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Pi(π)
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World’s most mysterious
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Made by - Akshat Mechu
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Class – X E Roll no. - 5

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 What is π?
Webster's Collegiate Dictionary defines π as "1: the 16th letter of the
Greek alphabet... 2 a: the symbol pi denoting the ratio of the
circumference of a circle to its diameter b: the ratio itself: a transcendental
number having a value to eight decimal places of 3.14159265"
A number can be placed into several categories based on its properties. Is
it prime or composite? Is it imaginary or real? Is it transcendental or
algebraic? These questions help define a number's behavior in different
situations. In order to understand where π fits in to the world of
mathematics, one must understand several of its properties: π is irrational
and π is transcendental.
 The History
of π

In the long history of the number π, there have been many twists and turns,
many inconsistencies that reflect the condition of the human race as a
whole. Through each major period of world history and in each regional
area, the state of intellectual thought, the state of mathematics, and hence
the state of π, has been dictated by the same socio-economic and
geographic forces as every other aspect of civilization.
The following is a brief history, organized by period and region, of the
development of our understanding of the number π.
In ancient times, π was discovered independently by the first civilizations
to begin agriculture. Their new sedentary life style first freed up time for
mathematical pondering, and the need for permanent shelter necessitated
the development of basic engineering skills, which in many instances
required knowledge of the relationship between the square and the circle
(usually satisfied by finding a reasonable approximation of π). Although
there are no surviving records of individual mathematicians from this
period, historians today know the values used by some ancient cultures.
Here is a sampling of some cultures and the values that they used:
Babylonians - 3 1/8, Egyptians - (16/9) ^2, Chinese - 3, Hebrews - 3
(implied in the Bible, I Kings vii, 23).
The first record of an individual mathematician taking on the problem of π
(often called "squaring the circle," and involving the search for a way to
cleanly relate either the area or the circumference of a circle to that of a
square) occurred in ancient Greece in the 400's B.C. (this attempt was
made by Anaxagoras). Based on this fact, it is not surprising that the
Greek culture was the first to truly delve into the possibilities of abstract
mathematics. The part of the Greek culture centered in Athens made great
leaps in the area of geometry, the first branch of mathematics to be
thoroughly explored. Antiphon, an Athenian philosopher, first stated the
principle of exhaustion. Hippias of Elis created a curve called the
quadratrix, which actually allowed the theoretical squaring of the circle,
though it was not practical.
In the late Greek period (300's-200's B.C.), after Alexander the Great had
spread Greek culture from the western borders of India to the Nile Valley
of Egypt, Alexandria, Egypt became the intellectual center of the world.
Among the many scholars who worked at the University there, by far the
most influential to the history of π was Euclid. Through the publishing of
Elements, he provided countless future mathematicians with the tools with
which to attack the π problem. The other great thinker of this time,
Archimedes, studied in Alexandria but lived his life on the island of
Sicily. It was Archimedes who approximated his value of π to about
22/7, which is still a common value today.
Archimedes was killed in 212 B.C. in the Roman conquest of Syracuse. In
the years after his death, the Roman Empire gradually gained control of
the known world. Despite their other achievements, the Romans are not
known for their mathematical achievements. The dark period after the fall
of Rome was even worse for π. little new was discovered about π until
well into the decline of the middle Ages, more than a thousand years after
Archimedes' death.
While π activity stagnated in Europe, the situation in other parts of the
world was quite different. The Mayan civilization, situated on the Yucatan
Peninsula in Central America, was quite advanced for its time. The
Mayans were top-notch astronomers, developing a very accurate calendar.
In order to do this, it would have been necessary for them to have a fairly
good value for π. Though no one knows for sure (nearly all Mayan
literature was burned during the Spanish conquest of Mexico), most
historians agree that the Mayan value was indeed more accurate than that
of the Europeans. The Chinese in the 5th century calculated π to an
accuracy not surpassed by Europe until the 1500's. The Chinese, as well as
the Hindus, arrived at π in roughly the same method as the Europeans until
well into the Renaissance, when Europe finally began to pull ahead.
During the Renaissance period, π activity in Europe began to finally get
moving again. Two factors fueled this acceleration: the increasing
importance of mathematics for use in navigation, and the infiltration of
Arabic numerals, including the zero (indirectly introduced from India) and
decimal notation (yes, the great mathematicians of antiquity made all of
their discoveries without our standard digits of 0-9!). Leonardo Da Vinci
and Nicolas Copernicus made minimal contributions to the π endeavor,
but François Viète actually made significant improvements to Archimedes'
methods. The efforts of Snellius, Gregory, and John Machin eventually
culminated in algebraic formulas for π that allowed rapid calculation,
leading to ever more accurate values of π during this period.
In the 1700's the invention of calculus by Sir Isaac Newton and Leibniz
rapidly accelerated the calculation and theorization of π. Using advanced
mathematics, Leonhard Euler found a formula for π that is the fastest to
date. In the late 1700's Lambert (Swiss) and Legendre (French)
independently proved that π is irrational. Although Legendre predicted
that π is also transcendental, this was not proven until 1882 when
Lindemann published a thirteen-page paper proving the validity of
Legendre's statement. Also in the 18th century, George Louis Leclerc,
Comte de Buffon, discovered an experimental method for calculating π.
Pierre Simon Laplace, one of the founders of probability theory, followed
up on this in the next century.
Starting in 1949 with the ENIAC computer, digital systems have been
calculating π to incredible accuracy throughout the second half of the
twentieth century. Whereas ENIAC was able to calculate 2,037 digits, the
record as of the date of this article is 206,158,430,000 digits, calculated by
researchers at the University of Tokyo. It is highly probable that this
record will be broken, and there is little chance that the search for ever
more accurate values of π will ever come to an end.
 Archimedes’
contribution to
the discovery and
value of π
Archimedes'
Approximation of Pi
One of the major contributions Archimedes made to mathematics was his
method for approximating the value of pi. It had long been recognized that
the ratio of the circumference of a circle to its diameter was constant, and
a number of approximations had been given up to that point in time by the
Babylonians, Egyptians, and even the Chinese. There are some authors
who claim that a biblical passage also implies an approximate value of 3
(and in fact there is an interesting story associated with that).
At any rate, the method used by Archimedes differs from earlier
approximations in a fundamental way. Earlier schemes for approximating
pi simply gave an approximate value, usually based on comparing the area
or perimeter of a certain polygon with that of a circle. Archimedes' method
is new in that it is an iterative process, whereby one can get as accurate an
approximation as desired by repeating the process, using the previous
estimate of pi to obtain a new one. This is a new feature of Greek
mathematics, although it has an ancient tradition among the Chinese in
their methods for approximating square roots.
Archimedes' method, as he did it originally, skips over a lot of
computational steps, and is not fully explained, so authors of history of
math books have often presented slight variations on his method to make it
easier to follow.

The Approximation of Pi

The method of Archimedes involves approximating pi by the perimeters of

polygons inscribed and circumscribed about a given circle. Rather than
trying to measure the polygons one at a time, Archimedes uses a theorem
of Euclid to develop a numerical procedure for calculating the perimeter
of a circumscribing polygon of 2n sides, once the perimeter of the polygon
of n sides is known. Then, beginning with a circumscribing hexagon, he
uses his formula to calculate the perimeters of circumscribing polygons of
12, 24, 48, and finally 96 sides. He then repeats the process using
inscribing polygons (after developing the corresponding formula). The
truly unique aspect of Archimedes' procedure is that he has eliminated the
geometry and reduced it to a completely arithmetical procedure,
something that probably would have horrified Plato but was actually
common practice in Eastern cultures, particularly among the Chinese
scholars.

The Key Theorem

The key result used by Archimedes is Proposition 3 of Book VI of Euclid's
Elements. The full statement of the theorem is as follows:
If an angle of a triangle be bisected and the straight line cutting the
angle cut the base also, the segments of the base will have the same ratio
as the remaining sides of the triangle; and, if the segments of the base
have the same ratio as the remaining sides of the triangle, the straight
line joined from the vertex to the point of section will bisect the angle of
the triangle.
Contribution by
others

Name and contribution by them –

Anaxagoras of Clazomenae - 500-428 B.C.
Anaxagoras of Clazomenae lived in Athens during the early Greek period.
He made many contributions to science, including many correct
assumptions dealing with astronomy. When some of his theories
contradicted Greek religion, he was put in jail, where he became
(according to Plutarch, the great Greek historian) the first known
individual to attempt to square the circle.
Antiphon
Antiphon was a Sophist philosopher who discovered the principle of
exhaustion, in which a series of increasingly complex regular polygons are
inscribed in a circle. This process, though improved upon many times, was
used for about two thousand more years.
Hippias of Elis
Hippias of Elis lived in Athens during the 400's B.C. He created a curve
called a trisectrix or quadratrix, depending on its use (either trisecting
angles or squaring a circle). Hippias' quadratrix, as it is called, could
indeed be used to square the circle, but it required an infinite number of
steps to do it.
Euclid
Euclid had an immense impact on geometry. A mathematician at the
University of Alexandria, Egypt, Euclid wrote a textbook, called
Elements, that would set the logical basis of geometry for the coming
centuries. This text was based on five postulates (assumptions) by which
all of Euclid's various theorems were proven. While Euclid did not
discover all of the theorems in his book, he organized them into a solid
structure that facilitated a logical approach to geometry as a whole.
Archimedes of Syracuse - 287-212 B.C.
Archimedes of Syracuse lived most of his life in the Greek city of
Syracuse, on the island of Siciliy. He studied at the University of
Alexandria at near the same period of Euclid's employment there, and the
fact that his father was an astronomer gave him interest in science. As well
as making important discoveries in the scientific areas of buoyancy and
mechanical advantage, Archimedes did much work in solid geometry
(finding the volumes of segments of spheres as well as other three-
dimensional shapes). In his work On the Measurement of the Circle he
described a method for finding increasingly accurate upper and lower
bounds for π by exhaustion in a way similar to Antiphon's. He also used
the Archimedian Spiral as another method to square the circle.
Leonardo of Pisa (Fibonacci) - 1180-1250 B.C.
Fibonacci, using new Arabic numerals, wrote a textbook on algebra, also
an Arab discovery. He discovered the Fibonacci sequence of numbers
(1,1,2,3,5,8,13,21,…) as well. Using Archimedes' method with better
square root methods, he improved Archimedes' value of π.
Nicolas Copernicus - 1473-1543
Copernicus, aside from promoting the heliocentric theory of the solar
system, first used the secant, a trigonometric function. He was also the
first to calculate a table of trigonometric functions for use in his
astronomical calculations.
François Viète - 1540-1603
François Viète was a French lawyer who introduced many new terms into
the language of mathematics. He found the first formula for π based on an
infinite sequence of algebraic operations. This was based partly on
Archimedes' method. Viète also found the value of π to 9 decimal places.
Leonardo Da Vinci - 1452-1519
Leonardo Da Vinci recorded in his lengthy journals two methods for
squaring the circle. The first rearranged segments of a circle in the form of
a parallelogram, the second used the track of a rolling cylinder in order to
square the circular base of the cylinder.
Willebrord Snellius - 1580-1626
Willebrord Snellius was a Dutch professor at the University of Leyden. He
is known in physics for his work in optics (which incidentally involves
trigonometry). By modifying Archimedes' method, he was able to obtain
closer bounds for the value of π.
James Gregory - 1638-1675
James Gregory was a Scottish mathematician who found the first infinite
series for finding π. This formula, which makes use of arctan and other
trigonometric functions, can be seen in the Finding π applet on this site.
John Machin - 1680-1752
John Machin was an English professor of astronomy. In 1706 he
developed an expression for π that allowed speedy digit calculations, with
which he calculated π to100 decimal places.
Leonhard Euler - 1707-1783
Euler was probably the most prolific mathematical writer ever. Born in
Switzerland, he lived in both Russia and Prussia as an eminent member of
their respective academic centers. He eventually wrote 886 books as well
as many letters. The theorems and proofs that he discovered stretched into
every branch of mathematics. Euler found many expressions involving π,
including one for π squared, the logarithm of π,and a formula for
calculating π that is the fastest known.
Srinivasa Ramanujan – (1887 - 1920) –

Ramanujan was passionated with pi. Many of his results involve our
favourite constant...
Ramanujan wrote down his work in his notebooks as I stated above.
Unfortunately many formulae are written in with non-standards notation
and without any proofs. For more than 80years, several mathematicians
(Bruce Berndt for the moment) tried todecipher his coded notebooks for
the happiness of Science!
Because Ramanujan worked on the modular equations. But what exactly
are they?
I will 'borrow' a very clear example from the book Les mathématiciens to
clarify the definition.

A modular equation is an equation that satisfies a modular function (q)

where the variable q intervenes with various powers, for example (qn). n
denotes here the order of the modular equation.
Consider for example the modular equation of 7th order (n=7):
We then look for the solution to this equation. For our case, we have:

Up do here, no hints of Pi...

Well, we call for singular values from the values of the modular function
(q) which satisfy some extra properties. For example, if we define for p
integer:

Straight away we see that the bigger p is, the smaller the exponential
and the product in (q) tend toward 16q

so, if we take , we get a number that coincide on the first

decimals with Pi!
Of course, the number of decimals increases with p. We can see the
whole advantage in having a relation between (q) and (q p), this last
number being closer to Pi than the first (because the exponential is even
smaller!)
The amazing thing about this theory is that the singular value does not
depend at all on Pi even with their definition
Ramanujan was a great specialist of those values and calculated them in
a remarkable way. In his letter to Hardy, he said:

which allows us to get 20decimals of Pi.

K240 allowed his to get the first million decimals of Pi!!
 Uses of π
π on the elementary level is no more than a means of finding area and
circumference. In geometry and elementary math, we are taught that π is
used to find area by multiplying the radius squared times π. Thus comes
the formula:

Take the following problem:

You have a circle whose radius is equal to 3 cm. What is the area?
To solve this problem, you would take what you know (r=3) and plug it
into your formula. So you have:

You get A=9π or approximately 28.27.

π is also used on the elementary level to find the circumference of a circle,
or the perimeter of a circle. We know the following formulas:

These problems are calculated very similarly to the problem above. Find
the circumference of the circle above.
This is completed very simply. You again take what you know (r=3) and
plug it into your formula. So you now have
or C=6π. This is approximately 18.85.
Uses of π
In high school geometry, we learn yet another use of π. We learn to take
the area of a part of a circle. The formula for this is:

This is where K is equal to the area of the sector and n is equal to the angle
measured in degrees of the sector. This is essentially just our area formula
divided by the portion of our circle. So, try this for size:
A circle with a radius of 5 has a sector of 37 degrees. What is the area of
the sector?
The solution:
Take what we know (r = 5 and n = 37) and plug it into our formula:

Do the math and you end up with K=2.57 π or approximately 8.07

Along the same lines, we can find the length of that arc (a.k.a. the
circumference of the arc) Take the formula:
As you can see, this is the circumference formula using n/360 to get a
proportion of the original circle's circumference.

3-Dimensional Applications:
Volume of a Cylinder
When dealing with 3-D solids, we have volume, total area and lateral area.
In order to understand these completely, we have included the following
definitions.
Volume - The amount of 3-D space an object takes up
Lateral area - Surface area of an object not including the bases
Total area - Lateral area plus the area of the bases
Formulas:

You have a cylinder with a radius of 3.14 cm and a height of 7.2 cm. Find
the lateral area, total area, and volume.
Solution:
Take the knowns (r=3.14 and h=7.2) and plug them into the equations.
S=45.21pi or approximately 142
T=64.93pi or 204
V=71 pi or 223