Flight Mechanics/Dynamics

Dr. Shashi Ranjan Kumar

Assistant Professor
Department of Aerospace Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Bombay
Powai, Mumbai, 400076 India

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Flight Mechanics/Dynamics
Swept Wing

Why most of the high speed airplanes are having swept wing?
Delay of drag divergence to high Mach numbers.
Effective airfoil is thiner than in straight wing.

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Flight Mechanics/Dynamics
Swept Wing

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Swept Wing

What is the price we are paying for using swept wing?

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Swept Wing

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Flight Mechanics/Dynamics
Swept Wing

Swept wing is advantageous for supersonic flight also. How?

For supersonic flight, if the swept wing is outside Mach cone then leading
edge of wing is supersonic.
If swept wing is within Mach cone then leading edge of wing is subsonic and
thus wave drag is less.
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Flight Mechanics/Dynamics
Effect of Wing Sweep

Let Vn be the flight velocity normal to straight wing aircraft.

Assume that two identical aircraft is at the same lift, drag and normal
dynamic pressure.
For a wing with sweep angle, with same normal dynamic pressure, flow
velocity is Vn / cos Λ.
For straight and swept wing aircraft,
 2
1 1 Vn
L = ρVn2 SCl , Ls = ρ SCls
2 2 cos Λ

On equating these two,

Cls = Cl cos2 Λ

Similarly, Cds = Cd cos2 Λ

For same lift and drag force (same engine power), aircraft can fly at higher
speed.
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Effect of Wing Sweep: Smaller lift-slope

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Effect of Wing Sweep: Smaller lift-slope

Consider aircraft operating at angle of attack α.

Effective angle of attack
V∞ sin α
tan αeff = =⇒ αeff ≈ α sec Λ
V∞ cos Λ cos α

Let a be the lift curve slope of wing.

 
1 2 1 2 1 2
L= ρV∞ cos2 Λ Sa(α sec Λ) = ρV∞ cos ΛSaα = ρV∞ SCLs
2 2 2

Lift coefficient for swept wing,

∂CLs
CLs = aα cos Λ =⇒ as = a cos Λ; as =
∂α

For delaying the drag divergence both swept back and forward are same.
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Flight Mechanics/Dynamics
Effect of Wing Sweep

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Flight Mechanics/Dynamics
Drag Polar: Complete Airplane

Drag polar for complete airplane

CL2
CD = Cd,e +
|{z} πeAR
Parasite drag coefficient

Parasite drag include profile drag, and friction and pressure drag to other
parts of airplane.
Parasite drag coefficient
 
1
CD,e = CD,0 + rCL2 ⇒ CD = Cd,e + r + CL2
πeAR

Drag polar for complete airplane, with e redefined as Oswald efficiency factor
 
CL2
CD = Cd,0 + CD,i , CD,i =
|{z} |{z} πeAR
Zero−lift drag coeff. Drag coeff. due to lift
 
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Flight Mechanics/Dynamics
Drag Polar: Complete Airplane

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Flight Mechanics/Dynamics
Equation of Motion: Steady Flight

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Equation of Motion: Steady Flight

For a curvilinear flight

X dV X V2
F∥ = m , F⊥ = m
dt rc

Total forces in parallel and perpendicular directions

X
F∥ = T cos αT − D − W sin θ
X
F⊥ = L + T sin αT − W cos θ

Equations of motion in translational flight

 
dV
T cos αT − D − W sin θ = m

dt
 
V2
L + T sin αT − W cos θ = m
rc

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Flight Mechanics/Dynamics
Equation of Motion: Steady Flight

Static performance: Performance of airplane in unaccelerated flight

condition
For unaccelerated level flight, we have θ = 0.
Also, there are no accelerations.
 
T cos αT = D, L + T sin αT = W
 
With assumption of αT ≈ 0, sin αT = 0, cos αT ≈ 1.
EOM for level, and unaccelerated flight
 
T = D, L = W
 

Thrust and lift balance aerodynamic drag and weight, respectively.

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Flight Mechanics/Dynamics
Thrust for Level, Unaccelerated Flight

For steady flight,

T = D = q∞ SCD

L = W = q∞ SCL
T CD
⇒ =
W CL

Thrust required for airplane to

fly at given velocity,
unaccelerated flight
 
W W
TR = =
CL /CD L/D

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Flight Mechanics/Dynamics
Thrust for Level, Unaccelerated Flight

L/D is a measure of
aerodynamic efficiency.
Maximum aerodynamic
efficiency⇒ Minimum
thrust
L/D is a function of α, and
maximum at around 2◦ -5◦ .

Airplane flying at the velocity for minimum TR ⇒ flying at α for maximum L/D.

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Flight Mechanics/Dynamics
Thrust for Level, Unaccelerated Flight

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Flight Mechanics/Dynamics
Thrust for Level, Unaccelerated Flight

Required thrust

TR =D = q∞ S(CD,0 + CD,i )
C2
= q∞ SCD,0 + q∞ S L
| {z } | {z πeAR}
Zero-lift T R
Lift-induced TR

Zero-lift thrust increase while

lift induced thrust decreases
with increase in velocity.
Where will be the minimum
required thrust?

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Flight Mechanics/Dynamics
Thrust for Level, Unaccelerated Flight

Thrust required
CL2 W2
TR = q∞ SCD,0 + q∞ S = q∞ SCD,0 +
πeAR q∞ SπeAR

dTR
Point of minimum thrust TR correspond to = 0.
dV∞
dTR dTR dV∞ dTR
As = , a minimum thrust also implies = 0.
dq∞ dV∞ dq∞ dq∞
On differentiation,
dTR W2 W2
= SCD,0 − 2 = 0 ⇒ CD,0 = 2 2
dq∞ q∞ SπeAR q∞ S πeAR
On simplifying,
 
CL2
CD,0 = = CD,i ⇒ Zero-lift drag = Drag due to lift

πeAR
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Flight Mechanics/Dynamics
Thrust Available and Maximum Velocity

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Flight Mechanics/Dynamics
Thrust Available and Maximum Velocity

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Power Required

Power required by airplane

W V∞
PR = TR V∞ =
CL /CD

In steady flight,
1 2
L=W = ρ∞ V∞ SCL
2
s
2W
⇒ V∞ =
ρ∞ SCL
Power required
s
2W 3 CD
2
1
PR = ∝ 3/2
ρ∞ SCL3 CL /CD
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Flight Mechanics/Dynamics
Power Required: Zero-lift and Lift Induced Power

Power required by airplane

PR = TR V∞ = DV∞ = q∞ SCD V∞
C2
= q∞ SCD,0 V∞ + q∞ SV∞ L
| {z }
Zero lift power req.
| {z πeAR}
Lift−induced power req.

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Flight Mechanics/Dynamics
Power Required: Zero-lift and Lift Induced Power

Power required by airplane,

 2
1 3 1 3 1 W
PR = ρ∞ CD,0 V∞ S+ ρ∞ SV∞ 2S
2 2 πeAR (1/2)ρ∞ V∞
1 3 1 W2
= ρ∞ CD,0 V∞ S+
2 πeAR (1/2)ρ∞ V∞ S
On differentiation,
dPR 3 2 1 W2
= ρ∞ CD,0 V∞ S− 2S
dV∞ 2 πeAR (1/2)ρ∞ V∞
C 2 /3
 
2
= 3ρ∞ V∞ S CD,0 − L
πeAR
 
2 1
= 3ρ∞ V∞ S CD,0 − CD,i
3

dPR 1
For minimum power, = 0 ⇒ CD,0 = CD,i
dV∞ 3
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Flight Mechanics/Dynamics
Power Required

Point of tangency corresponds to minimum TR (and hence (L/D)max ). How?

At tangent point, PR /V∞ is minimum.
d(PR /V∞ ) dTR
= = 0 =⇒ TR min and (L/D)max
dV∞ dV∞
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Flight Mechanics/Dynamics
Power Available

For reciprocating engine-propeller combination, with shaft brake power P ,

 
PA = ηP, η < 1
 
For jet engine,  
PA = TA V∞
 
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Power Available and Maximum Velocity

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Reference
1 John Anderson Jr., Introduction to Flight, McGraw-Hill Education, Sixth
Edition, 2017.

Thank you for your attention !!!

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