Classification of Images

Module by: Scott Harrison, Jeremy Beasley, Brent Carroll, Richard Baraniuk. E-mail the
authors

User rating (How does the rating system work?)

Ratings

Ratings allow you to judge the quality of modules. If other users have ranked the module then
its average rating is displayed below. Ratings are calculated on a scale from one star (Poor) to
five stars (Excellent).

How to rate a module

Hover over the star that corresponds to the rating you wish to assign. Click on the star to add
your rating. Your rating should be based on the quality of the content. You must have an
account and be logged in to rate content.

:
(0 ratings)

Summary: This is our group's scheme for classifying both our database and scanned library of
fingerprint images. We discuss both signal processing methods and physical classification
methods.

Links
[hide links]

Prerequisite links

 Optimization of Image Recognition: Fingerprint Matching

Supplemental links

 Cleared for Access

 MATLAB Code
 Full Correlation

Figure 1: This graph is the result of full

correlation between two images.

Now that we have tested both the time and frequency domains, we will look into ways the
process can be optimized. The first method is similar to the FFT Method already discussed.
However, to improve the robustness of the process, a Rotation Matrix can be added to the
mix. The second process involves non-signal processing procedures and classifying images
according to their physical properties.

Straightforward Matching through Signal Processing

The first method to improve the image matching process is the "FFT Method" already
discussed, with one major addition: a Rotation Matrix. Normal Fourier analysis only works in
two dimensions. However, a scanned inmage will, more often than not, be oriented at a
certain angle from the normal.

Improved Correlation

Using the library of Matlab files at our disposal, the scanned image is first "passed through"
the rotational matrix to get an array of matrices. Each matrix in this array corresponds to a
different angular orientation. (The range of the angle can be user set.) From this point, each
matrix in the array is compared to the database image matrix. Again, like in the FFT Method,
the maximum point is obtained to find the point of highest correlation. The matrix that
contains the largest correlation is the angle that matches most closely to the database image.
The process follows these steps:
FFT Method w/ Rotation Matrix

1. Pass scanned image through a rotation matrix of user set range

2. Place each resultant orientation matrix into an array
3. Perform the FFT Method on each matrix in the array, against the database image
4. Identify the maximum value (highest correlation) and the matrix (image) that a
"match" would correspond to.

Like the other processes this method comes with both advantages and disadvantages:

Properties of the Rotation + FFT Method

 Advantages: Much more robust and likely to get a match compared to the regular FFT
method; Doesn't take as much time as Spatial Method
 Disadvantages: While it doesn't take as much time as the spatial method, it is slower
than the basic FFT method. Also, as the number of increments in the angle range
increase, the slower this method gets. Has the potential to become slower than the
spatial method.

Classification by Physical Properties

The second form of optimizing classification is kind of a step in the opposiet direction from
ordinary signal processing. Whereas all the previous methods dealt with find the correlation
between two photos, this type of classification is a minutiae-based approach . This
classification separates fingerprints into different types, as seen below.

Fingerprint Types

Figure 2: These are the different types of

fingerprint patters
From the initial classification of the fingerprint as a certain type, the image is then broken
down into various components or properties. These minutiae are then compared to similar
properties of the database image.
 Properties of a Fingerprint

Figure 3: Properties of a fingerprint when

using a minutiae-based approach
Minutiae-Based Matching

Figure 4: When using a minutiae-based

approach, individual properties of the
fingerprint are matched, instead of using the
correlation of values.
In theory, when used in conjunction with the Rotation + FFT Method, the minutiae_based
approach will speed up the indentification/verification process. The idea behind this theory is,
that if an image is classified into a cetain type of fingerprint pattern, will only be compared to
images in the database of the same type. Then, the Rotation + FFT Method can be performed
on this subset of images, instead so comparing the scanned image to the entire database.

Caveat:

The database must be large for this fusion of methods to produce faster results.
Properties of Minutiae-Based Method

 Advantages: Given the resources, this method is the best, with the highest matching
capabilty; When used in conjunction with Fourier methods, can speed up the
identification process.
 Disadvantages: Has a large dependence on the image quality and size of the scanned
fingerprints; Can be expensive in processor and monetary terms; Database must be
large in order for this process to be effective.

Additional Optimization
It has been shown how additional optimization schemes have helped distinct performance
features of our biometric authentication process:

 The frequency domain is the processing domain of choice due to the lower
computational complexity thus greater computation speed.
 The dynamic rotational matrix utilizes orientation shifts rather than vertical and
horizontal shifts. It was necessary to add this feature since the 2D-convolution is not a
very robust scheme considering orientation shifts in fingerprint placements. Although
this method is more complex since it has the complexity of N*O(frequency domain)
(O = computational complexity), it is a more robust method ensuring that carelessness
of the end user does not result in unwanted errors.

While the strengths of these primary optimization schemes are clear, another optimization
method was developed considering their weaknesses: deblurring method. What happens if an
image is scanned and the digital image is blurred such that the distinguishable ridges of the
fingerprint can no longer be extracted? Regardless of the computational advantages of the
other methods, it can be shown that this roadblock is dependent on the technology used to
implement the biometric solution. Therefore, a deblurring method was developed to help
minimize the dependency of the scanning technology used. It is implemented by the
following steps:

 Noise is simulated with a point spread function using MATLAB motion blur.
 Deconvolution of the image and the simulated noise is then performed to obtain a
“deblurred” image.

It is clear that the advantage of this optimization is that blurred images will be restored to a
better state so that they can be matched. However, it should be pointed out that this method is
not a cure-all for lack of appropriate technology. While this method will correct certain noise
characteristics, it is also dependent on the level of blur of the image and the simulation of the
noise of the image. Therefore deblurring optimization should not be a crutch of the biometric
solution but rather another level of error precaution. Conclusively, each optimization
individually possesses distinct advantages over the other. However, given certain standard
resources (i.e. processing power, physical memory, etc.), a very robust biometric solution can
be implemented with these optimization tools.
13th INTERPOL Forensic Science Symposium, Lyon, France, October 16-19 2001
The Detection and Enhancement of Latent Fingerprints
Dr Chris Lennard
Forensic Services
Australian Federal Police
GPO Box 401
Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia
13th INTERPOL Forensic Science Symposium, Lyon, France, October 16-19 2001
INTRODUCTION
Despite advances made in areas such as DNA profiling, fingerprints are still
considered to be the best form of personal identification for criminal investigation
purposes. Fingerprint detection has improved significantly over the last 20 years
due to concerted efforts by a number of research groups around the world. The
purpose of this presentation is to give an overview of the current techniques
available to law enforcement agencies for the routine detection and enhancement of
latent fingermarks on different surfaces.
Areas to be covered in this talk will include:
􀀐􀀃 a general approach to fingerprint detection and enhancement;
􀀐􀀃 the importance of optical techniques and specialised light sources;
􀀐􀀃 the types of fingerprint evidence that may be encountered;
􀀐􀀃 the detection of fingerprints on porous surfaces;
􀀐􀀃 the detection of fingerprints on non-porous surfaces;
􀀐􀀃 fingerprint detection at the crime scene;
􀀐􀀃 sequencing of fingerprint detection techniques with other forensic
procedures; and,
􀀐􀀃 future prospects.
GENERAL APPROACH TO FINGERPRINT DETECTION AND ENHANCEMENT
A wide range of optical, physical and chemical techniques is available for the
detection and enhancement of latent fingermarks. The best results are generally
obtained if a logical sequence of techniques is applied. The application of more than
one technique or reagent can often increase the number of prints detected, or
improve the quality of those already developed. However, it is imperative that each
process is applied in a systematic, predetermined order as the incorrect choice or
application of one method can preclude the later use of another technique or lessen
its effectiveness.
For a given set of circumstances, the choice of the best detection techniques, or
sequence of techniques, will depend on several factors that include:
􀀐􀀃 the nature of the surface (eg, porous, non-porous, rough or smooth);
􀀐􀀃 the presence of any particular contaminants (eg, blood);
􀀐􀀃 environmental factors (eg, whether or not the surface is or has been wet);
and,
􀀐􀀃 the likely age of any evidential fingermarks.
In any fingerprint detection sequence, heavy emphasis should be placed on optical
techniques, as these are non-destructive and may significantly improve the results
obtained by physical or chemical methods. Other techniques must be applied with
caution, and developed prints recorded at each opportunity, as fingermarks are
fragile and readily destroyed.
D2- 86
13th INTERPOL Forensic Science Symposium, Lyon, France, October 16-19 2001
Several publications are available that describe systematic approaches to
fingerprint development on different surfaces. These include:
􀀐􀀃 the UK Police Scientific Development Branch publications .Manual of
Fingerprint Development Techniques. and .Fingerprint Development
Handbook.;
􀀐􀀃 Lee and Gaensslen.s recent edition of .Advances in Fingerprint
Technology.; and,
􀀐􀀃 Our own workshop manual on fingerprint detection and enhancement.
(A limited number of copies of this publication are available at this
symposium and additional copies can be obtained directly from the
Australian Federal Police.)
OPTICAL TECHNIQUES AND SPECIALISED LIGHT SOURCES
The simple observation of an object under white light may disclose a visible
fingermark that can be recorded without any further treatment. On the other hand,
more complex optical detection methods may reveal otherwise invisible prints that
may not be developed by other techniques. A fingerprint detection sequence should
always start with optical techniques. In addition, prints developed using a physical
or chemical process can generally be further enhanced using an appropriate optical
method depending on the characteristics of the treated marks (eg. colour or
luminescence).
The value of fingerprint luminescence has become well understood since it was first
studied in the late 1970.s. While latent fingermarks are rarely luminescent, a
number of modern detection techniques result in the generation of luminescent
prints. The heavy emphasis on luminescence is due to the much higher sensitivity
that can be achieved when compared to conventional processes that result in a
coloured print.
The application of luminescence techniques requires the use of high-intensity light
sources. While large, expensive, laboratory-based lasers were proposed in the early
1980.s for this work, there are now a number of versatile, cost-effective alternatives
such as filtered arc lamps. Within the Australian Federal Police, our principal light
source for fingerprint detection and enhancement is the Polilight, an Australian
system that resulted from AFP-funded research conducted in the 1980.s. This light
source is portable and provides a range of high-intensity light bands from the
ultraviolet through to the near infrared. In addition, each band can be fine-tuned
through the tilting of high-quality interference filters built into the system. This
function has now been duplicated in other light sources on the market. Alternatives
to the Polilight include the Spex, the Quaser, the Dactylight, and portable lasers
such as the Scene Sweeper. Lasers are restrictive in that they only operate at a
limited number of wavelengths.
D2- 87
13th INTERPOL Forensic Science Symposium, Lyon, France, October 16-19 2001
Ultraviolet reflection techniques have proven to be useful for detecting latent
fingermarks on a number of surfaces. Unfortunately, UV imaging equipment is still
relatively expensive and the technique requires the use of short-wavelength UV
light. This can be damaging to the skin and eyes, and prolonged use may interfere
with any subsequent DNA profiling.
TYPES OF FINGERPRINT EVIDENCE
There are three main types of fingerprint evidence that may be present at a crime
scene. The first is the indented (or moulded) fingermark, which is a 3-dimentional
fingertip impression in a malleable substance such as putty or candle wax. Such
impressions can generally be enhanced using oblique lighting. The second type is the
visible fingermark, which may be positive or negative depending on whether the
fingers were contaminated with a coloured material (such as blood), or whether
coloured material (such as dust or soot) has been removed from the surface by the
fingerprint ridges. Enhancement of such marks can often be achieved optically,
depending on the properties of the contaminant in question. Blood is a special case
where specific optical and chemical enhancement procedures exit.
The most common type of fingerprint evidence, and the one that causes the most
problem, is the latent fingermark. Such marks are largely invisible, and generally
require some form of physical or chemical treatment to differentiate them from the
substrate material. A typical latent fingerprint deposit is a complex mixture of
natural secretions and contaminants from the environment. Knowledge of the major
constituents of this deposit is essential for effective fingerprint detection.
Consideration of how these constituents are affected by different environmental
conditions is also important.
The detection of latent fingermarks is actually quite a challenging analytical
problem. What is required is the detection of very small quantities of specific
chemical compounds. In general terms, fingerprint powders are the least sensitive of
the available techniques, with 500 to 1000 ng of material required in the latent mark
for successful detection. Colour development using a chemical process such as
ninhydrin normally requires 100 to 200 ng of material. On the other hand,
luminescence detection using a chemical reagent such as DFO is sensitive down to
the 1 to 10 ng range.
Latent fingermark deposits behave differently on different substrate types. In
addition, some detection techniques are effective on some surfaces but not on others.
As a result, the surface type is a major consideration when selecting a sequence of
fingerprint detection techniques for a particular set of circumstances.
D2- 88
13th INTERPOL Forensic Science Symposium, Lyon, France, October 16-19 2001
DETECTION OF FINGERPRINTS ON POROUS SURFACES
A typical sequence for porous surfaces such as paper and cardboard is given in the
flow chart. Following the application of optical techniques, the choice of
development method will depend on whether or not the item has been wet. If the
item has been wet then water-soluble component of the latent fingerprint deposit
will no longer be present. In such a case, physical developer will be the method of
choice. In other cases, techniques that can be applied include DFO, ninhydrin, and
metal salt treatment. Physical developer can then be applied at the end of the
sequence.
Ninhydrin is a chemical reagent that reacts with amino acids to give a dark purple
coloured product known as Ruhemann.s Purple. First proposed for fingerprint
development in 1954, ninhydrin has become the most widely used technique for
fingerprint detection on paper surfaces. The treatment generally involves dipping
the items in a ninhydrin solution and then leaving the prints to develop over 24 to 48
hours. Prints more that 50 years of age have been developed by this process.
Over the last 30 years, different carrier solvents for ninhydrin formulations have
been proposed, the most well known and the most successful being CFC-113, also
known as Arklone of Fluorisol. Being an ozone-depleting substance, this solvent is
no longer manufactured and its use is now prohibited in a large number of
countries. Ideally the carrier solvent should be non-toxic, non-flammable, non-polar
(so that ink running on documents in minimised), and relatively inexpensive.
Alternatives such as pentane or hexane are to be avoided due to their high
flammability. As well as being flammable, solvents such as acetone cause excessive
ink running on treated documents. Several research groups around the world have
studied CFC-replacement solvents such as HFE-7100 and HFC-4310 and a number
of formulations based on these two alternatives are now in use. Unfortunately, both
of these solvents are expensive, which limits their use in some laboratories.
Fingermarks treated with ninhydrin can be further enhanced by treatment with a
zinc or cadmium salt solution. The coordination complex that is formed results in a
colour change and gives a print that is luminescent under certain conditions. At low
temperature and with appropriate excitation from a high-intensity light source
considerable fingerprint enhancement can be achieved.
D2- 89
13th INTERPOL Forensic Science Symposium, Lyon, France, October 16-19 2001
In 1990, the chemical reagent 1,8-diaza-9-fluorenone, commonly known as DFO,
became available as a more sensitive technique for fingerprint detection on paper.
DFO reacts with amino acids in the latent fingermark in much the same manner as
for ninhydrin. However, heat is required for successful development and the
reaction product is much paler in colour than that achieved with ninhydrin. The
advantage of DFO is that developed prints are highly luminescent at room
temperature without any additional treatment. Studies have shown that up to three
times the number of fingerprints can be developed with DFO in comparison with
ninhydrin. DFO can be used before but not after ninhydrin processing. The
disadvantages of DFO include the requirement for a specialised light source, the
relative high cost of the reagent, and the unsuitability of the technique for
luminescent substrates.
Physical developer is a technique that can be applied on porous surfaces that have
been wet or as an additional treatment after DFO and ninhydrin processing. PD is
an aqueous solution similar to a silver-based photographic developer. When a
document is placed in the reagent, silver is deposited from the solution onto any
latent fingermarks that may be present. This deposition is catalysed by waterinsoluble
components of the deposit. Developed prints appear as dark grey images
against a light grey background.
The PD solution contains a ferrous/ferric redox system plus silver nitrate and citric
acid, stabilised by a surfactant. Once prepared, the solution is unstable and has a
short shelf life. Although time-consuming to prepare and apply, PD can give results
where other techniques are unsuccessful. Even if documents have not been wet, the
use of PD after DFO and ninhydrin is advised for all serious cases as it may reveal
addition fingerprint detail.
DETECTION OF FINGERPRINTS ON NON-POROUS SURFACES
Typical non-porous surfaces include glass, plastic, metal, and gloss-painted surfaces.
A range of techniques can be applied to such surfaces, with the main techniques
indicated in the flow chart. As for any fingerprint detection sequence, optical
techniques should be employed before applying any other treatment. For fixed
surfaces at the crime scene, powdering is still entrenched as the primary fingerprint
detection method despite its low sensitivity. For wet surfaces at the crime scene,
small particle reagent can be employed as a wet powdering method applied with a
spray. Items that can be transported should be returned to the laboratory for
processing. Cyanoacrylate fuming has, since the late 1970.s, become a popular
laboratory-based technique for the routine treatment of non-porous surfaces.
Developed prints can be subsequently enhanced by the application of a luminescent
stain. Alternatively, for laboratories where it is available, vacuum metal deposition
can be particularly effective for older prints or for difficult surfaces.
D2- 90
13th INTERPOL Forensic Science Symposium, Lyon, France, October 16-19 2001
Fingerprint powdering has changed little as a detection technique over the last 20
years. It is still the most cost-effective method for treating fixed surfaces at a crime
scene. A range of different powders and different brushes are available and the
choice generally comes down to personal preference based on experience.
Aluminium flake powders have long been considered to be particularly effective,
while magnetic powders, applied using a magnetic wand, are considered to be the
least destructive. The recent development of iron flake powders has increased the
sensitivity of magnetic powders. For multicoloured surfaces, a range of different
luminescent powders is available.
Wet non-porous surfaces at a crime scene can be treated using small particle
reagent, a suspension of molybdenum disulfide in a detergent solution. The
suspension is generally applied with a spray and then rinsed with water to remove
excess powder. Developed prints are dark grey in powder. A white small particle
reagent, based on zinc carbonate powder, has also been developed for dark surfaces.
Cyanoacrylate esters, sold commercially as quick-setting .superglue., have proven
effective for developing latent fingermarks on non-porous surfaces. The object is
treated with cyanoacrylate vapour, resulting in the formation of a hard white
polymer on any latent print deposit that may be present. It is believed that the
polymerisation is catalysed by moisture and ionic material present in the deposit.
Fuming with cyanoacrylate can be achieved by several means, from inexpensive
home-made chambers through to large, expensive commercial units. Portable
fuming systems are also available. As apposed to development achieved at
atmospheric pressure, a number of research groups have reported superior results
when cyanoacrylate development is conducted at reduced pressure.
Contrast is often a problem with marks developed by cyanoacrylate fuming. Some
form of enhancement is generally required. There are optical methods for
enhancing such prints that should be employed before any further processing.
Contrast may then be improved by the application of a powder or, preferably, the
application of a luminescent stain such as rhodamine 6G. Luminescent staining can
significantly enhance cyanoacrylate-develop prints.
Probably the most sensitive technique for fingerprint detection on non-porous
surfaces such as glass and plastic is vacuum metal deposition. In this process, the
item is placed under vacuum and coated with thin layers of gold and zinc. The
deposited gold penetrates the latent fingerprint deposit producing a uniform layer,
whereas the zinc will generally deposit on the substrate but not on the print ridges.
VMD units necessary for the application of this technique are expensive and their
use requires significant experience for optimum results. When applied correctly,
excellent results can be obtained even on old, degraded fingermarks.
D2- 91
13th INTERPOL Forensic Science Symposium, Lyon, France, October 16-19 2001
VMD can be effective on difficult surfaces where other techniques fail. Polymer
banknotes are in circulation in Australia and a number of other countries, including
New Zealand, Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand, and Singapore. This substrate,
because of its semi-porous nature, has proven difficult for latent fingerprint
detection. Extensive research in our laboratory has determined that the best
sequence for fingerprint detection involves cyanoacrylate fuming followed by
vacuum metal deposition and application of a luminescent stain. Prints more than 6-
months old have been developed using this sequence. Cyanoacrylate fuming alone
will only detect prints that are up to one week old.
FINGERPRINT DETECTION AT THE CRIME SCENE
The general approach to fingerprint detection at the crime scene is to apply optical
techniques initially, to transport items back to the laboratory for processing where
possible, and to treat the remaining surfaces with a suitable development technique
(or sequence of techniques). For non-porous surfaces, fingerprint powders are
traditionally the method of choice. Porous surfaces, such as wallpaper, can be
treated with a ninhydrin solution. For scenes of a more serious nature, chemical
processing with a technique such as the iodine/benzoflavone spray may be
considered. This technique can successful develop prints on a range of porous, semiporous,
and non-porous surfaces. In addition, iodine/benzoflavone treatment does
not preclude subsequent powdering or ninhydrin treatment. At the end of the
sequence, blood enhancement reagents (such as amido black) may be applied if
blood marks are present.
SEQUENCING OF FINGERPRINT DETECTION TECHNIQUES WITH OTHER
FORENSIC PROCEDURES
Fingerprint detection should not be considered in isolation from other forms of
forensic evidence. The effect of fingerprint treatment on other examinations must be
taken into consideration. With respect to document examination, solvent-based
reagents such as ninhydrin and DFO may cause ink-running on treated documents
and may destroy any indented impressions that may be present. A document
examiner should be consulted before processing any documents that may require
detailed document examination.
D2- 92
13th INTERPOL Forensic Science Symposium, Lyon, France, October 16-19 2001
The effect of different fingerprint treatments on DNA profiling is very topical and
has been the subject of many research projects using blood as the DNA source. For
fingermarks in blood, we have found that only a small number of detection methods
may cause problems. For example, the prolonged use of short-wave UV light may
destroy any DNA evidence. Physical developer can significantly reduce the
likelihood of successful DNA profiling simply because of the number of washing
steps involved in the process. Magnetic powder may interfere with DNA
amplification. Otherwise, fingerprint treatment may simply lower the final DNA
yield. The best advice is to consult with a forensic biologist before proceeding and, if
possible, to collect a biological sample before processing the item for fingerprints.
The effects of fingerprint processing on .trace. DNA has not been extensively
studied and more research is required in this area. One such project is currently
under way in our laboratory.
FUTURE PROSPECTS
To conclude this presentation, we believe that future prospects in the field of
fingerprint detection and enhancement include the following:
the replacement of ninhydrin and DFO with indanediones for fingerprint detection
on porous surfaces (as these compounds combine the ease of application of
ninhydrin and the sensitivity of DFO but at a potentially lower cost);
the increased use of on-site optical and chemical enhancement techniques with
reliance on high-intensity specialised light sources and UV-imaging equipment; and,
the increased use of digital recording and image enhancement techniques.
These advances will be complimented by better information technology to facilitate
the remote, real-time searching of scene fingermarks against automated fingerprint
identification systems.
D2- 93
13th INTERPOL Forensic Science Symposium, Lyon, France, October 16-19 2001
Section on Hairs . Addendum to Biological Evidence Item
James Robertson
13th INTERPOL Forensic Science Symposium, Lyon, France, October 16-19 2001
A number of significant events have taken place since the 1998 symposium, in
relation to hair examination.
The first book has been published (Robertson, 1999) which deals exclusively with
the forensic examination of hair. The contents include chapters on physiology and
growth, forensic and microscopic examination, typing of DNA, elemental analysis,
drug analysis, cosmetic treatment, and the evidential value of hair examination. A
very useful Atlas of Human Hair has also been published (Ogle & Fox, 1999). These
two books are valuable resources for those seeking to learn more about the basis for
forensic hair examination.
Technical guidelines for the forensic examination of hair have been produced by the
US based Scientific Working Group for Materials Analysis (SWGMAT). The US
National Forensic Science and Technology Centre (NFSTC) are currently working
on an approach to produce physical standards and exemplars for hair features
which can be used for training and for proficiency testing. It is anticipated these
will be available in 2002.
There have only been a limited number of papers in the scientific literature dealing
specifically with microscopic based examination of hairs. Crocker (1998) describes
a very simple technique for the rapid simultaneous examination of medullae and
cuticular patterns of hairs. A useful paper by Linch et al (1998) evaluates human
hair root morphology for successful nuclear DNA typing. Linch and Prahlow (2001)
review post-mortem changes observed at the proximal end of human head hair
concluding that hair roots do not decompose after fresh removal from the scalp and
exposure to the outside elements.
Literature dealing with mitochondrial (mt) DNA is dealt with elsewhere in this
review. With respect to hairs De Zinno et al (1999) review the typing of DNA
derived from hairs with particular emphasis on mt-DNA. Allen et al (1998) discuss
sensitivity and matching probabilities for mt-DNA sequencing of shed hairs and
saliva from robbery caps. Jehaes et al (1998) evaluate a decontamination protocol
for hair shafts before mt-DNA sequencing. Baker et al (2001) discuss a saliva based
mt-DNA extraction method applied to hair shafts and teeth. Fridey et al (1999)
question the validity for the use of mt-DNA to individualise cats and dogs due to the
very high levels of heteroplasmy.
D2- 95
13th INTERPOL Forensic Science Symposium, Lyon, France, October 16-19 2001
A series of short reviews on hair appear in the Encyclopaedia of Forensic Sciences
(2000). Gandette presents an overview and papers on hair transfer, persistence and
recovery, identification of human and animal hair and on the significance of hair
evidence. Bisbing discusses microscopic comparison and Yoshino et al, DNA typing.
These short papers give an excellent introduction to hairs. Kintz in the Drugs of
Abuse section of the Encyclopaedia of Forensic Sciences discussed the use of hair for
drug analysis. Drug analysis using hair is also reviewed by Tebbett in Chapter 5 of
The Forensic Examination of Hair (Robertson, 2000). There have been numerous
papers dealing with different aspects of hairs as a medium for drug analysis.
As this is outside the scope of this review these are not listed. From time to time
papers presented at the International Meeting of the Society of Hair Testing are
published. The most recent compilation appeared in 2000 as a special edition of
Forensic Science International, Volume 10, Parts 1-3, 1.394. Some other papers of
interest include:
􀀐􀀃Andrea et al, 1998, dealing with the transfer of animal hair during simulated
criminal behaviour;
􀀐􀀃Panayiotou and Kokot, 1999, dealing with the use of FT-IR micro spectroscopy
and chemometrics to match and discriminate single human scalp hairs;
􀀐􀀃Prokopec et al, 2000, dealing with changes in hair pigmentation in young
children;
􀀐􀀃Tanada et al, 1999, dealing with GC/MC analysis of oxidation dye components in
hairs; and
􀀐􀀃Exline, 1998, dealing with the frequency of pubic hair transfer during sexual
intercourse.
This review does not include papers appearing in the general medical literature.
However, one paper of special interest by Ahmad et al (1998) deals with a mutation
in the human hairless gene associated with one form of male pattern baldness.
Finally, there have been a number of .discussion. fora in the worldwide web on the
value of hair evidence and in relation to specific cases. Most of these are cases from
the USA and relate to issues arising from rules of evidence relating to Daubert.
In conclusion it is now clear that whilst mt-DNA is a useful addition to the armoury
of the hair examiner it is an expensive technique and that microscopic examination
will remain as the core technique for hair examination. There is also a wider
recognition of the need for more proficiency testing and greater standardisation and
.tools. to place hair examination on a sounder science base to meet the challenges
arising out of Daubert.
D2- 96
13th INTERPOL Forensic Science Symposium, Lyon, France, October 16-19 2001
AHMAD, W., UL HAQUE, M. F., BRANCOLI, V., TSOU, H. B., UL HAQUE, S.,
LAM, H., AITA, V. M., OWEN, J., DE BLAQUIERE, W., FRANK, J.,
LESERHALMI-FRIEDMAN, P. B., LEASK, A., MCGRATH, J. A., PEACOCKE,
M., AHMAD, M., OTT, J. and CHRISTIANO, A. M., 1998,
Alopecia Universalis Associated with a Mutation in the Human Hairless Gene,
Science, 279, 720-724.
ALLEN, M., ENGSTROM, A., MEYERS, S., HANDT, O., SALDEEN, T.,
HAESELER, A., PAABO, S. and GYLLENSTEN, M., 1998,
Mitochondrial DNA Sequencing of Shed Hairs and Saliva on Robbery
Caps : Sensitivity and Matching Probabilities, J. Forens. Sci., 43, 453-464.
ANONYMOUS, 2000,
Encyclopaedia of Forensic Sciences, in Siegel, J. A. (ed in chief) Saukku, P. J. and
Kuupfer, G. B. (eds), Hair, 999-1041 and, in Kintry, P. (ed.), Drugs of Abuse - Hair,
640-645, London: Academic Press.
ANONYMOUS, 1999,
Forensic Human Hair Identification and Comparison Guidelines, Scientific
Working Group for Materials Analysis (SWGMAT).
BAKER, L. E., MCCORMICK, W. F. and MATTESON, K. L., 2001,
A Silica-Based Mitochondrial DNA Extraction Method Applied to Forensic Hair
Shafts and Teeth, J. Forens. Sci., 46, 126-130.
CROCKER, E. J., 1998,
A New Technique for the Rapid Simultaneous Examination of Medullae and
Cuticular Patterns of Hair, Microscope, 46, 169-173.
D.ANDREA, F., FRIDEY, F. and COQUOY, R., 1998,
Preliminary Experiments on the Transfer of Animal Hair During Simulated
Criminal Behaviour, J. Forens. Sci., 43, 1257-1258.
DI ZINNO, J. A., WILSON, M. R. and BUDOWLE, B., 1999,
Typing of DNA Derived from Hairs, in Robertson, J. (ed.), The Forensic
Examination of Hair, Chapter 3, 155-174, London: Taylor & Francis.
EXLINE, D. L., SMITH, F. P. and DREXLER, S. G., 1998,
Frequency of Pubic Hair Transfer During Sexual Intercourse, J. Forens. Sci., 43,
505-508.
FRIDEY, F., ROCHAT, S. and COQUOY, R., 1999,
Individual Identification of Cats and Dogs Using Mitochondrial DNA Tandem
Repeats, Sci. & Just., 39, 167-171.
JEHAES, E., GILISSEN, A., CASSIMAN, J. and DECORTE, R., 1998,
D2- 97
13th INTERPOL Forensic Science Symposium, Lyon, France, October 16-19 2001
Evaluation of a Decontamination Protocol for Hair Shafts Before mt-DNA
Sequencing, Forens. Sci. Int., 94, 65-71.
LINCH, C. A. and PRAHLOW, J. A., 2001,
Post-mortem Microscopic Changes Observed at the Human Head Hair Proximal
End, J. Forens. Sci., 46, 15-20.
LINCH, C. A., SMITH, S. R. and PRAHLOW, J. A., 1998,
Evaluation of Human Hair Root for DNA Typing Subsequent to Microscopic
Comparison, J. Forens. Sci., 43, 305-314.
OGLE, R. R. and FOX, M. J., 1999,
Atlas of Human Hair Microscopic Characteristics, Boca Raton: CRC Press.
PANAYIOTOU, H. and KOKOT, S., 1999,
Matching and Discrimination of Single Human Scalp Hairs by FT-IR
Microspectroscopy and Chemometrics, Anal. Chim. Acta., 392, 223-235.
PROKOPEC, M., GLOSOVA, L. and UBELAKER, D. H., 2000,
Change in Hair Pigmentation in Children from Birth to 5 Years in a Central
European Population, Forens. Sci. Comm., 2, 1-4.
ROBERTSON, J, 1999, (ed.),
The Forensic Examination of Hair, London: Taylor & Francis.
TANADA, U., KASHIMURA, S., KAGEURA, M. and HARA, K., 1999,
Practical GC/MS Analysis of Oxidation Dye Components in Hair Fibre as a
Forensic Investigative Procedure, J. Forens. Sci., 44, 292-296.
D2- 98