposed on the size of the IP
datagram by data link layer protocol is known as Maximum Transmission unit
(MTU). If the size of IP datagram is greater than the MTU unit, then the IP
protocol splits the datagram into smaller units so that they can travel over the
local network. Fragmentation can be done by the sender or intermediate router.
At the receiver side, all the fragments are reassembled to form an original
message.
o Routing: When IP datagram is sent over the same local network such as LAN,
MAN, WAN, it is known as direct delivery. When source and destination are on
the distant network, then the IP datagram is sent indirectly. This can be
accomplished by routing the IP datagram through various devices such as
routers.

ARP Protocol

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 Stay

o ARP stands for Address Resolution Protocol.

o ARP is a network layer protocol which is used to find the physical address from
the IP address.
o The two terms are mainly associated with the ARP Protocol:
o ARP request: When a sender wants to know the physical address of the
device, it broadcasts the ARP request to the network.
o ARP reply: Every device attached to the network will accept the ARP
request and process the request, but only recipient recognize the IP
address and sends back its physical address in the form of ARP reply. The
recipient adds the physical address both to its cache memory and to the
datagram header

ICMP Protocol

o ICMP stands for Internet Control Message Protocol.

o It is a mechanism used by the hosts or routers to send notifications regarding
datagram problems back to the sender.
o A datagram travels from router-to-router until it reaches its destination. If a
router is unable to route the data because of some unusual conditions such as
disabled links, a device is on fire or network congestion, then the ICMP protocol
is used to inform the sender that the datagram is undeliverable.
o An ICMP protocol mainly uses two terms:
o ICMP Test: ICMP Test is used to test whether the destination is reachable
or not.
o ICMP Reply: ICMP Reply is used to check whether the destination device
is responding or not.
o The core responsibility of the ICMP protocol is to report the problems, not
correct them. The responsibility of the correction lies with the sender.
o ICMP can send the messages only to the source, but not to the intermediate
routers because the IP datagram carries the addresses of the source and
destination but not of the router that it is passed to.
Transport Layer
The transport layer is responsible for the reliability, flow control, and correction of data
which is being sent over the network.

The two protocols used in the transport layer are User Datagram protocol and
Transmission control protocol.

o User Datagram Protocol (UDP)

o It provides connectionless service and end-to-end delivery of transmission.
o It is an unreliable protocol as it discovers the errors but not specify the
error.
o User Datagram Protocol discovers the error, and ICMP protocol reports the
error to the sender that user datagram has been damaged.
o UDP consists of the following fields:
Source port address: The source port address is the address of the
application program that has created the message.
Destination port address: The destination port address is the address of
the application program that receives the message.
Total length: It defines the total number of bytes of the user datagram in
bytes.
Checksum: The checksum is a 16-bit field used in error detection.
o UDP does not specify which packet is lost. UDP contains only checksum; it
does not contain any ID of a data segment.
 o Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
o It provides a full transport layer services to applications.
o It creates a virtual circuit between the sender and receiver, and it is active
for the duration of the transmission.
o TCP is a reliable protocol as it detects the error and retransmits the
damaged frames. Therefore, it ensures all the segments must be received
and acknowledged before the transmission is considered to be completed
and a virtual circuit is discarded.
o At the sending end, TCP divides the whole message into smaller units
known as segment, and each segment contains a sequence number which
is required for reordering the frames to form an original message.
o At the receiving end, TCP collects all the segments and reorders them
based on sequence numbers.

Application Layer

o An application layer is the topmost layer in the TCP/IP model.

o It is responsible for handling high-level protocols, issues of representation.
o This layer allows the user to interact with the application.
o When one application layer protocol wants to communicate with another
application layer, it forwards its data to the transport layer.
 o There is an ambiguity occurs in the application layer. Every application cannot be
placed inside the application layer except those who interact with the
communication system. For example: text editor cannot be considered in
application layer while web browser using HTTP protocol to interact with the
network where HTTP protocol is an application layer protocol.

Following are the main protocols used in the application layer:

o HTTP: HTTP stands for Hypertext transfer protocol. This protocol allows us to

access the data over the world wide web. It transfers the data in the form of plain
text, audio, video. It is known as a Hypertext transfer protocol as it has the
efficiency to use in a hypertext environment where there are rapid jumps from
one document to another.
o SNMP: SNMP stands for Simple Network Management Protocol. It is a
framework used for managing the devices on the internet by using the TCP/IP
protocol suite.
o SMTP: SMTP stands for Simple mail transfer protocol. The TCP/IP protocol that
supports the e-mail is known as a Simple mail transfer protocol. This protocol is
used to send the data to another e-mail address.
o DNS: DNS stands for Domain Name System. An IP address is used to identify the
connection of a host to the internet uniquely. But, people prefer to use the names
instead of addresses. Therefore, the system that maps the name to the address is
known as Domain Name System.
o TELNET: It is an abbreviation for Terminal Network. It establishes the connection
between the local computer and remote computer in such a way that the local
terminal appears to be a terminal at the remote system.
o FTP: FTP stands for File Transfer Protocol. FTP is a standard internet protocol
used for transmitting the files from one computer to another computer

Digital Transmission
Data can be represented either in analog or digital form. The computers used the digital
form to store the information. Therefore, the data needs to be converted in digital form
so that it can be used by a computer.
DIGITAL-TO-DIGITAL CONVERSION
Digital-to-digital encoding is the representation of digital information by a digital signal.
When binary 1s and 0s generated by the computer are translated into a sequence of
voltage pulses that can be propagated over a wire, this process is known as digital-to-
digital encoding.

Digital-to-digital encoding is divided into three categories:

o Unipolar Encoding
o Polar Encoding
o Bipolar Encoding

Unipolar

o Digital transmission system sends the voltage pulses over the medium link such
as wire or cable.
o In most types of encoding, one voltage level represents 0, and another voltage
level represents 1.
o The polarity of each pulse determines whether it is positive or negative.
o This type of encoding is known as Unipolar encoding as it uses only one polarity.
o In Unipolar encoding, the polarity is assigned to the 1 binary state.
 o In this, 1s are represented as a positive value and 0s are represented as a zero
value.
o In Unipolar Encoding, '1' is considered as a high voltage and '0' is considered as a
zero voltage.
o Unipolar encoding is simpler and inexpensive to implement.

Unipolar encoding has two problems that make this scheme less desirable:

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o DC Component
o Synchronization

Polar

o Polar encoding is an encoding scheme that uses two voltage levels: one is
positive, and another is negative.
o By using two voltage levels, an average voltage level is reduced, and the DC
component problem of unipolar encoding scheme is alleviated.
NRZ

o NRZ stands for Non-return zero.

o In NRZ encoding, the level of the signal can be represented either positive or
negative.

The two most common methods used in NRZ are:

NRZ-L: In NRZ-L encoding, the level of the signal depends on the type of the bit that it
represents. If a bit is 0 or 1, then their voltages will be positive and negative respectively.
Therefore, we can say that the level of the signal is dependent on the state of the bit.

NRZ-I: NRZ-I is an inversion of the voltage level that represents 1 bit. In the NRZ-I
encoding scheme, a transition occurs between the positive and negative voltage that
represents 1 bit. In this scheme, 0 bit represents no change and 1 bit represents a
change in voltage level.
RZ

o RZ stands for Return to zero.

o There must be a signal change for each bit to achieve synchronization. However,
to change with every bit, we need to have three values: positive, negative and
zero.
o RZ is an encoding scheme that provides three values, positive voltage represents
1, the negative voltage represents 0, and zero voltage represents none.
o In the RZ scheme, halfway through each interval, the signal returns to zero.
o In RZ scheme, 1 bit is represented by positive-to-zero and 0 bit is represented by
negative-to-zero.
Disadvantage of RZ:

It performs two signal changes to encode one bit that acquires more bandwidth.

Biphase

o Biphase is an encoding scheme in which signal changes at the middle of the bit
interval but does not return to zero.

Biphase encoding is implemented in two different ways:

Manchester

o It changes the signal at the middle of the bit interval but does not return to zero
for synchronization.
o In Manchester encoding, a negative-to-positive transition represents binary 1,
and positive-to-negative transition represents 0.
o Manchester has the same level of synchronization as RZ scheme except that it has
two levels of amplitude.
Differential Manchester

o It changes the signal at the middle of the bit interval for synchronization, but the
presence or absence of the transition at the beginning of the interval determines
the bit. A transition means binary 0 and no transition means binary 1.
o In Manchester Encoding scheme, two signal changes represent 0 and one signal
change represent 1.

Bipolar

o Bipolar encoding scheme represents three voltage levels: positive, negative, and
zero.
 o In Bipolar encoding scheme, zero level represents binary 0, and binary 1 is
represented by alternating positive and negative voltages.
o If the first 1 bit is represented by positive amplitude, then the second 1 bit is
represented by negative voltage, third 1 bit is represented by the positive
amplitude and so on. This alternation can also occur even when the 1bits are not
consecutive.

Bipolar can be classified as:

AMI

o AMI stands for alternate mark inversion where mark work comes from

telegraphy which means 1. So, it can be redefined as alternate 1 inversion.
o In Bipolar AMI encoding scheme, 0 bit is represented by zero level and 1 bit is
represented by alternating positive and negative voltages.

Advantage:

o DC component is zero.
o Sequence of 1s bits are synchronized.

Disadvantage:

o This encoding scheme does not ensure the synchronization of a long string of 0s
bits.

B8ZS
 o B8ZS stands for Bipolar 8-Zero Substitution.
o This technique is adopted in North America to provide synchronization of a long
sequence of 0s bits.
o In most of the cases, the functionality of B8ZS is similar to the bipolar AMI, but
the only difference is that it provides the synchronization when a long sequence
of 0s bits occur.
o B8ZS ensures synchronization of a long string of 0s by providing force artificial
signal changes called violations, within 0 string pattern.
o When eight 0 occurs, then B8ZS implements some changes in 0s string pattern
based on the polarity of the previous 1 bit.
o If the polarity of the previous 1 bit is positive, the eight 0s will be encoded as
zero, zero, zero, positive, negative, zero, negative, positive.

o If the polarity of previous 1 bit is negative, then the eight 0s will be encoded as
zero, zero, zero, negative, positive, zero, positive, negative.

HDB3

o HDB3 stands for High-Density Bipolar 3.

o HDB3 technique was first adopted in Europe and Japan.
 o HDB3 technique is designed to provide the synchronization of a long sequence
of 0s bits.
o In the HDB3 technique, the pattern of violation is based on the polarity of the
previous bit.
o When four 0s occur, HDB3 looks at the number of 1s bits occurred since the last
substitution.
o If the number of 1s bits is odd, then the violation is made on the fourth
consecutive of 0. If the polarity of the previous bit is positive, then the violation is
positive. If the polarity of the previous bit is negative, then the violation is
negative.

If the number of 1s bits since the last substitution is odd.

If the number of 1s bits is even, then the violation is made on the place of the first and
fourth consecutive 0s. If the polarity of the previous bit is positive, then violations are
negative, and if the polarity of the previous bit is negative, then violations are positive.

If the number of 1s bits since the last substitution is even.

ANALOG-TO-DIGITAL CONVERSION
o When an analog signal is digitalized, this is called an analog-to-digital
conversion.
o Suppose human sends a voice in the form of an analog signal, we need to
digitalize the analog signal which is less prone to noise. It requires a reduction in
the number of values in an analog message so that they can be represented in
the digital stream.
o In analog-to-digital conversion, the information contained in a continuous wave
form is converted in digital pulses.

Techniques for Analog-To-Digital Conversion

PAM

o PAM stands for pulse amplitude modulation.

o PAM is a technique used in analog-to-digital conversion.
o PAM technique takes an analog signal, samples it, and generates a series of
digital pulses based on the result of sampling where sampling means measuring
the amplitude of a signal at equal intervals.
o PAM technique is not useful in data communication as it translates the original
wave form into pulses, but these pulses are not digital. To make them digital,
PAM technique is modified to PCM technique.
PCM

o PCM stands for Pulse Code Modulation.

o PCM technique is used to modify the pulses created by PAM to form a digital
signal. To achieve this, PCM quantizes PAM pulses. Quantization is a process of
assigning integral values in a specific range to sampled instances.
o PCM is made of four separate processes: PAM, quantization, binary encoding,
and digital-to-digital encoding.
PCM

Next Topic
What is Transmission media?
o Transmission media is a communication channel that carries the information from
the sender to the receiver. Data is transmitted through the electromagnetic
signals.
o The main functionality of the transmission media is to carry the information in the
form of bits through LAN(Local Area Network).
o It is a physical path between transmitter and receiver in data communication.
o In a copper-based network, the bits in the form of electrical signals.
o In a fibre based network, the bits in the form of light pulses.
o In OSI(Open System Interconnection) phase, transmission media supports the
Layer 1. Therefore, it is considered to be as a Layer 1 component.
o The electrical signals can be sent through the copper wire, fibre optics,
atmosphere, water, and vacuum.
o The characteristics and quality of data transmission are determined by the
characteristics of medium and signal.
o Transmission media is of two types are wired media and wireless media. In wired
media, medium characteristics are more important whereas, in wireless media,
signal characteristics are more important.
o Different transmission media have different properties such as bandwidth, delay,
cost and ease of installation and maintenance.
o The transmission media is available in the lowest layer of the OSI reference
model, i.e., Physical layer.

Some factors need to be considered for designing the transmission media:

o Bandwidth: All the factors are remaining constant, the greater the bandwidth of
a medium, the higher the data transmission rate of a signal.
o Transmission impairment: When the received signal is not identical to the
transmitted one due to the transmission impairment. The quality of the signals
will get destroyed due to transmission impairment.
 o Interference: An interference is defined as the process of disrupting a signal
when it travels over a communication medium on the addition of some unwanted
signal.

Causes Of Transmission Impairment:

o Attenuation: Attenuation means the loss of energy, i.e., the strength of the

signal decreases with increasing the distance which causes the loss of energy.
o Distortion: Distortion occurs when there is a change in the shape of the signal.
This type of distortion is examined from different signals having different
frequencies. Each frequency component has its own propagation speed, so they
reach at a different time which leads to the delay distortion.
o Noise: When data is travelled over a transmission medium, some unwanted
signal is added to it which creates the noise.

Classification Of Transmission Media:

 o Guided Transmission Media
o UnGuided Transmission Media

Guided Media
It is defined as the physical medium through which the signals are transmitted. It is also
known as Bounded media.

Types Of Guided media:

Twisted pair:
Twisted pair is a physical media made up of a pair of cables twisted with each other. A
twisted pair cable is cheap as compared to other transmission media. Installation of the
twisted pair cable is easy, and it is a lightweight cable. The frequency range for twisted
pair cable is from 0 to 3.5KHz.

A twisted pair consists of two insulated copper wires arranged in a regular spiral pattern.

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The degree of reduction in noise interference is determined by the number of turns per
foot. Increasing the number of turns per foot decreases noise interference.

Types of Twisted pair:

Unshielded Twisted Pair:
An unshielded twisted pair is widely used in telecommunication. Following are the
categories of the unshielded twisted pair cable:

o Category 1: Category 1 is used for telephone lines that have low-speed data.
o Category 2: It can support upto 4Mbps.
o Category 3: It can support upto 16Mbps.
o Category 4: It can support upto 20Mbps. Therefore, it can be used for long-
distance communication.
o Category 5: It can support upto 200Mbps.

Advantages Of Unshielded Twisted Pair:

o It is cheap.
o Installation of the unshielded twisted pair is easy.
o It can be used for high-speed LAN.

Disadvantage:

o This cable can only be used for shorter distances because of attenuation.

Shielded Twisted Pair

A shielded twisted pair is a cable that contains the mesh surrounding the wire that
allows the higher transmission rate.

Characteristics Of Shielded Twisted Pair:

 o The cost of the shielded twisted pair cable is not very high and not very low.
o An installation of STP is easy.
o It has higher capacity as compared to unshielded twisted pair cable.
o It has a higher attenuation.
o It is shielded that provides the higher data transmission rate.

Disadvantages

o It is more expensive as compared to UTP and coaxial cable.

o It has a higher attenuation rate.

Coaxial Cable
o Coaxial cable is very commonly used transmission media, for example, TV wire is
usually a coaxial cable.
o The name of the cable is coaxial as it contains two conductors parallel to each
other.
o It has a higher frequency as compared to Twisted pair cable.
o The inner conductor of the coaxial cable is made up of copper, and the outer
conductor is made up of copper mesh. The middle core is made up of non-
conductive cover that separates the inner conductor from the outer conductor.
o The middle core is responsible for the data transferring whereas the copper mesh
prevents from the EMI(Electromagnetic interference).

Coaxial cable is of two types:

 1. Baseband transmission: It is defined as the process of transmitting a single
signal at high speed.
2. Broadband transmission: It is defined as the process of transmitting multiple
signals simultaneously.

Advantages Of Coaxial cable:

o The data can be transmitted at high speed.

o It has better shielding as compared to twisted pair cable.
o It provides higher bandwidth.

Disadvantages Of Coaxial cable:

o It is more expensive as compared to twisted pair cable.

o If any fault occurs in the cable causes the failure in the entire network.

Fibre Optic
o Fibre optic cable is a cable that uses electrical signals for communication.
o Fibre optic is a cable that holds the optical fibres coated in plastic that are used
to send the data by pulses of light.
o The plastic coating protects the optical fibres from heat, cold, electromagnetic
interference from other types of wiring.
o Fibre optics provide faster data transmission than copper wires.

Diagrammatic representation of fibre optic cable:

Basic elements of Fibre optic cable:

o Core: The optical fibre consists of a narrow strand of glass or plastic known as a

core. A core is a light transmission area of the fibre. The more the area of the
core, the more light will be transmitted into the fibre.
o Cladding: The concentric layer of glass is known as cladding. The main
functionality of the cladding is to provide the lower refractive index at the core
interface as to cause the reflection within the core so that the light waves are
transmitted through the fibre.
o Jacket: The protective coating consisting of plastic is known as a jacket. The main
purpose of a jacket is to preserve the fibre strength, absorb shock and extra fibre
protection.

Following are the advantages of fibre optic cable over copper:

o Greater Bandwidth: The fibre optic cable provides more bandwidth as compared

copper. Therefore, the fibre optic carries more data as compared to copper cable.
o Faster speed: Fibre optic cable carries the data in the form of light. This allows
the fibre optic cable to carry the signals at a higher speed.
o Longer distances: The fibre optic cable carries the data at a longer distance as
compared to copper cable.
o Better reliability: The fibre optic cable is more reliable than the copper cable as
it is immune to any temperature changes while it can cause obstruct in the
connectivity of copper cable.
o Thinner and Sturdier: Fibre optic cable is thinner and lighter in weight so it can
withstand more pull pressure than copper cable.
UnGuided Transmission
o An unguided transmission transmits the electromagnetic waves without using any
physical medium. Therefore it is also known as wireless transmission.
o In unguided media, air is the media through which the electromagnetic energy
can flow easily.

Unguided transmission is broadly classified into three categories:

Radio waves
o Radio waves are the electromagnetic waves that are transmitted in all the
directions of free space.
o Radio waves are omnidirectional, i.e., the signals are propagated in all the
directions.
o The range in frequencies of radio waves is from 3Khz to 1 khz.
o In the case of radio waves, the sending and receiving antenna are not aligned, i.e.,
the wave sent by the sending antenna can be received by any receiving antenna.
o An example of the radio wave is FM radio.

Applications Of Radio waves:

o A Radio wave is useful for multicasting when there is one sender and many
receivers.
 o An FM radio, television, cordless phones are examples of a radio wave.

Advantages Of Radio transmission:

o Radio transmission is mainly used for wide area networks and mobile cellular
phones.
o Radio waves cover a large area, and they can penetrate the walls.
o Radio transmission provides a higher transmission rate.

Microwaves

Microwaves are of two types:

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o Terrestrial microwave
o Satellite microwave communication.

Terrestrial Microwave Transmission

o Terrestrial Microwave transmission is a technology that transmits the focused

beam of a radio signal from one ground-based microwave transmission antenna
to another.
o Microwaves are the electromagnetic waves having the frequency in the range
from 1GHz to 1000 GHz.
 o Microwaves are unidirectional as the sending and receiving antenna is to be
aligned, i.e., the waves sent by the sending antenna are narrowly focussed.
o In this case, antennas are mounted on the towers to send a beam to another
antenna which is km away.
o It works on the line of sight transmission, i.e., the antennas mounted on the
towers are the direct sight of each other.

Characteristics of Microwave:

o Frequency range: The frequency range of terrestrial microwave is from 4-6 GHz

to 21-23 GHz.
o Bandwidth: It supports the bandwidth from 1 to 10 Mbps.
o Short distance: It is inexpensive for short distance.
o Long distance: It is expensive as it requires a higher tower for a longer distance.
o Attenuation: Attenuation means loss of signal. It is affected by environmental
conditions and antenna size.

Advantages Of Microwave:

o Microwave transmission is cheaper than using cables.

o It is free from land acquisition as it does not require any land for the installation
of cables.
o Microwave transmission provides an easy communication in terrains as the
installation of cable in terrain is quite a difficult task.
o Communication over oceans can be achieved by using microwave transmission.

Disadvantages of Microwave transmission:

o Eavesdropping: An eavesdropping creates insecure communication. Any

malicious user can catch the signal in the air by using its own antenna.
o Out of phase signal: A signal can be moved out of phase by using microwave
transmission.
 o Susceptible to weather condition: A microwave transmission is susceptible to
weather condition. This means that any environmental change such as rain, wind
can distort the signal.
o Bandwidth limited: Allocation of bandwidth is limited in the case of microwave
transmission.

Satellite Microwave Communication

o A satellite is a physical object that revolves around the earth at a known height.
o Satellite communication is more reliable nowadays as it offers more flexibility
than cable and fibre optic systems.
o We can communicate with any point on the globe by using satellite
communication.

How Does Satellite work?

The satellite accepts the signal that is transmitted from the earth station, and it amplifies
the signal. The amplified signal is retransmitted to another earth station.

Advantages Of Satellite Microwave Communication:

o The coverage area of a satellite microwave is more than the terrestrial microwave.
o The transmission cost of the satellite is independent of the distance from the
centre of the coverage area.
o Satellite communication is used in mobile and wireless communication
applications.
o It is easy to install.
o It is used in a wide variety of applications such as weather forecasting, radio/TV
signal broadcasting, mobile communication, etc.

Disadvantages Of Satellite Microwave Communication:

o Satellite designing and development requires more time and higher cost.
o The Satellite needs to be monitored and controlled on regular periods so that it
remains in orbit.
 o The life of the satellite is about 12-15 years. Due to this reason, another launch of
the satellite has to be planned before it becomes non-functional.

Infrared
o An infrared transmission is a wireless technology used for communication over
short ranges.
o The frequency of the infrared in the range from 300 GHz to 400 THz.
o It is used for short-range communication such as data transfer between two cell
phones, TV remote operation, data transfer between a computer and cell phone
resides in the same closed area.

Characteristics Of Infrared:

o It supports high bandwidth, and hence the data rate will be very high.
o Infrared waves cannot penetrate the walls. Therefore, the infrared communication
in one room cannot be interrupted by the nearby rooms.
o An infrared communication provides better security with minimum interference.
o Infrared communication is unreliable outside the building because the sun rays
will interfere with the infrared waves.

What is Multiplexing?
Multiplexing is a technique used to combine and send the multiple data streams over a
single medium. The process of combining the data streams is known as multiplexing
and hardware used for multiplexing is known as a multiplexer.

Multiplexing is achieved by using a device called Multiplexer (MUX) that combines n

input lines to generate a single output line. Multiplexing follows many-to-one, i.e., n
input lines and one output line.

Demultiplexing is achieved by using a device called Demultiplexer (DEMUX) available at

the receiving end. DEMUX separates a signal into its component signals (one input and
n outputs). Therefore, we can say that demultiplexing follows the one-to-many
approach.
Why Multiplexing?
o The transmission medium is used to send the signal from sender to receiver. The
medium can only have one signal at a time.
o If there are multiple signals to share one medium, then the medium must be
divided in such a way that each signal is given some portion of the available
bandwidth. For example: If there are 10 signals and bandwidth of medium is100
units, then the 10 unit is shared by each signal.
o When multiple signals share the common medium, there is a possibility of
collision. Multiplexing concept is used to avoid such collision.
o Transmission services are very expensive.

History of Multiplexing
o Multiplexing technique is widely used in telecommunications in which several
telephone calls are carried through a single wire.
o Multiplexing originated in telegraphy in the early 1870s and is now widely used in
communication.
o George Owen Squier developed the telephone carrier multiplexing in 1910.

Concept of Multiplexing

o The 'n' input lines are transmitted through a multiplexer and multiplexer
combines the signals to form a composite signal.
o The composite signal is passed through a Demultiplexer and demultiplexer
separates a signal to component signals and transfers them to their respective
destinations.
Advantages of Multiplexing:
o More than one signal can be sent over a single medium.
o The bandwidth of a medium can be utilized effectively.

Multiplexing Techniques
Multiplexing techniques can be classified as:

Frequency-division Multiplexing (FDM)

o It is an analog technique.
o Frequency Division Multiplexing is a technique in which the available
bandwidth of a single transmission medium is subdivided into several channels.
 o In the above diagram, a single transmission medium is subdivided into several
frequency channels, and each frequency channel is given to different devices.
Device 1 has a frequency channel of range from 1 to 5.
o The input signals are translated into frequency bands by using modulation
techniques, and they are combined by a multiplexer to form a composite signal.
o The main aim of the FDM is to subdivide the available bandwidth into different
frequency channels and allocate them to different devices.
o Using the modulation technique, the input signals are transmitted into frequency
bands and then combined to form a composite signal.
o The carriers which are used for modulating the signals are known as sub-carriers.
They are represented as f1,f2..fn.
o FDM is mainly used in radio broadcasts and TV networks.

Advantages Of FDM:

o FDM is used for analog signals.

o FDM process is very simple and easy modulation.
o A Large number of signals can be sent through an FDM simultaneously.
o It does not require any synchronization between sender and receiver.

Disadvantages Of FDM:
 o FDM technique is used only when low-speed channels are required.
o It suffers the problem of crosstalk.
o A Large number of modulators are required.
o It requires a high bandwidth channel.

Applications Of FDM:

o FDM is commonly used in TV networks.

o It is used in FM and AM broadcasting. Each FM radio station has different
frequencies, and they are multiplexed to form a composite signal. The
multiplexed signal is transmitted in the air.

Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)

o Wavelength Division Multiplexing is same as FDM except that the optical signals
are transmitted through the fibre optic cable.
o WDM is used on fibre optics to increase the capacity of a single fibre.
o It is used to utilize the high data rate capability of fibre optic cable.
o It is an analog multiplexing technique.
o Optical signals from different source are combined to form a wider band of light
with the help of multiplexer.
 o At the receiving end, demultiplexer separates the signals to transmit them to
their respective destinations.
o Multiplexing and Demultiplexing can be achieved by using a prism.
o Prism can perform a role of multiplexer by combining the various optical signals
to form a composite signal, and the composite signal is transmitted through a
fibre optical cable.
o Prism also performs a reverse operation, i.e., demultiplexing the signal.

Time Division Multiplexing

o It is a digital technique.
o In Frequency Division Multiplexing Technique, all signals operate at the same
time with different frequency, but in case of Time Division Multiplexing
technique, all signals operate at the same frequency with different time.
o In Time Division Multiplexing technique, the total time available in the channel
is distributed among different users. Therefore, each user is allocated with
different time interval known as a Time slot at which data is to be transmitted by
the sender.
o A user takes control of the channel for a fixed amount of time.
o In Time Division Multiplexing technique, data is not transmitted simultaneously
rather the data is transmitted one-by-one.
o In TDM, the signal is transmitted in the form of frames. Frames contain a cycle of
time slots in which each frame contains one or more slots dedicated to each user.
o It can be used to multiplex both digital and analog signals but mainly used to
multiplex digital signals.
There are two types of TDM:

o Synchronous TDM
o Asynchronous TDM

Synchronous TDM

o A Synchronous TDM is a technique in which time slot is preassigned to every

device.
o In Synchronous TDM, each device is given some time slot irrespective of the fact
that the device contains the data or not.
o If the device does not have any data, then the slot will remain empty.
o In Synchronous TDM, signals are sent in the form of frames. Time slots are
organized in the form of frames. If a device does not have data for a particular
time slot, then the empty slot will be transmitted.
o The most popular Synchronous TDM are T-1 multiplexing, ISDN multiplexing, and
SONET multiplexing.
o If there are n devices, then there are n slots.

Concept Of Synchronous TDM

In the above figure, the Synchronous TDM technique is implemented. Each device is
allocated with some time slot. The time slots are transmitted irrespective of whether the
sender has data to send or not.

Disadvantages Of Synchronous TDM:

o The capacity of the channel is not fully utilized as the empty slots are also
transmitted which is having no data. In the above figure, the first frame is
completely filled, but in the last two frames, some slots are empty. Therefore, we
can say that the capacity of the channel is not utilized efficiently.
o The speed of the transmission medium should be greater than the total speed of
the input lines. An alternative approach to the Synchronous TDM is Asynchronous
Time Division Multiplexing.

Asynchronous TDM

o An asynchronous TDM is also known as Statistical TDM.

o An asynchronous TDM is a technique in which time slots are not fixed as in the
case of Synchronous TDM. Time slots are allocated to only those devices which
have the data to send. Therefore, we can say that Asynchronous Time Division
multiplexor transmits only the data from active workstations.
o An asynchronous TDM technique dynamically allocates the time slots to the
devices.
o In Asynchronous TDM, total speed of the input lines can be greater than the
capacity of the channel.
 o Asynchronous Time Division multiplexor accepts the incoming data streams and
creates a frame that contains only data with no empty slots.
o In Asynchronous TDM, each slot contains an address part that identifies the
source of the data.

o The difference between Asynchronous TDM and Synchronous TDM is that many
slots in Synchronous TDM are unutilized, but in Asynchronous TDM, slots are fully
utilized. This leads to the smaller transmission time and efficient utilization of the
capacity of the channel.
o In Synchronous TDM, if there are n sending devices, then there are n time slots. In
Asynchronous TDM, if there are n sending devices, then there are m time slots
where m is less than n (m<n).
o The number of slots in a frame depends on the statistical analysis of the number
of input lines.

Concept Of Asynchronous TDM

In the above diagram, there are 4 devices, but only two devices are sending the data,
i.e., A and C. Therefore, the data of A and C are only transmitted through the
transmission line.

Frame of above diagram can be represented as:

The above figure shows that the data part contains the address to determine the source
of the data.

Switching
o When a user accesses the internet or another computer network outside their
immediate location, messages are sent through the network of transmission
media. This technique of transferring the information from one computer
network to another network is known as switching.
o Switching in a computer network is achieved by using switches. A switch is a
small hardware device which is used to join multiple computers together with
one local area network (LAN).
o Network switches operate at layer 2 (Data link layer) in the OSI model.
o Switching is transparent to the user and does not require any configuration in the
home network.
o Switches are used to forward the packets based on MAC addresses.
o A Switch is used to transfer the data only to the device that has been addressed.
It verifies the destination address to route the packet appropriately.
o It is operated in full duplex mode.
o Packet collision is minimum as it directly communicates between source and
destination.
o It does not broadcast the message as it works with limited bandwidth.

Why is Switching Concept required?

Switching concept is developed because of the following reasons:
 o Bandwidth: It is defined as the maximum transfer rate of a cable. It is a very
critical and expensive resource. Therefore, switching techniques are used for the
effective utilization of the bandwidth of a network.
o Collision: Collision is the effect that occurs when more than one device transmits
the message over the same physical media, and they collide with each other. To
overcome this problem, switching technology is implemented so that packets do
not collide with each other.

Advantages of Switching:

o Switch increases the bandwidth of the network.

o It reduces the workload on individual PCs as it sends the information to only that
device which has been addressed.
o It increases the overall performance of the network by reducing the traffic on the
network.
o There will be less frame collision as switch creates the collision domain for each
connection.

Disadvantages of Switching:

o A Switch is more expensive than network bridges.

o A Switch cannot determine the network connectivity issues easily.
o Proper designing and configuration of the switch are required to handle multicast
packets.

Switching Modes
o The layer 2 switches are used for transmitting the data on the data link layer, and
it also performs error checking on transmitted and received frames.
o The layer 2 switches forward the packets with the help of MAC address.
o Different modes are used for forwarding the packets known as Switching
modes.
 o In switching mode, Different parts of a frame are recognized. The frame consists
of several parts such as preamble, destination MAC address, source MAC address,
user's data, FCS.

There are three types of switching modes:

o Store-and-forward
o Cut-through
o Fragment-free

Store-and-forward
 o Store-and-forward is a technique in which the intermediate nodes store the
received frame and then check for errors before forwarding the packets to the
next node.
o The layer 2 switch waits until the entire frame has received. On receiving the
entire frame, switch store the frame into the switch buffer memory. This process
is known as storing the frame.
o When the frame is stored, then the frame is checked for the errors. If any error
found, the message is discarded otherwise the message is forwarded to the next
node. This process is known as forwarding the frame.
o CRC (Cyclic Redundancy Check) technique is implemented that uses a number of
bits to check for the errors on the received frame.
o The store-and-forward technique ensures a high level of security as the
destination network will not be affected by the corrupted frames.
o Store-and-forward switches are highly reliable as it does not forward the collided
frames.

Cut-through Switching
 o Cut-through switching is a technique in which the switch forwards the packets
after the destination address has been identified without waiting for the entire
frame to be received.
o Once the frame is received, it checks the first six bytes of the frame following the
preamble, the switch checks the destination in the switching table to determine
the outgoing interface port, and forwards the frame to the destination.
o It has low latency rate as the switch does not wait for the entire frame to be
received before sending the packets to the destination.
o It has no error checking technique. Therefore, the errors can be sent with or
without errors to the receiver.
o A Cut-through switching technique has low wait time as it forwards the packets
as soon as it identifies the destination MAC address.
o In this technique, collision is not detected, if frames have collided will also be
forwarded.

Fragment-free Switching

o A Fragment-free switching is an advanced technique of the Cut-through

Switching.
o A Fragment-free switching is a technique that reads atleast 64 bytes of a frame
before forwarding to the next node to provide the error-free transmission.
o It combines the speed of Cut-through Switching with the error checking
functionality.
o This technique checks the 64 bytes of the ethernet frame where addressing
information is available.
 o A collision is detected within 64 bytes of the frame, the frames which are collided
will not be forwarded further.

Switching techniques
In large networks, there can be multiple paths from sender to receiver. The switching
technique will decide the best route for data transmission.

Switching technique is used to connect the systems for making one-to-one

communication.

Classification Of Switching Techniques

Circuit Switching
o Circuit switching is a switching technique that establishes a dedicated path
between sender and receiver.
o In the Circuit Switching Technique, once the connection is established then the
dedicated path will remain to exist until the connection is terminated.
o Circuit switching in a network operates in a similar way as the telephone works.
o A complete end-to-end path must exist before the communication takes place.
 o In case of circuit switching technique, when any user wants to send the data,
voice, video, a request signal is sent to the receiver then the receiver sends back
the acknowledgment to ensure the availability of the dedicated path. After
receiving the acknowledgment, dedicated path transfers the data.
o Circuit switching is used in public telephone network. It is used for voice
transmission.
o Fixed data can be transferred at a time in circuit switching technology.

Communication through circuit switching has 3 phases:

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o Circuit establishment
o Data transfer
o Circuit Disconnect

Circuit Switching can use either of the two technologies:

Space Division Switches:

o Space Division Switching is a circuit switching technology in which a single

transmission path is accomplished in a switch by using a physically separate set
of crosspoints.
o Space Division Switching can be achieved by using crossbar switch. A crossbar
switch is a metallic crosspoint or semiconductor gate that can be enabled or
disabled by a control unit.
 o The Crossbar switch is made by using the semiconductor. For example, Xilinx
crossbar switch using FPGAs.
o Space Division Switching has high speed, high capacity, and nonblocking
switches.

Space Division Switches can be categorized in two ways:

o Crossbar Switch
o Multistage Switch

Crossbar Switch

The Crossbar switch is a switch that has n input lines and n output lines. The crossbar
switch has n2 intersection points known as crosspoints.

Disadvantage of Crossbar switch:

The number of crosspoints increases as the number of stations is increased. Therefore, it

becomes very expensive for a large switch. The solution to this is to use a multistage
switch.

Multistage Switch

o Multistage Switch is made by splitting the crossbar switch into the smaller units
and then interconnecting them.
o It reduces the number of crosspoints.
o If one path fails, then there will be an availability of another path.

Advantages Of Circuit Switching:

o In the case of Circuit Switching technique, the communication channel is

dedicated.
o It has fixed bandwidth.

Disadvantages Of Circuit Switching:

o Once the dedicated path is established, the only delay occurs in the speed of
data transmission.
 o It takes a long time to establish a connection approx 10 seconds during which no
data can be transmitted.
o It is more expensive than other switching techniques as a dedicated path is
required for each connection.
o It is inefficient to use because once the path is established and no data is
transferred, then the capacity of the path is wasted.
o In this case, the connection is dedicated therefore no other data can be
transferred even if the channel is free.

Message Switching
o Message Switching is a switching technique in which a message is transferred as
a complete unit and routed through intermediate nodes at which it is stored and
forwarded.
o In Message Switching technique, there is no establishment of a dedicated path
between the sender and receiver.
o The destination address is appended to the message. Message Switching
provides a dynamic routing as the message is routed through the intermediate
nodes based on the information available in the message.
o Message switches are programmed in such a way so that they can provide the
most efficient routes.
o Each and every node stores the entire message and then forward it to the next
node. This type of network is known as store and forward network.
o Message switching treats each message as an independent entity.
Advantages Of Message Switching

o Data channels are shared among the communicating devices that improve the
efficiency of using available bandwidth.
o Traffic congestion can be reduced because the message is temporarily stored in
the nodes.
o Message priority can be used to manage the network.
o The size of the message which is sent over the network can be varied. Therefore,
it supports the data of unlimited size.

Disadvantages Of Message Switching

o The message switches must be equipped with sufficient storage to enable them
to store the messages until the message is forwarded.
o The Long delay can occur due to the storing and forwarding facility provided by
the message switching technique.

Packet Switching
o The packet switching is a switching technique in which the message is sent in one
go, but it is divided into smaller pieces, and they are sent individually.
o The message splits into smaller pieces known as packets and packets are given a
unique number to identify their order at the receiving end.
o Every packet contains some information in its headers such as source address,
destination address and sequence number.
o Packets will travel across the network, taking the shortest path as possible.
o All the packets are reassembled at the receiving end in correct order.
o If any packet is missing or corrupted, then the message will be sent to resend the
message.
o If the correct order of the packets is reached, then the acknowledgment message
will be sent.
Approaches Of Packet Switching:
There are two approaches to Packet Switching:

Datagram Packet switching:

o It is a packet switching technology in which packet is known as a datagram, is

considered as an independent entity. Each packet contains the information about
the destination and switch uses this information to forward the packet to the
correct destination.
o The packets are reassembled at the receiving end in correct order.
o In Datagram Packet Switching technique, the path is not fixed.
o Intermediate nodes take the routing decisions to forward the packets.
o Datagram Packet Switching is also known as connectionless switching.

Virtual Circuit Switching

o Virtual Circuit Switching is also known as connection-oriented switching.

o In the case of Virtual circuit switching, a preplanned route is established before
the messages are sent.
o Call request and call accept packets are used to establish the connection between
sender and receiver.
o In this case, the path is fixed for the duration of a logical connection.
Let's understand the concept of virtual circuit switching through a diagram:

o In the above diagram, A and B are the sender and receiver respectively. 1 and 2
are the nodes.
o Call request and call accept packets are used to establish a connection between
the sender and receiver.
o When a route is established, data will be transferred.
o After transmission of data, an acknowledgment signal is sent by the receiver that
the message has been received.
o If the user wants to terminate the connection, a clear signal is sent for the
termination.

Differences b/w Datagram approach and Virtual Circuit approach

Datagram approach Virtual Circuit approach

Node takes routing decisions to forward Node does not take any routing decision.
the packets.

Congestion cannot occur as all the packets Congestion can occur when the node is busy, and
travel in different directions. does not allow other packets to pass through.
It is more flexible as all the packets are It is not very flexible.
treated as an independent entity.

Advantages Of Packet Switching:

o Cost-effective: In packet switching technique, switching devices do not require

massive secondary storage to store the packets, so cost is minimized to some
extent. Therefore, we can say that the packet switching technique is a cost-
effective technique.
o Reliable: If any node is busy, then the packets can be rerouted. This ensures that
the Packet Switching technique provides reliable communication.
o Efficient: Packet Switching is an efficient technique. It does not require any
established path prior to the transmission, and many users can use the same
communication channel simultaneously, hence makes use of available bandwidth
very efficiently.

Disadvantages Of Packet Switching:

o Packet Switching technique cannot be implemented in those applications that

require low delay and high-quality services.
o The protocols used in a packet switching technique are very complex and
requires high implementation cost.
o If the network is overloaded or corrupted, then it requires retransmission of lost
packets. It can also lead to the loss of critical information if errors are nor
recovered.

Data Link Layer

o In the OSI model, the data link layer is a 4th layer from the top and 2nd layer from
the bottom.
o The communication channel that connects the adjacent nodes is known as links,
and in order to move the datagram from source to the destination, the datagram
must be moved across an individual link.
 o The main responsibility of the Data Link Layer is to transfer the datagram across
an individual link.
o The Data link layer protocol defines the format of the packet exchanged across
the nodes as well as the actions such as Error detection, retransmission, flow
control, and random access.
o The Data Link Layer protocols are Ethernet, token ring, FDDI and PPP.
o An important characteristic of a Data Link Layer is that datagram can be handled
by different link layer protocols on different links in a path. For example, the
datagram is handled by Ethernet on the first link, PPP on the second link.

Following services are provided by the Data Link Layer:

o Framing & Link access: Data Link Layer protocols encapsulate each network
frame within a Link layer frame before the transmission across the link. A frame
consists of a data field in which network layer datagram is inserted and a number
of data fields. It specifies the structure of the frame as well as a channel access
protocol by which frame is to be transmitted over the link.
o Reliable delivery: Data Link Layer provides a reliable delivery service, i.e.,
transmits the network layer datagram without any error. A reliable delivery
service is accomplished with transmissions and acknowledgements. A data link
layer mainly provides the reliable delivery service over the links as they have
 higher error rates and they can be corrected locally, link at which an error occurs
rather than forcing to retransmit the data.
o Flow control: A receiving node can receive the frames at a faster rate than it can
process the frame. Without flow control, the receiver's buffer can overflow, and
frames can get lost. To overcome this problem, the data link layer uses the flow
control to prevent the sending node on one side of the link from overwhelming
the receiving node on another side of the link.
o Error detection: Errors can be introduced by signal attenuation and noise. Data
Link Layer protocol provides a mechanism to detect one or more errors. This is
achieved by adding error detection bits in the frame and then receiving node can
perform an error check.
o Error correction: Error correction is similar to the Error detection, except that
receiving node not only detect the errors but also determine where the errors
have occurred in the frame.
o Half-Duplex & Full-Duplex: In a Full-Duplex mode, both the nodes can transmit
the data at the same time. In a Half-Duplex mode, only one node can transmit
the data at the same time.

Error Detection
When data is transmitted from one device to another device, the system does not
guarantee whether the data received by the device is identical to the data transmitted
by another device. An Error is a situation when the message received at the receiver end
is not identical to the message transmitted.

Types Of Errors

Errors can be classified into two categories:

 o Single-Bit Error
o Burst Error

Single-Bit Error:
The only one bit of a given data unit is changed from 1 to 0 or from 0 to 1.

In the above figure, the message which is sent is corrupted as single-bit, i.e., 0 bit is
changed to 1.

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Single-Bit Error does not appear more likely in Serial Data Transmission. For example,
Sender sends the data at 10 Mbps, this means that the bit lasts only for 1 ?s and for a
single-bit error to occurred, a noise must be more than 1 ?s.

Single-Bit Error mainly occurs in Parallel Data Transmission. For example, if eight wires
are used to send the eight bits of a byte, if one of the wire is noisy, then single-bit is
corrupted per byte.

Burst Error:
The two or more bits are changed from 0 to 1 or from 1 to 0 is known as Burst Error.

The Burst Error is determined from the first corrupted bit to the last corrupted bit.
The duration of noise in Burst Error is more than the duration of noise in Single-Bit.

Burst Errors are most likely to occurr in Serial Data Transmission.

The number of affected bits depends on the duration of the noise and data rate.

Error Detecting Techniques:

The most popular Error Detecting Techniques are:

o Single parity check

o Two-dimensional parity check
o Checksum
o Cyclic redundancy check

Single Parity Check

o Single Parity checking is the simple mechanism and inexpensive to detect the
errors.
o In this technique, a redundant bit is also known as a parity bit which is appended
at the end of the data unit so that the number of 1s becomes even. Therefore, the
total number of transmitted bits would be 9 bits.
o If the number of 1s bits is odd, then parity bit 1 is appended and if the number of
1s bits is even, then parity bit 0 is appended at the end of the data unit.
 o At the receiving end, the parity bit is calculated from the received data bits and
compared with the received parity bit.
o This technique generates the total number of 1s even, so it is known as even-
parity checking.

Drawbacks Of Single Parity Checking

o It can only detect single-bit errors which are very rare.

o If two bits are interchanged, then it cannot detect the errors.

Two-Dimensional Parity Check

 o Performance can be improved by using Two-Dimensional Parity Check which
organizes the data in the form of a table.
o Parity check bits are computed for each row, which is equivalent to the single-
parity check.
o In Two-Dimensional Parity check, a block of bits is divided into rows, and the
redundant row of bits is added to the whole block.
o At the receiving end, the parity bits are compared with the parity bits computed
from the received data.

Drawbacks Of 2D Parity Check

o If two bits in one data unit are corrupted and two bits exactly the same position
in another data unit are also corrupted, then 2D Parity checker will not be able to
detect the error.
o This technique cannot be used to detect the 4-bit errors or more in some cases.

Checksum
A Checksum is an error detection technique based on the concept of redundancy.

It is divided into two parts:

Checksum Generator
 A Checksum is generated at the sending side. Checksum generator subdivides the data
into equal segments of n bits each, and all these segments are added together by using
one's complement arithmetic. The sum is complemented and appended to the original
data, known as checksum field. The extended data is transmitted across the network.

Suppose L is the total sum of the data segments, then the checksum would be ?L

1. The Sender follows the given steps:  
2.   The block unit is divided into k sections, and each of n bits.  
3.   All the k sections are added together by using one's complement to get the sum.  
4.   The sum is complemented and it becomes the checksum field.  
5.   The original data and checksum field are sent across the network.  

Checksum Checker

A Checksum is verified at the receiving side. The receiver subdivides the incoming data
into equal segments of n bits each, and all these segments are added together, and then
this sum is complemented. If the complement of the sum is zero, then the data is
accepted otherwise data is rejected.

1. The Receiver follows the given steps:  
2.   The block unit is divided into k sections and each of n bits.  
3.   All the k sections are added together by using one's complement algorithm to get the 
sum.  
4.   The sum is complemented.  
5.   If the result of the sum is zero, then the data is accepted otherwise the data is discarde
d.  

Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)

CRC is a redundancy error technique used to determine the error.

Following are the steps used in CRC for error detection:

o In CRC technique, a string of n 0s is appended to the data unit, and this n number
is less than the number of bits in a predetermined number, known as division
which is n+1 bits.
o Secondly, the newly extended data is divided by a divisor using a process is
known as binary division. The remainder generated from this division is known as
CRC remainder.
o Thirdly, the CRC remainder replaces the appended 0s at the end of the original
data. This newly generated unit is sent to the receiver.
o The receiver receives the data followed by the CRC remainder. The receiver will
treat this whole unit as a single unit, and it is divided by the same divisor that was
used to find the CRC remainder.

If the resultant of this division is zero which means that it has no error, and the data is
accepted.

If the resultant of this division is not zero which means that the data consists of an error.
Therefore, the data is discarded.
Let's understand this concept through an example:

Suppose the original data is 11100 and divisor is 1001.

CRC Generator

o A CRC generator uses a modulo-2 division. Firstly, three zeroes are appended at
the end of the data as the length of the divisor is 4 and we know that the length
of the string 0s to be appended is always one less than the length of the divisor.
o Now, the string becomes 11100000, and the resultant string is divided by the
divisor 1001.
o The remainder generated from the binary division is known as CRC remainder.
The generated value of the CRC remainder is 111.
o CRC remainder replaces the appended string of 0s at the end of the data unit,
and the final string would be 11100111 which is sent across the network.
CRC Checker

o The functionality of the CRC checker is similar to the CRC generator.

o When the string 11100111 is received at the receiving end, then CRC checker
performs the modulo-2 division.
o A string is divided by the same divisor, i.e., 1001.
o In this case, CRC checker generates the remainder of zero. Therefore, the data is
accepted.

Data Link Controls

Data Link Control is the service provided by the Data Link Layer to provide reliable data
transfer over the physical medium. For example, In the half-duplex transmission mode,
one device can only transmit the data at a time. If both the devices at the end of the
links transmit the data simultaneously, they will collide and leads to the loss of the
information. The Data link layer provides the coordination among the devices so that no
collision occurs.
The Data link layer provides three functions:

o Line discipline
o Flow Control
o Error Control

Line Discipline
o Line Discipline is a functionality of the Data link layer that provides the
coordination among the link systems. It determines which device can send, and
when it can send the data.

Line Discipline can be achieved in two ways:

o ENQ/ACK
o Poll/select

END/ACK

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END/ACK stands for Enquiry/Acknowledgement is used when there is no wrong receiver

available on the link and having a dedicated path between the two devices so that the
device capable of receiving the transmission is the intended one.
END/ACK coordinates which device will start the transmission and whether the recipient
is ready or not.

Working of END/ACK

The transmitter transmits the frame called an Enquiry (ENQ) asking whether the receiver
is available to receive the data or not.

The receiver responses either with the positive acknowledgement(ACK) or with the
negative acknowledgement(NACK) where positive acknowledgement means that the
receiver is ready to receive the transmission and negative acknowledgement means that
the receiver is unable to accept the transmission.

Following are the responses of the receiver:

o If the response to the ENQ is positive, the sender will transmit its data, and once
all of its data has been transmitted, the device finishes its transmission with an
EOT (END-of-Transmission) frame.
o If the response to the ENQ is negative, then the sender disconnects and restarts
the transmission at another time.
o If the response is neither negative nor positive, the sender assumes that the ENQ
frame was lost during the transmission and makes three attempts to establish a
link before giving up.
Poll/Select

The Poll/Select method of line discipline works with those topologies where one device
is designated as a primary station, and other devices are secondary stations.

Working of Poll/Select

o In this, the primary device and multiple secondary devices consist of a single
transmission line, and all the exchanges are made through the primary device
even though the destination is a secondary device.
 o The primary device has control over the communication link, and the secondary
device follows the instructions of the primary device.
o The primary device determines which device is allowed to use the communication
channel. Therefore, we can say that it is an initiator of the session.
o If the primary device wants to receive the data from the secondary device, it asks
the secondary device that they anything to send, this process is known as polling.
o If the primary device wants to send some data to the secondary device, then it
tells the target secondary to get ready to receive the data, this process is known
as selecting.

Select

o The select mode is used when the primary device has something to send.
o When the primary device wants to send some data, then it alerts the secondary
device for the upcoming transmission by transmitting a Select (SEL) frame, one
field of the frame includes the address of the intended secondary device.
o When the secondary device receives the SEL frame, it sends an acknowledgement
that indicates the secondary ready status.
o If the secondary device is ready to accept the data, then the primary device sends
two or more data frames to the intended secondary device. Once the data has
been transmitted, the secondary sends an acknowledgement specifies that the
data has been received.
Poll

o The Poll mode is used when the primary device wants to receive some data from
the secondary device.
o When a primary device wants to receive the data, then it asks each device
whether it has anything to send.
o Firstly, the primary asks (poll) the first secondary device, if it responds with the
NACK (Negative Acknowledgement) means that it has nothing to send. Now, it
approaches the second secondary device, it responds with the ACK means that it
has the data to send. The secondary device can send more than one frame one
after another or sometimes it may be required to send ACK before sending each
one, depending on the type of the protocol being used.
Flow Control
o It is a set of procedures that tells the sender how much data it can transmit
before the data overwhelms the receiver.
o The receiving device has limited speed and limited memory to store the data.
Therefore, the receiving device must be able to inform the sending device to stop
the transmission temporarily before the limits are reached.
o It requires a buffer, a block of memory for storing the information until they are
processed.

Two methods have been developed to control the flow of data:

o Stop-and-wait
o Sliding window

Stop-and-wait
 o In the Stop-and-wait method, the sender waits for an acknowledgement after
every frame it sends.
o When acknowledgement is received, then only next frame is sent. The process of
alternately sending and waiting of a frame continues until the sender transmits
the EOT (End of transmission) frame.

Advantage of Stop-and-wait

The Stop-and-wait method is simple as each frame is checked and acknowledged

before the next frame is sent.

Disadvantage of Stop-and-wait

Stop-and-wait technique is inefficient to use as each frame must travel across all the
way to the receiver, and an acknowledgement travels all the way before the next frame
is sent. Each frame sent and received uses the entire time needed to traverse the link.

Sliding Window

o The Sliding Window is a method of flow control in which a sender can transmit
the several frames before getting an acknowledgement.
o In Sliding Window Control, multiple frames can be sent one after the another due
to which capacity of the communication channel can be utilized efficiently.
o A single ACK acknowledge multiple frames.
o Sliding Window refers to imaginary boxes at both the sender and receiver end.
o The window can hold the frames at either end, and it provides the upper limit on
the number of frames that can be transmitted before the acknowledgement.
o Frames can be acknowledged even when the window is not completely filled.
o The window has a specific size in which they are numbered as modulo-n means
that they are numbered from 0 to n-1. For example, if n = 8, the frames are
numbered from 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,0,1........
o The size of the window is represented as n-1. Therefore, maximum n-1 frames
can be sent before acknowledgement.
o When the receiver sends the ACK, it includes the number of the next frame that it
wants to receive. For example, to acknowledge the string of frames ending with
 frame number 4, the receiver will send the ACK containing the number 5. When
the sender sees the ACK with the number 5, it got to know that the frames from 0
through 4 have been received.

Sender Window

o At the beginning of a transmission, the sender window contains n-1 frames, and
when they are sent out, the left boundary moves inward shrinking the size of the
window. For example, if the size of the window is w if three frames are sent out,
then the number of frames left out in the sender window is w-3.
o Once the ACK has arrived, then the sender window expands to the number which
will be equal to the number of frames acknowledged by ACK.
o For example, the size of the window is 7, and if frames 0 through 4 have been
sent out and no acknowledgement has arrived, then the sender window contains
only two frames, i.e., 5 and 6. Now, if ACK has arrived with a number 4 which
means that 0 through 3 frames have arrived undamaged and the sender window
is expanded to include the next four frames. Therefore, the sender window
contains six frames (5,6,7,0,1,2).

Receiver Window
 o At the beginning of transmission, the receiver window does not contain n frames,
but it contains n-1 spaces for frames.
o When the new frame arrives, the size of the window shrinks.
o The receiver window does not represent the number of frames received, but it
represents the number of frames that can be received before an ACK is sent. For
example, the size of the window is w, if three frames are received then the
number of spaces available in the window is (w-3).
o Once the acknowledgement is sent, the receiver window expands by the number
equal to the number of frames acknowledged.
o Suppose the size of the window is 7 means that the receiver window contains
seven spaces for seven frames. If the one frame is received, then the receiver
window shrinks and moving the boundary from 0 to 1. In this way, window
shrinks one by one, so window now contains the six spaces. If frames from 0
through 4 have sent, then the window contains two spaces before an
acknowledgement is sent.

Error Control
Error Control is a technique of error detection and retransmission.

Categories of Error Control:

Stop-and-wait ARQ

Stop-and-wait ARQ is a technique used to retransmit the data in case of damaged or

lost frames.

This technique works on the principle that the sender will not transmit the next frame
until it receives the acknowledgement of the last transmitted frame.

Four features are required for the retransmission:

o The sending device keeps a copy of the last transmitted frame until the
acknowledgement is received. Keeping the copy allows the sender to retransmit
the data if the frame is not received correctly.
o Both the data frames and the ACK frames are numbered alternately 0 and 1 so
that they can be identified individually. Suppose data 1 frame acknowledges the
data 0 frame means that the data 0 frame has been arrived correctly and expects
to receive data 1 frame.
o If an error occurs in the last transmitted frame, then the receiver sends the NAK
frame which is not numbered. On receiving the NAK frame, sender retransmits
the data.
o It works with the timer. If the acknowledgement is not received within the allotted
time, then the sender assumes that the frame is lost during the transmission, so it
will retransmit the frame.

Two possibilities of the retransmission:

 o Damaged Frame: When the receiver receives a damaged frame, i.e., the frame
contains an error, then it returns the NAK frame. For example, when the data 0
frame is sent, and then the receiver sends the ACK 1 frame means that the data 0
has arrived correctly, and transmits the data 1 frame. The sender transmits the
next frame: data 1. It reaches undamaged, and the receiver returns ACK 0. The
sender transmits the next frame: data 0. The receiver reports an error and returns
the NAK frame. The sender retransmits the data 0 frame.
o Lost Frame: Sender is equipped with the timer and starts when the frame is
transmitted. Sometimes the frame has not arrived at the receiving end so that it
can be acknowledged neither positively nor negatively. The sender waits for
acknowledgement until the timer goes off. If the timer goes off, it retransmits the
last transmitted frame.

Sliding Window ARQ

SlidingWindow ARQ is a technique used for continuous transmission error control.

Three Features used for retransmission:

o In this case, the sender keeps the copies of all the transmitted frames until they
have been acknowledged. Suppose the frames from 0 through 4 have been
transmitted, and the last acknowledgement was for frame 2, the sender has to
keep the copies of frames 3 and 4 until they receive correctly.
o The receiver can send either NAK or ACK depending on the conditions. The NAK
frame tells the sender that the data have been received damaged. Since the
sliding window is a continuous transmission mechanism, both ACK and NAK must
be numbered for the identification of a frame. The ACK frame consists of a
number that represents the next frame which the receiver expects to receive. The
NAK frame consists of a number that represents the damaged frame.
o The sliding window ARQ is equipped with the timer to handle the lost
acknowledgements. Suppose then n-1 frames have been sent before receiving
any acknowledgement. The sender waits for the acknowledgement, so it starts
the timer and waits before sending any more. If the allotted time runs out, the
sender retransmits one or all the frames depending upon the protocol used.
Two protocols used in sliding window ARQ:

o Go-Back-n ARQ: In Go-Back-N ARQ protocol, if one frame is lost or damaged,

then it retransmits all the frames after which it does not receive the positive ACK.

Three possibilities can occur for retransmission:

o Damaged Frame: When the frame is damaged, then the receiver sends a NAK
frame.

In the above figure, three frames have been transmitted before an error discovered in
the third frame. In this case, ACK 2 has been returned telling that the frames 0,1 have
been received successfully without any error. The receiver discovers the error in data 2
frame, so it returns the NAK 2 frame. The frame 3 is also discarded as it is transmitted
after the damaged frame. Therefore, the sender retransmits the frames 2,3.
 o Lost Data Frame: In Sliding window protocols, data frames are sent sequentially.
If any of the frames is lost, then the next frame arrive at the receiver is out of
sequence. The receiver checks the sequence number of each of the frame,
discovers the frame that has been skipped, and returns the NAK for the missing
frame. The sending device retransmits the frame indicated by NAK as well as the
frames transmitted after the lost frame.
o Lost Acknowledgement: The sender can send as many frames as the windows
allow before waiting for any acknowledgement. Once the limit of the window is
reached, the sender has no more frames to send; it must wait for the
acknowledgement. If the acknowledgement is lost, then the sender could wait
forever. To avoid such situation, the sender is equipped with the timer that starts
counting whenever the window capacity is reached. If the acknowledgement has
not been received within the time limit, then the sender retransmits the frame
since the last ACK.

Selective-Reject ARQ

o Selective-Reject ARQ technique is more efficient than Go-Back-n ARQ.

o In this technique, only those frames are retransmitted for which negative
acknowledgement (NAK) has been received.
o The receiver storage buffer keeps all the damaged frames on hold until the frame
in error is correctly received.
o The receiver must have an appropriate logic for reinserting the frames in a correct
order.
o The sender must consist of a searching mechanism that selects only the
requested frame for retransmission.
o
Error Correction
Error Correction codes are used to detect and correct the errors when data is
transmitted from the sender to the receiver.

Error Correction can be handled in two ways:

o Backward error correction: Once the error is discovered, the receiver requests

the sender to retransmit the entire data unit.
o Forward error correction: In this case, the receiver uses the error-correcting
code which automatically corrects the errors.

A single additional bit can detect the error, but cannot correct it.

For correcting the errors, one has to know the exact position of the error. For example, If
we want to calculate a single-bit error, the error correction code will determine which
one of seven bits is in error. To achieve this, we have to add some additional redundant
bits.

7.6M
 158
OOPs Concepts in Java

Suppose r is the number of redundant bits and d is the total number of the data bits.
The number of redundant bits r can be calculated by using the formula:

2r>=d+r+1

The value of r is calculated by using the above formula. For example, if the value of d is
4, then the possible smallest value that satisfies the above relation would be 3.

To determine the position of the bit which is in error, a technique developed by R.W
Hamming is Hamming code which can be applied to any length of the data unit and
uses the relationship between data units and redundant units.

Hamming Code
Parity bits: The bit which is appended to the original data of binary bits so that the total
number of 1s is even or odd.

Even parity: To check for even parity, if the total number of 1s is even, then the value of
the parity bit is 0. If the total number of 1s occurrences is odd, then the value of the
parity bit is 1.

Odd Parity: To check for odd parity, if the total number of 1s is even, then the value of
parity bit is 1. If the total number of 1s is odd, then the value of parity bit is 0.

Algorithm of Hamming code:

o An information of 'd' bits are added to the redundant bits 'r' to form d+r.
o The location of each of the (d+r) digits is assigned a decimal value.
o The 'r' bits are placed in the positions 1,2,.....2 k-1.
o At the receiving end, the parity bits are recalculated. The decimal value of the
parity bits determines the position of an error.

Relationship b/w Error position & binary number.

 Let's understand the concept of Hamming code through an example:

Suppose the original data is 1010 which is to be sent.

Total number of data bits 'd' = 4

Number of redundant bits r : 2r >= d+r+1
2r>= 4+r+1
Therefore, the value of r is 3 that satisfies the above relation.
Total number of bits = d+r = 4+3 = 7;

Determining the position of the redundant bits

The number of redundant bits is 3. The three bits are represented by r1, r2, r4. The
position of the redundant bits is calculated with corresponds to the raised power of 2.
Therefore, their corresponding positions are 1, 21, 22.

1. The position of r1 = 1  
2. The position of r2 = 2  
3. The position of r4 = 4  

Representation of Data on the addition of parity bits:

Determining the Parity bits

Determining the r1 bit
The r1 bit is calculated by performing a parity check on the bit positions whose binary
representation includes 1 in the first position.

We observe from the above figure that the bit positions that includes 1 in the first
position are 1, 3, 5, 7. Now, we perform the even-parity check at these bit positions. The
total number of 1 at these bit positions corresponding to r1 is even, therefore, the
value of the r1 bit is 0.

Determining r2 bit
The r2 bit is calculated by performing a parity check on the bit positions whose binary
representation includes 1 in the second position.

We observe from the above figure that the bit positions that includes 1 in the second
position are 2, 3, 6, 7. Now, we perform the even-parity check at these bit positions. The
total number of 1 at these bit positions corresponding to r2 is odd, therefore, the
value of the r2 bit is 1.

Determining r4 bit
The r4 bit is calculated by performing a parity check on the bit positions whose binary
representation includes 1 in the third position.
We observe from the above figure that the bit positions that includes 1 in the third
position are 4, 5, 6, 7. Now, we perform the even-parity check at these bit positions. The
total number of 1 at these bit positions corresponding to r4 is even, therefore, the
value of the r4 bit is 0.

Data transferred is given below:

Suppose the 4th bit is changed from 0 to 1 at the receiving end, then parity bits are
recalculated.

R1 bit
The bit positions of the r1 bit are 1,3,5,7

We observe from the above figure that the binary representation of r1 is 1100. Now, we
perform the even-parity check, the total number of 1s appearing in the r1 bit is an even
number. Therefore, the value of r1 is 0.
R2 bit
The bit positions of r2 bit are 2,3,6,7.

We observe from the above figure that the binary representation of r2 is 1001. Now, we
perform the even-parity check, the total number of 1s appearing in the r2 bit is an even
number. Therefore, the value of r2 is 0.

R4 bit
The bit positions of r4 bit are 4,5,6,7.

We observe from the above figure that the binary representation of r4 is 1011. Now, we
perform the even-parity check, the total number of 1s appearing in the r4 bit is an odd
number. Therefore, the value of r4 is 1.

o The binary representation of redundant bits, i.e., r4r2r1 is 100, and its
corresponding decimal value is 4. Therefore, the error occurs in a 4 th bit position.
The bit value must be changed from 1 to 0 to correct the error.