1 The Teacher and The Community 3

The Teacher and the Community, School Culture, and Organizational Leadership 1
Republic of the Philippines

U N IV E R S IT Y O F E A S T E R N P H IL IP P IN E S
University Town, Northern Samar
Web: http://uep.edu.ph ; Email: [email protected]
C O L L E G E O F E D U C A T IO N
T H E T E A C H E R A N D T H E C O M M U N IT Y ,
SCHOOL CULTURE, AND
O R G A N IZ A T IO N A L L E A D E R S H IP
S e co n d S em e s ter, S c h o o l Y e a r 2 0 21 -2 0 22
L E A H A . D E A S IS , E d D
All photos are from www.google.com/search

M o d u le 1
IN T R O D U C T IO N T O S O C IE T Y ,
C O M M U N IT Y , A N D E D U C A T IO N –
D E F IN IN G T H E B A S IC C O N C E P T
1.A S o ciety
1.B C o m m u n ity
1.C E d u catio n
1.D S o cial In teractio n
1.E S ch o o l C u ltu re
U n it 1
P H IL O S O P H IC A L P E R S P E C T IV E S
1.1 C lassical P h ilo so p h ies

1.1.1 Id ealism
1.1.2 R ealism
1.1.3 E xisten tialism
1.1.4 P rag m atism
1.1.5 N atu ralism
1.2 M o d ern an d P o st-M o d ern
P h ilo so p h ies
1.2.1 P eren n ialism
1.2.2 E sse n tialism
1.2.3 P ro g ress ivism
1.2.4 S o cial R eco n stru ctio n ism
1.2.5 H u m an ism
1.2.6 M arxism
1.3 L et’s A d d to W h at Y o u K n o w
1.4 K ey P ro p o n e ts o f E d u ca tio n al
P h ilo so p h ies
Good Day!
Welcome to this class – The Teacher and the Community, School

Culture, and Organizational Leadership.
This course focuses on society as a context of schools and schooling

shall be emphasized. Further, principles and theories on school culture and
organizational leadership, and school policies and procedures shall be
included to prepare prospective teachers to become school leaders and
managers.
There are 12 modules prepared for this course. Each module contains
objectives, discussions of specific topics, assessments to determine the
readiness and comprehensions attained, suggested readings, and the
references.
This Module I discusses the basic concepts and definitions of society,

community, education, social interactions, and social culture. It also includes
philosophical perspectives from the classical philosophies to modern
philosophies as well as post modern philosophies.
As would be educators, I am encouraging you to have the right focus

and direction, have time for all the discussion in the modules, and answer
diligently the assessments.
Modules are prepared not for the caprixces o the professors neither to
give you hard time but to help you acquire knowledge and wisdom of the
course and eventually prepare you for the teaching profession.
L E A H A . D E A S IS , E d D
Course Professor
IN T R O D U C T IO N T O
S O C IE T Y , C O M M U N IT Y ,
A N D E D U C A T IO N –
D E F IN IN G T H E B A S IC
CONCEPT &
P H IL O S O P H IC A L
P E R S P E C T IV E S
IN T R O D U C T IO N
L earn in g O u tco m es
“P h ilo sop h y b e gin s w ith w on d er”
 Define basic concepts necessary
(S o cra tes)
to understanding of the course;
 Describe the manifestation of
Philosophy means "love of
various educational philosophies
wisdom." It is made up of two
and applications of sociological
Greek words, p hilo , meaning love,
theories in practical classroom
and so p ho s, meaning wisdom.
situations in response to
Philosophy helps teachers to
community;
reflect on key issues and concepts
 Explain the importance of different
in education, usually through such
philosophies and sociological
questions as: What is being
theories to education and how
educated? What is the good life?
they change the education
What is knowledge? What is the
landscape in response to the
nature of learning? And What is
needs of the society and the
teaching? Philosophers think about
community;
the meaning of things and
 Reflect on how to prepare, create,
interpretation of that meaning.
and develop one’s philosophy of
Even simple statements, such as
education; and
"What should be learned? Or What
 Make a comparison of the
is adolescence?" set up raging
philosophies.
debates that can have major
implications. For example, what happens if an adolescent commits a serious
crime? One interpretation may hide another. If such a young person is treated
as an adult criminal, what does it say about justice, childhood, and the like?
Or if the adolescent is treated as a child, what does it say about society's
views on crime?
Your educational philosophy is your beliefs about why, what and how
you teach, whom you teach, and about the nature of learning. It is a set of
principles that guides professional action through the events and issues
teachers face daily. Sources for your educational philosophy are your life
experiences, your values, the environment in which you live, interactions with
others and awareness of philosophical approaches. Learning about the
branches of philosophy, philosophical world views, and different educational
philosophies and theories will help you to determine and shape your own
educational philosophy, combined with these other aspects.
When you examine a philosophy different from your own, it helps you
to "wrestle" with your own thinking. Sometimes this means you may change
your mind. Other times, it may strengthen your viewpoint; or, you may
be e cle ctic, selecting what seems best from different philosophies. But in
eclecticism, there is a danger of sloppy and inconsistent thinking, especially if
you borrow a bit of one philosophy and stir in some of another. If serious
thought has gone into selection of strategies, theories, or philosophies, this is
less problematic. For example, you may determine that you have to vary your
approach depending on the particular learning needs and styles of a given
student. At various time periods, one philosophical framework may become
favored over another. For example, the Progressive movement led to quite
different approaches in education in the 1930s. But there is always danger in
one "best or only" philosophy. In a pluralistic society, a variety of views are
needed.
B ra n c h e s o f P h ilo s o p h y
There are three major branches of philosophy. Each branch focuses on

a different aspect and is central to your teaching. The three branches and
their sub-branches are:
Branch Metaphysics: What Epistemology: What is the Axiology: What

is the nature of nature of knowledge? How values should
reality? do we come to know? one live by?
Educational – D o yo u th in k –H o w w ou ld a n –Is m o ra lity
Examples h u m a n b ein g s a re a n th ro p olo g ist lo o k a t th is d efin e d b y o ur
b a sica lly g o od o r cla ssro o m ? A p o litica l a ctio n s, o r b y
e vil? scie n tist? A b io log ist? w h a t is in o u r
– W ha t a re –H o w d o w e kn o w w ha t a h ea rts?
co n serva tive o r ch ild kn o w s? –W ha t va lu e s
lib e ra l b e lie fs? sh ou ld b e
tau g ht in
ch ara cte r
e du ca tio n ?
Sub- –O n to lo g y K n o w in g b a s ed o n : –E th ic s
branches What issues are –Scientific Inquiry What is good
related to nature, –Senses and Feelings and evil, right
existence, or –From authority or divinity and wrong?
being? Is a ch ild –Empiricism (experience) Is it e ve r rig h t
in h e ren tly e vil o r –Intuition to ta ke
g o od ? H o w m ig h t –Reasoning or Logic so m e th in g th a t
yo u r vie w What reasoning d oe s n o t
d e term in e yo u r processes yield valid b elo n g to yo u?
cla ssro o m conclusions?
m a n a ge m e n t? –D e d u c tive : reasoning –A e s th e tic s
–C o s m o lo g y from the general to the What is
What is the nature particular A ll ch ild re n ca n beautiful?
and origin of the le a rn . B re t is a fifth g ra d er. How do w e
cosmos or H e h a s a le a rn in g d isa b ility. re co gn ize a
universe? Is th e C a n B re t le a rn ? g re at p ie ce o f
w orld a n d u n ive rse –In d u c tive : reasoning m u sic? A rt?
o rd e rly o r is it from the specific to the C a n the re
m a rke d b y ch a os? general. A fte r e xp erim e n tin g b e b e au ty in
W ha t w ou ld o n e o r w ith p la n t g ro w th u n de r d estr
th e o the r m e a n fo r va rie d co n ditio n s, stu -d en ts
a cla ssro om ? co n clud e p la nts n e ed w ate r
a n d lig h t
B A S IC C O N C E P T S A N D D E F IN IT IO N S
1.A S O C IE T Y
‘Society is a concept used to describe the structured relations and

institutions among a large community of people which cannot be reduced to a
simple collection or aggregation of individuals.’ (1)
O rig in s o f th e C o n c e p t
The concept of society can be traced to the fourteenth century, when

the primary meaning was companionship or association, a meaning which still
exists today. However, the specific sociological meaning of society was not
developed until the nineteenth century.
A strong argument can be made for the view that it was Emile
Durkheim who first developed the sociological meaning of ‘society’ which he
used when he established sociology as a new discipline which dealt with the
collective reality of human life as opposed to studying individuals.
Durkheim argued that society has an independent reality from

individuals, and exists in its own right, exerting an influence over individuals
within a ‘bounded territory’, which for Durkheim essentially meant the ‘nation
state’.
However, the relevance of bounded-societies has been questioned

since the 1970s due to globalisation, and the increasing amount of people,
money, and communications moving across national borders.
Because of this, some sociologists argue that sociology should shift its
analysis from ‘societies’ to (global) mobilities.
S o c io lo g y a s th e ‘S tu d y o f S o c iety’
The concept of sociology has been fundamental to sociology’s ‘self-

identity’, with most text books using the concept to define the discipline,
with the ‘study of societies’ often being part of the definition of sociology in
most text books and society in turn being defined as large communities,
existing within nation states.
Talcott Parsons added another important defining

characteristic of society – that it should be self-perpetuating, or able to
reproduce itself without external assistance.
For most of sociology’s history, sociologists have studied and

compared societies, and nowhere is this more obvious than in the historic
division between ‘first’, ‘second’ and ‘third’ world societies, and in theories of
development such as modernisation theory, which outline why certain
societies (or ‘nation states’) are less developed in comparison to other ‘more
developed’ societies (or ‘nation states’).
There have been many attempts to understand social change by

focusing one specific driving force, for example sociological theorising has
developed the following conceptualisations of society:
 Industrial society
 Capitalist society
 Post-industrial society
 Postmodern society
 The knowledge society
 Risk society
 The network society.
However, the problem with a ‘bounded sociology’ which limits itself to

cross national comparisons is that it tells us little about inequalities within
societies.
1.B C O M M U N IT Y
The word community is derived from Latin and has been used in the
English language since the 14th century. Specifically, it’s Latin etymology is
co m m u n ita s (meaning the same), which is in turn derived from co m m u n is ,
which means “common, public, shared by all or many.”
A community is actually a small or large social unit (a group of living

things) who have something in common, such as norms, religion, values, or
identity. Communities often share a sense of place that is situated in a given
geographical area (e.g. a country, village, town, or neighborhood) or in virtual
space through communication platforms. It is a social group sharing an
environment, normally with shared interests. In human communities, intent,
belief, resources, preferences, needs, risks, and a number of other conditions
may be present and common, affecting the identity of the participants and the
group.
There are many ways to think about community. We will explore four of
the most relevant, each of which provides different insights into the process of
community engagement.
Perspective Description
Systems From a systems perspective, a community is similar to a living
Perspective creature, comprising different parts that represent specialized
functions, activities, or interests, each operating within
specific boundaries to meet community needs. For example,
schools focus on education, the transportation sector focuses
on moving people and products, economic entities focus on
enterprise and employment, faith organizations focus on the
spiritual and physical well-being of people, and health care
agencies focus on the prevention and treatment of diseases
and injuries (Henry, 2011). For the community to function
well, each part has to effectively carry out its role in re la tio n to
th e w ho le o rg a nism . A healthy community has well-

connected, interdependent sectors that share responsibility
for recognizing and resolving problems and enhancing its
well-being. Successfully addressing a community’s complex
problems requires integration, collaboration, and coordination
of resources from all parts (Thompson et al., 1990). From a
systems perspective, then, collaboration is a logical approach
to health improvement.
Social A community can also be defined by describing the social and
Perspective political networks that link individuals, community
organizations, and leaders. Understanding these networks is
critical to planning efforts in engagement. For example,
tracing social ties among individuals may help engagement
leaders to identify a community’s leadership, understand its
behavior patterns, identify its high-risk groups, and strengthen
its networks (Minkler et al., 1997).
Virtual Some communities map onto geographically defined areas,
Perspective but today, individuals rely more and more on computer-
mediated communications to access information, meet
people, and make decisions that affect their lives (Kozinets,
2002). Examples of computer-mediated forms of
communication include email, instant or text messaging, e-
chat rooms, and social networking sites such as Facebook,
YouTube, and Twitter (Flavian et al., 2005). Social groups or
groups with a common interest that interact in an organized
fashion on the Internet are considered “virtual communities”
(Rheingold, 2000; Ridings et al., 2002). Without question,
these virtual communities are potential partners for
community-engaged health promotion and research.
Individual Individuals have their own sense of community membership
Perspective that is beyond the definitions of community applied by
researchers and engagement leaders. Moreover, they may
have a sense of belonging to more than one community. In
addition, their sense of membership can change over time
and may affect their participation in community activities
(Minkler et al., 2004).
The philosopher and psychologist William James shed light

on this issue in his writings. James thought it important to
consider two perspectives on identity: the “I,” or how a person
thinks about himself or herself, and the “me,” or how others
see and think about that person. Sometimes these two views
agree and result in a shared sense of an identity, but other
times they do not. People should not make assumptions
about identity based on appearance, language, or cultural
origin; nor should they make assumptions about an
individual’s perspective based on his or her identity (James,
1890). Today, the multiple communities that might be relevant
for any individual — including families, workplace, and social,
religious, and political associations — suggest that individuals
are thinking about themselves in more complex ways than

was the norm in years past.
The eligibility criteria that scientists, policy makers, and others

develop for social programs and research projects reflect one
way that people perceive a group of proposed participants,
but how much those criteria reflect the participants’ actual
view of themselves is uncertain. Practitioners of community
engagement need to learn how individuals understand their
identity and connections, enter into relationships, and form
communities.
1.C E D U C A T IO N
T h e T ru e M e a n in g , D e fin itio n a n d C o n c e p t o f E d u c a tio n
Education has various meanings:
According to some learned people, the word “Education” came from

the Latin term “E d uca tum ” that means the act of teaching or training. A group
of educationists say that it has come from another Latin word “Educare” which
means “to bring up” or “to raise”.
According to a few others, the word “Education” has originated from

another Latin term “E d uce re” which means “to lead forth” or “to come out”. All
these meanings indicate that education aims to nourish the good qualities in
man and draw out the best in every individual. Education seeks to develop the
innate inner capacities of man.
By educating an individual we attempt to give him some desirable

knowledge, understanding, skills, interests, attitudes and critical ‘thinking.
That is, he acquires knowledge of history, geography, arithmetic, languages
and sciences. He develops some understanding about the deeper things in
life, the complex human relations, and the cause and effect relationship and
so on. He gets some skills in writing, speaking, calculating, drawing, operating
some equipment etc. He develops some interests in and attitudes towards
social work, democratic living, co-operative management and so on.
As an individual in the society, he has to think critically about various

issues in life and take decisions about them being free from bias and
prejudices, superstitions and blind beliefs. Thus, he has to learn all these
qualities of head, hand and heart through the process of education.
C o n c e p ts o f E d u c a tio n a s D e fin e d b y W e s te rn P h ilo so p h e rs

Western Concept of Education

Philosopher
Socrates “E d uca tio n m e a n s th e b rin g in g o u t o f th e id e a s o f u n ive rsal
va lid ity w h ich a re la te nt in th e m in d o f e ve ry m a n ”.
Plato “E d uca tio n is th e ca p acity to fe el p le a sure a n d p a in a t th e rig h t
m o m e n t. It d e velo p s in th e b o dy a n d in th e so u l o f th e p up il a ll
th e b e au ty a n d a ll th e p e rfectio n w hich h e is ca pa b le o f.”
Aristotle “E d uca tio n is th e cre a tio n o f a so un d m in d in a so u nd b o dy. It
d e velo p s m a n ’s fa cu lty, e spe cia lly h is m in d so th a t h e m a y b e
a b le to e n jo y th e co n tem p la tio n o f su pre m e tru th , g o od n ess a n d
b e au ty o f w hich p e rfect h a pp in ess e sse ntia lly co n sists.
Rousseau: “E d uca tio n o f m a n co m m e n ce s a t h is b irth ; b e fo re h e ca n
sp e ak, b e fore h e ca n u n de rsta nd h e is a lre a dy in stru cte d .
E xp erie n ce is th e fo re ru nn er o f th e p e rfect”.
Herbert “E d uca tio n is co m p le te livin g ”.
Spencer
Heinrich “E d uca tio n is n a tu ra l h a rm o n io u s a n d p ro gre ssive d e velo p m e n t
Pestalozzi o f m a n ’s in n ate p o w e rs”.
Friedrich “E d uca tio n is u n fold in g o f w h a t is a lre a dy e nfo ld ed in th e g e rm .

William It is th e p ro ce ss th ro ug h w hich th e ch ild m a ke s in te rn al
Froebel e xte rna l”.
A .D S O C IA L IN T E R A C T IO N
K e y P o in ts
 A social interaction is an exchange between two or more individuals

and is a building block of society. Social interaction can be studied
between groups of two (dyads), three (triads) or larger social groups.
 By interacting with one another, people design rules, institutions and

systems within which they seek to live. Symbols are used to
communicate the expectations of a given society to those new to it.
 The empirical study of social interaction is one of the subjects of
microsociology. Methods includes symbolic interactionism and
ethnomethodology as well as later academic sub-divisions and studies
such as psychosocial studies, conversational analysis and human-
computer interaction.
 With symbolic interactionism, reality is seen as social, developed

interaction with others. Ethnomethodology questions how people’s
interactions can create the illusion of a shared social order despite not
understanding each other fully and having differing perspectives.
Key Term Meaning

Dyad A pair of things standing in particular relation; dyadic
relation.
Social Interaction A social exchange between two or more individuals.
Social Group A collection of humans or animals that share certain
characteristics, interact with one another, accept
expectations and obligations as members of the group,
and share a common identity.
In sociology, social interaction is a dynamic sequence of social actions

between individuals (or groups) who modify their actions and reactions due to
actions by their interaction partner(s). Social interactions can be differentiated
into accidental, repeated, regular and regulated.
A social interaction is a social exchange between two or more

individuals. These interactions form the basis for social structure and
therefore are a key object of basic social inquiry and analysis. Social
interaction can be studied between groups of two (dyads), three (triads) or
larger social groups.
Social structures and cultures are founded upon social interactions. By

interacting with one another, people design rules, institutions and systems
within which they seek to live. Symbols are used to communicate the
expectations of a given society to those new to it, either children or outsiders.
Through this broad schema of social development, one sees how social
interaction lies at its core.
The empirical study of social interaction is one of the subjects of

microsociology, which concerns the nature of everyday human social
interactions and agency on a small scale. Methods include symbolic
interactionism and ethnomethodology, as well as later academic sub-divisions
and studies like psychosocial studies, conversational analysis and human-
computer interaction.
With symbolic interactionism, reality

is seen as social, developed interaction with
others. It argues that both individuals and
society cannot be separated far from each
other for two reasons. One being that they are both created through social
interaction. The second reason is they cannot be understood in terms without
the other. Ethnomethodology, an offshoot of symbolic interactionism, which
questions how people’s interactions can create the illusion of a shared social
order despite not understanding each other fully and having differing
perspectives.
A .5 S C H O O L C U L T U R E
The term s c h o o l c u ltu re generally refers to the beliefs, perceptions,

relationships, attitudes, and written and unwritten rules that shape and
influence every aspect of how a school functions, but the term also
encompasses more concrete issues such as the physical and emotional
safety of students, the orderliness of classrooms and public spaces, or the
degree to which a school embraces and celebrates racial, ethnic, linguistic, or
cultural diversity.
Like the larger social culture, a school culture results from both
conscious and unconscious perspectives, values, interactions, and practices,
and it is heavily shaped by a school’s particular institutional history. Students,
parents, teachers, administrators, and other staff members all contribute to
their school’s culture, as do other influences such as the community in which
the school is located, the policies that govern how it operates, or the principles
upon which the school was founded.
Generally speaking, school cultures can be divided into two basic

forms: p ositive cu ltu re s and n e ga tive cu ltu re s. Numerous researchers,
educators, and writers have attempted to define the major features of positive
and negative school cultures, and an abundance of studies, articles, and
books are available on the topic. In addition, many educational organizations,
such as the National School Climate Center (NSCC), have produced detailed
descriptions of positive school cultures and developed strategies for improving
them (given the complexity of the topic, however, it is not possible to describe
all the distinctions here).
Broadly defined, positive school cultures are conducive to professional

satisfaction, morale, and effectiveness, as well as to student learning,
fulfillment, and well-being. The following list is a representative selection of a
few characteristics commonly associated with positive school cultures:
 The individual successes of teachers and students are recognized and

celebrated.
 Relationships and interactions are characterized by openness, trust,

respect, and appreciation.
 Staff relationships are collegial, collaborative, and productive, and all
staff members are held to high professional standards.
 Students and staff members feel emotionally and physical safe, and
the school’s policies and facilities promote student safety.
 School leaders, teachers, and staff members model positive, healthy
behaviors for students.
 Mistakes not punished as failures, but they are seen as opportunities to
learn and grow for both students and educators.
 Students are consistently held to high academic expectations, and a
majority of students meet or exceed those expectations.
 Important leadership decisions are made collaboratively with input from
staff members, students, and parents.
 Criticism, when voiced, is constructive and well-intentioned, not
antagonistic or self-serving.
 Educational resources and learning opportunities are equitably
distributed, and all students, including minorities and students with
disabilities.
 All students have access to the academic support and services they
may need to succeed.
U N IT 1 S O C IE T Y A N D E D U C A T IO N
P H IL O S O P H IC A L P E R S P E C T IV E S
P h ilo s o p h y
Philosopghy can be defined as a set of ideas that answer questions

about the nature of reality and about the meaning of life. Some important
questions that are commonly asked are …
 What is knowledge?
 What is worth striving for?
 What is just, good, right, or beautiful?
These are the philosophical questions that maybe important in

teachers’ lives.
Philosophy originated with the ancient Greek word P h ilo which means
love and S o ph ie which means wisdom. Philosophy is therefore the love of
wisdom.
Greek thinkers divided philosophy into three (3) branches: metaphysics,

epistemology, and axiology.
1. M e ta p h ys ic s addresses reality. It is divided into two (2) categories:

 O n to lo g y examines issues related to nature, existence, or being.
 C o s m o lo g y is related with the nature and origin of the universe
(the cosmos).
2. E p is te m o lo g y is concerned with the nature of knowledge – how we

come to know about things, or how we acquire knowledge. We acquire
knowledge through our senses, intuition, observation and logic, and
use of scientific method.
3. A x io lo g y and its corollaries relate to value.

 Ethics relate to issues in morality and conduct.
 Aesthetics is concerned
with beauty.
T h e P h ilo s o p h y o f E d u c a tio n
Philosophy of education is a set of

related beliefs that influence what and
how students are taught. Teachers’
philosophy of education guides their
behaviour or performance in the
classroom. The philosophy statement
reflects their personality and values.
Formulating your own philosophy may not be easy since you are just
beginning, but here are some questions you may consider in framing your
philosophical statement.
 What is the purpose of education?

 What content and skills should schoolds develop?
 How should schools teach the content of the curriculum?
 What are the roles of the students and tecahers in the teaching
learning process?
 How should learning be assessed?
In education, metaphysics refers to the knowledge of most worth which

is the curriculum. The subjects in the curriculum contain or describe the
knowledge which teachers should impart to the learners. Epistemology is
concerned with the methods of teaching or how teaching and learning are to
be delivered. Axiology relates to behaviour, civility, appreciation, and
expression.
P h ilo s o p h ica l R o o ts o f E d u c atio n
Philosophies present generalized views of reality. Major philosophies

are hereby presented to help you formulate your own philosophy. Compare
the elements or features of each philosophy and decide which element you
would include in your philosophy of education.
1 .1 C L A S S IC A L P H IL O S O P H IE S
1.1.1 ID E A L IS M
Idealism contends that reality lies in our consciousness or our intellect.

Idealists believe that perfect knowledge of the ideal resided outside humans
as an Absolute or as God. They believe that the spirtitual essence or soul is
the permanent element of human nature that gives them the power to think
and feel. They believe that the ideas that make-up reality have already existed
in the mind of the Absolute or God so that when we know something, it means
we have reached our conscious understanding of these ideas.
Idealism envisions schools that are intellectual centers of teaching and

learning, where teachers guide the students to realize their intellectual
potential and appreciate the finest and enduring achievements of culture.
Idealism is a philosophical approach that has as its central tenet that

ideas are the only true reality, the only thing worth knowing. In a search for
truth, beauty, and justice that is enduring and everlasting, the focus is on
conscious reasoning in the mind. Plato, father of Idealism, espoused this view
about 400 years BC, in his famous book, T h e R e p u blic. Plato believed that
there are two worlds. The first is the spiritual or mental world, which is eternal,
permanent, orderly, regular, and universal. There is also the world of
appearance, the world experienced through sight, touch, smell, taste, and
sound, that is changing, imperfect, and disorderly. This division is often
referred to as the duality of mind and body. Reacting against what he
perceived as too much of a focus on the immediacy of the physical and
sensory world, Plato described a utopian society in which "education to body
and soul all the beauty and perfection of which they are capable" as an ideal.
In his allegory of the cave, the shadows of the sensory world must be
overcome with the light of reason or universal truth. To understand truth, one
must pursue knowledge and identify with the Absolute Mind. Plato also
believed that the soul is fully formed prior to birth and is perfect and at one
with the Universal Being. The birth process checks this perfection, so
education requires bringing latent ideas (fully formed concepts) to
consciousness.
In idealism, the aim of education is to discover and develop each

individual's abilities and full moral excellence in order to better serve society.
The curricular emphasis is subject
matter of mind: literature, history,
philosophy, and religion. Teaching
methods focus on handling ideas
through lecture, discussion, and
Socratic dialogue (a method of
teaching that uses questioning to help
students discover and clarify
knowledge). Introspection, intuition,
insight, and whole-part logic are used
to bring to consciousness the forms or
concepts which are latent in the mind.
Character is developed through
imitating examples and heroes.
Id e a lis t T e a ch e rs
 Believe that the schools are the repositories of eternal truth which have
organized the hierarchical curriculum in education.
 Believe that on top of this hierarchy are the most important subjects
that cultivate abstract thinking – Philosophy, Theology, and
Mathematics.
 Believe in the use of Socratic method – asking probing questions to
stimulate consciousness of students in discovering knowledge.
 Believe that thinking and learning are the processes of bringing latent
ideas to consciousness and logic is encouraged in organizing their
lessons.
 Believe that teachers should lead exemplary lives and be models for
students to imitate.
 Believe that the Internet can make the great book accessible to all, but
they insist that technology should be the means rather than the end in
transmitting knowledge.
Id e a lis m C o n c e p t o f S c h o o l
Idealism believes in refined wisdom. It is based on the view that reality

is a world within a person's mind. It believes that truth is in the consistency of
ideas and that goodness is an ideal state to strive to attain.
As a result, schools exist to sharpen the mind and intellectual

processes. Students are taught the wisdom of past heroes.
Plato in the ‘Republic’ considered, at least speculatively, the possibility

of taking children away from the corrupt society which had given them birth
and in some separate place by means of an expurgated literature giving
mankind a fresh start through a proper education, and also there by building
an ideal state.
School is a place where the capacities of logical thinking, reasoning,

and evaluating of the child are progressively sublimated and developed by
teachers and the school environment into desirable channels so that high
spiritual ideals and values are gained. Such noble mission, according to
idealism may be achieved through proper guidance of teacher given in school.
Hence, Idealists considered school and its impressionistic environment as
greatly essential.
The environment is structured and regimented. There is no emphasis

on the social and affective dimension of the learner. Authoritarianism
permeates the climate of the school.
1.1.2 R E A L IS M
Realists believe that reality exists independent of the human mind. The
ultimate reality is the world of physical objects. The focus is on the
body/objects. Truth is objective-what can be observed.
Aristotle, a student of Plato who broke with his mentor's idealist

philosophy, is called the father of both Realism and the scientific method. In
this metaphysical view, the aim is to understand objective reality through "the
d ilig e n t a n d u n spa rin g scru tin y o f a ll o b serva b le d ata ." Aristotle believed that
to understand an object, its ultimate form had to be understood, which does
not change. For example, a rose exists whether or not a person is aware of it.
A rose can exist in the mind without being physically present, but ultimately,
the rose shares properties with all other roses and flowers (its form), although
one rose may be red and another peach colored.
Aristotle also was the first to teach logic as a formal discipline in order
to be able to reason about physical events and aspects. The exercise of
rational thought is viewed as the ultimate purpose for humankind.
The Realist curriculum emphasizes the subject matter of the physical

world, particularly science and mathematics. The teacher organizes and
presents content systematically within a discipline, demonstrating use of
criteria in making decisions. Teaching methods focus on mastery of facts and
basic skills through demonstration and recitation. Students must also
demonstrate the ability to think critically and scientifically, using observation
and experimentation. Curriculum should be scientifically approached,
standardized, and distinct-discipline based. Character is developed through
training in the rules of conduct.
Realism advocates that reality is outside of our minds. They are not
internal to our minds as idealists claim. Realists believe that the objects we
perceive exist independently of the mind; that whether or not we perceive
these objects, they really exist in the world. Realists assert that the human
mind can know about the real world and that knowledge is a reliable guide to
our behavior.
For the realists, the purpose of

education is to teach students about
the world in which they live. That the
most accurate and efficient way of
learning is through the curriculum of
organized and classified subject-
matter discipline.
R e a list T e a ch e rs
 Believe that teachers should be

equipped with a wide repertoire
of methods in teaching to
achieve their goals.
 Believe that their primary responsibility is to bring students’ ideas about
the world into reality.
 Believe that deductive and inductive logic, and the scientific method
are reliable means to discover knowledge.
 Believe that the inclusion of non-academic activities interfere with the
school’s primary purpose as a center of disciplined academic inquiry.
 Believe in the use of technology as an aid in learning; they recommend
computer program to be as “realistic” and effective as possible.
R e a lism – C o n c e p t o f S ch o o l
Realism believes in the world as it is. It is based on the view that reality
is what we observe. It believes that truth is what we sense and observe and
that goodness is found in the order of the laws of nature.
As a result, school exists to reveal the order of the world and the
universe. Students are taught factual information.
John Amos Comenius in his great didactic describes the unique

function of the school in a manner which will symbolize modern realism. He
said that man is not made a man only by his/her biological birth if he/she is to
be made a man. Human culture must give direction and form to his/her basic
potentialities. This necessity of the school for the making of man was made
vivid or Comenius by reports which had come to him of children who had
been reared from infancy by animals. The recognition of this by Comenius
caused him to consider the education of men by men just as essential to man
birth, as a human creature, as is procreation. He therefore defined education
as formation and went so far as to call the school’s ‘a true forging place of
man.’
Thus, the realism has brought great effect in various fields of education.
The aims, the curriculum, the methods of teaching the outlook towards the
child, the teachers, the discipline, and the system of education all were given
new blood. Realism in education dragged the education from the old traditions,
idealism, and the high and low tides to the real surface.
From this very general philosophical position, the Realist would tend to
view the learner as a sense mechanism, the Teacher as a demonstrator, the
Curriculum as the subject matter of the physical world (emphasizing
mathematics, science, etc.), the Teaching Method as the mastering facts and
information, and the Social Policy of the school as transmitting the settled
knowledge of Western civilization.
1.1.3 E X IS T E N T IA L IS M
The nature of reality for Existentialists is subjective, and lies within the
individual. The physical world has no inherent meaning outside of human
existence. Individual choice and individual standards rather than external
standards are central. Existence comes before any definition of what we are.
We define ourselves in relationship to that existence by the choices we make.
We should not accept anyone else's predetermined philosophical system;
rather, we must take responsibility for deciding who we are. The focus is on
freedom, the development of authentic individuals, as we make meaning of

our lives.
There are several different orientations within the existentialist

philosophy. Soren Kierkegaard (1813-1855), a Danish minister and
philosopher, is considered to be the founder of existentialism. His was a
Christian orientation.
Another group of existentialists, largely European, believes that we

must recognize the finiteness of our lives on this small and fragile planet,
rather than believing in salvation through God. Our existence is not
guaranteed in an after life, so there is tension about life and the certainty of
death, of hope or despair. Unlike the more austere European approaches
where the universe is seen as meaningless when faced with the certainty of
the end of existence, American existentialists have focused more on human
potential and the quest for personal meaning. Values clarification is an
outgrowth of this movement. Following the bleak period of World War II, the
French philosopher, Jean Paul Sartre, suggested that for youth, the existential
moment arises when young persons realize for the first time that choice is
theirs, that they are responsible for themselves. Their question becomes
"W ho a m I a n d w ha t sh ou ld I d o ? ”
Related to education, the subject matter of existentialist classrooms

should be a matter of personal choice. Teachers view the individual as an
entity within a social context in which the learner must confront others' views
to clarify his or her own. Character development emphasizes individual
responsibility for decisions. Real answers come from within the individual, not
from outside authority. Examining life through authentic thinking involves
students in genuine learning experiences. Existentialists are opposed to
thinking about students as objects to be measured, tracked, or standardized.
Such educators want the educational experience to focus on creating
opportunities for self-direction and self actualization. They start with the
student, rather than on curriculum content.
E x iste n tia lis m – C o n c e p t o f S c h o o l
Existentialism believes in the personal interpretation of the world. It is

based on the view that the individual define reality, truth, and goodness.
As a result, schools exist to aid children in knowing themselves and

their place in society.
Students learn what they want and discuss subjects freely.

The school should provide an atmosphere where the individuals

develop in a healthy way. Any subject in school (even extra activities like
athletics, music, etc.) can present existential situations for teaching and the
development of human beings. The aim of school tasks should be to nurture
self-discipline and cultivate self-evaluation.
Mass teaching and mass testing is not advocated in schools. The

schedule must be flexible and open.
Democratic ideals should pervade the
school. Democracy must be the soil in
which the individual grows. It should be
the democracy of unique individuals
who value differences and respect one
another. Self-government, pupil
participation in planning, and the
encouragement of a free atmosphere
characterize the school.
Mechanization and
impersonality should be counteracted
in school. Students’ timetables and
work programmers are computerized. And thus the relationships between the
individual students and the school programmed become an impersonal one.
Besides this, the use of programmed instruction, teaching machines and other
equipment tend to decrease the personal contact between teachers and
pupils. This impersonality is a hazard to the individual development and
growth of the child’s personality. Concern and respect for the individual
student should be a feature of the school.
Nietzche’s attack on public education is based upon his conviction that

the public schools in his country destroyed individual freedom and
responsibility and replaced them with a state-enforced conformity. Since mass
education has been initiated by the state or in some instances by the Church,
many existentialists feel that both of these organizations have overstepped
their bounds. Nietzsche rightly comments “B u t w ho w ill p e rsu ad e m e th a t
to d ay’s (p u b lic) sch o ol h a ve a n a b solu te rig h t to th e ir e xiste nce ?” ... I am not
convinced that in itself the school is necessarily a good thing. It is at best a
benevolent, well-meaning concentration camp. It denies in its actual make up
the very emancipation and enfranchisement of youth that is established to
cherish… Deny, if you can, the dreadful similarity between the mass
education of children in a school and the mass production of goods in a
factory.”
Certainly, the atheistic existentialist has an additional reason for

denying the rights of the Church in educational matters, since he/she
considers the entire theological-administrative structure of the churches as a
grand and fraudulent imposition on the individual’s freedom of choice and
action. Such misuse of education can only be resisted by the existentialist.
The family, too, should not be considered the chief agency of education.
The authoritarian structure of families has crushed the individuality of the
young. Simple because the parents have provided the biological components
of the child, they are not entitled to dictate what the child shall make of
him/herself.
Consequently, we are left with only one conclusion: the individual is the
sole ‘agency” of education. The family, Church, and state should provide an
atmosphere conducive to the individual’s creation of his/her own essence.
Their only role in the educative process in an auxiliary one – a service role.
These agencies should cooperate in “freeing the individual” from the artificial
restraints of organized society so that he/she will be able to choose and act as
he/she wishes.
Existentialism is a philosophy that emphasizes the subjectivity of

human experience. It is more a process of philosophizing than it is a
philosophy. Existentialism asserts that the purpose of education is to help
students find meaning and directions in their lives.
Existentialist author, Jean-Paul Sartre often quoted the phrase

“E xiste nce p re ce de s e ssen ce ,” meaning, we owe our existence to nature but
we define ourselves through our action. We create our own essence by
making our personal choices. When we are thrust into choice-making
situations, we are what we choose to be. We must take responsibility for our
choices.
Existentialists maintain that we create our own definition and make our
own essence by making personal choices in our lives.
E x iste n tia lis t T e ac h e rs
 Believe that the purpose of education is to awaken our consciousness

about our freedom to choose and to create our own self-awareness
that contributes to our identity.
 Believe that students would be trained to philosophize, to question, and
to participate in dialogues about the meaning of life.
 Believe that self-expression, creativity, self-awareness, and self-
responsibility should be developed in the students.
 Believe that open classrooms maximize freedom of choice.

 Believe in self-directed instruction.
 Believe that students should decide what they want to learn and when
to learn it.
1.1.4 P R A G M A T IS M
Pragmatism evaluates the truth and meaning of ideas according to

their physical consequences and practical value. It emphasizes the need to
test the validity of these ideas by acting on them. The best way to validate
ideas empirically is by using the scientific method. For pragmatists, if
something works, it is true.
John Dewey, a pragmatist, related education as preparation for life. He

believed that the function of education was to enhance human potential to be
able to adapt to a constantly changing world. Students should be trained to
construct knowledge as they interact in the world. Pragmatists believe that
students should be encouraged to do researches and apply them to the
solution of a problem.
For pragmatists, only those

things that are experienced or
observed are real. In this late 19th
century American philosophy, the
focus is on the reality of experience.
Unlike the Realists and Rationalists,
Pragmatists believe that reality is
constantly changing and that we
learn best through applying our
experiences and thoughts to
problems, as they arise. The
universe is dynamic and evolving,
a "becoming" view of the world. There is no absolute and unchanging truth,
but rather, truth is what works. Pragmatism is derived from the teaching of
Charles Sanders Peirce (1839-1914), who believed that thought must produce
action, rather than linger in the mind and lead to indecisiveness.
John Dewey (1859-1952) applied pragmatist philosophy in his

progressive approaches. He believed that learners must adapt to each other
and to their environment. Schools should emphasize the subject matter of
social experience. All learning is dependent on the context of place, time, and
circumstance. Different cultural and ethnic groups learn to work cooperatively
and contribute to a democratic society. The ultimate purpose is the creation of
a new social order. Character development is based on making group

decisions in light of consequences.
For Pragmatists, teaching methods focus on hands-on problem solving,

experimenting, and projects, often having students work in groups. Curriculum
should bring the disciplines together to focus on solving problems in an
interdisciplinary way. Rather than passing down organized bodies of
knowledge to new learners, Pragmatists believe that learners should apply
their knowledge to real situations through experimental inquiry. This prepares
students for citizenship, daily living, and future careers.
P ra g m atis m : C o n c e p t o f S c h o o l
Pragmatism sees the school as vitally concerened with and interested

in social change since it needs to prepare the adults of the future to deal with
the planning necessarily involved in the process called society.
John Dewey, has argued that the school exists to provide a

special environment for the formative years of human life. Such a special
environment is needed in the past because civilization is too complex to
provide an economic setting for learning. A special environment such as the
school can also eliminate the unworthy features of human society as it is. And
further the school as special environment can provide a balance of influence
which society itself will not give, providing greater breadth from other cultures
and avoiding parochialism.
With the move from the rural agrarian social structure which existed
before the turn of the century, and with the increase in urbanization,
transportation, communication, and industrialization, over the last 50 years,
the need for social planning has increased at an unbelievable rate. With the
growth of the new problems such as the uses of atomic energy, pollution,
conservation of natural resources, other space, drugs, increasing crime rates,
education of disadvantaged children, others too numerous to list, the school
has become the seed-bed for society. Never before argue the pragmatists,
has there been such a need for social concern and social planning. Simply let
society run rampant down an unplanned path. To do this is court destruction
not just for society, but for the world.
For school the idea that there are no absolute and unchanging truths
offers another dangerous challenge that many feel unable or unwilling to
accept. Traditionally the school has been viewed as society’s instrument for
the preservation and continuation of our cultural heritage. While the
pragmatists would not argue with this, they would carry it a step further. The
school and the whole process of education should be an instrument of social
change and social improvement. Not only should students be taught (a n d

e ve n h e re the p ra g m a tists w ou ld p ro b ab ly p re fer to sa y “n o t o nly sh o uld
stu d en ts b e h e lp ed to le a rn … ”) factual materials, they should deal with social
problems. More conservative schoolmen will argue that this is not the function
of the school and that if the school and the classroom become instrument of
inquiry and of social change, we are moving away from stability and toward
anarchy.
P ra g m atis t T e ac h e rs
 Believe that education is an experimental process – a method of

solving problems that challenges people as they interact with the world.
 Believe that children should learn how to make difficult decisions by
considering the consequences of their actions on others.
 Believe that education should focus in real-life problems to be prepared
to live fully and effectively in society.
 Believe that students should learn the process of problem-solving
rather than by being passive learners as knowledge is being
transmitted to them.
 Believe in collaborative learning where the students share their
interests and problems.
 Believe that interdisciplinary education is better than departmentalized
curriculum in education.
 Believe in taking risk in education to achieve their goal.
 Believe in values-clarification rather than blindly accepting inherited
values.
 Believe that communication technologies such as e-mail and internet
provide opportunities to share ideas, insights, and experiences.
1.1.5 N A T U R A L IS M
N a tu ra lism – C o n c e p t o f S c h o o l
What institution shall train a child? Is education a public or a family

function? These were some of the doubts that were raised during Rousseau’s
time. For Rousseau both were important depending on the needs involved.
Both systems were designed to preserve those fundamental virtues which
constituted the supreme end of lie and the chief good of the state. “T h e y a re
b o th co o pe ra ting fa ctors in a sm a ll sta te, a n d th ro ug h b o th th e co m m o n life ,
h a bits, a n d se n tim e n ts a re co m m u n ica te d to th e yo u ng . B o th u n ite in
d e velo p in g q u ality, fra tern ity, sim p licity, lib e rty, a n d a ll th e o th er virtu e .”
Naturalist believed that the parent’s role is very important in the child’s
education, one should have schools (formalized institutions) whose very
existence is rooted in nature. The period of infancy of the human species, is
greatly prolonged as compare to animals, and thereby demands extended
training which the parents usually
are not able to provide.
Consequently, it is quite “natural”
for man to create institutions
which will enable him/her to learn
the manifold habits, skills, and
knowledge necessary to live a
full human life.
Pestalozzi and Spencer

recognized this and accepted the
school as one of the fundamental
agencies. Pestalozzi conducted
his “natural education” within the
setting of the boarding school.
Spencer, too placed upon the formalized school the responsibility for
educating the “whole child”. He disclaimed the view, accepted at his time, that
the school’s primary job consists of nourishing the mind. Spencer’s
recommendation that school assume responsibility for health and physical
education, vocational, and social education, as well intellectual training,
seems to indicate that he makes the school the primary educational agency.
Furthermore, Spencer’s religious agnosticism aligns him with the

complete secularization of the school, relegating to the Church little or no
educative function. The rise of the modern secular school, might be traced in
part to the influence of the great naturalists, especially Rousseau and
Spencer.
OTHER P H IL O S O P H IE S AND T H E O R IE S RELATED TO

E D U C A T IO N
1.2 M O D E R N P H IL O S O P H IE S
1.2.1 P E R E N N IA L IS M
Perennialism asserts that the primary purpose of education is to bring

students in contact with the truth by cultivating their intellect and sense of
rationality or reasoning power. They contend that there are principles that
students need to learn like the universality of truth, the importance of
rationality, and the power of aesthetics. They also propose the study of
religion to encourage ethical behavior.
Perennialists urge that students read the Great Books – works by

history’s finest thinkers and writers and develop their understanding of the
concepts about human knowledge. They oppose the inclusion of non-
academic subjects in the curriculum because they defeat the primary purpose
of the school which is to develop students’ intellectuality. They endorse
subject-matter curriculum loaded with cognitive subjects that develop
rationality and morality.
Known key theorists include Robert Hutchins and Mortimer Adler.
P e ren n ia lis t T e ac h e rs
 Believe that teachers are the intellectual mentors and models for their
students.
 Believe that fundamental skills such as reading, writing, computation,
and research be developed starting the elementary grades to prepare
them for lifelong learning.
 Believe that subjects with human concern like history, literature, drama,
and art should be included in the secondary school curriculum.
 Believe that their role is to sharpen the student’s intellectual powers
and enhance their moral qualities.
 Believe that electronic version of great books and other classics maybe
viewed by larger audience but this could not be a substitute for reading
the classics.
P e ren n ia lis m – C o n c e p t o f S c h o o l
This is a very conservative and inflexible philosophy of education. It is

based on the view that reality comes from fundamental fixed truths-especially
related to God. It believes that people find truth through structured lessons
and drills.
The ecclesiastical perennialists see the school as concerned with the

secular in education and particularly the training of the intellect. But in addition
to this they see a second aim carefully interwoven through the fabric of
education. They view education as a moral and religious undertaking. The
ecclesiastical perennialists believe that the school cannot separate itself from
the study of those things that have come to man through faith and revelation.
Thus, the Roman Catholic Church in America has continued to maintain a
separate school system so that it might permeates its “secular” teachings with
its moral and religious convictions. If we were to sum up the whole
educational aim of the ecclesiastical perennialists in one sentence it would be,
“Catholic,” and it is at this that the Catholic parochial schools from
kindergarten through graduate school aim.
1.2.2 E S S E N T IA L IS M
Essentialism is a teacher-centered philosophy that adheres to the

belief that the basic skills of literacy (reading and writing) and numeracy
(arithmetic) as well as subject-matter knowledge should be developed in
schools. Subjects such as history,
mathematics, science, languages, and
literature are essential subjects for
secondary education. They believe that
these basic essential subject-matter
need to be mastered to be able to
function effectively in society. These
skills will prepare them to be competent
and skilled individuals for the
competitive global village.
Essentialists argue the schools

and teachers must be committed to their
primary academic function – to teach students with knowledge and skills that
will prepare them to function effectively and efficiently in a democratic society.
Essentialists favor a subject-matter curriculum which should be

cumulative and sequentially arranged, starting with low order thinking skills to
more complex higher order level.
Essentialists do not favor innovative or process – learning approaches

like constructivism which allows students to construct knowledge based on
past knowledge/experiences. They adhere more on teacher-directed

instruction because they believe teachers are trained professionals who
should guide and direct the learning of students.
Known theorists include William Bagley and E.D. Hirsh, Jr.
E s se n tia lis t T e a ch e rs
 Believe that teachers have authority to discipline students.

 Believe that teachers should have mastery of knowledge and skills they
teach.
 Believe in the use of deductive method in teaching.
 Believe that students should learn the “essentials.”
 Believe that only when the students mastered the required
competencies they be promoted to higher level.
 Believe that test scores are the basis for evaluating student’s progress.
1.2.3 P R O G R E S S IV IS M
Progressivists belong to a reform movement that opposed the

traditional education. They were against:
 authoritarian teachers,
 book-based instruction,
 rote memorization, and
 authoritarian classroom management.
Progressivists contend that although knowledge may come from varied

sources, the best way to learn is by actively exploring or be engaging in direct
experiences. They believe the school should be a laboratory for
experimentation. They organize schools around the concerns, curiosity, and
real-world experiences of the learners. They advocate using the project
method and problem-solving which promotes democratic learning
communities in the classroom.
Known theorists include John Dewey and Maria Montessori.
P ro g re ss ivis t T e a ch e rs
 Believe that teachers should possess a repertoire of learning activities

to be used in the teaching-learning process like problem-solving, field
trips, creative artistic expressions, and projects.
 Believe that the child should be free to develop naturally.

 Believe that interest motivated by direct experience stimulates learning.
 Believe that the teacher is a facilitator of learning.
 Believe that there should be close cooperation between the home and
the school.
 Believe that students’ needs, interest, and readiness should be
considered in constructing the curriculum.
1.2.4 S O C IA L R E C O N S T R U C T IO N IS M
This is theory rooted on progressivism. In fact, social reconstructionists

were considered as the more socially-oriented progressivists. They sought to
make schools of a larger social reforms.
They contended that schools need to
investigate and work to solve social,
political, and economic problems, and
eventually create a new society.
Social reconstructionists believe

that people are responsible for their
social conditions. They have the power
to take control of their lives, improve
their human conditions, and build a just
and good society. Education, therefore,
should prepare the students meet the
demand of society.
Paulo Freire is a known theorist.
S o c ial R e c o n s tru c tio n ist T e a ch e rs
 Believe that the school is the ideal place to begin alleviating social
problems.
 Believe in using project method and problem-solving method in
teaching.
 Believe that research is an effective means in solving problems of
society.
 Believe that the intellectual, emotional, and personal needs of the
students should be considered in the learning process.
 Believe that teachers must model democratic principles.
1.2.5 H U M A N IS M
H u m a n is m – C o n c e p t o f S c h o o l
Humanism believes that things are constantly changing. It is based on

the view that reality is what you experience. It believes that truth is what works
right now and goodness comes from group decisions.
As a result, schools exist to discover and expand the society we live in.
Students study social experiences and solve problems.
During the medieval period, and for the many centuries prior to it, the
family and the church were the primary educational agencies. Public
educating passed out of the educational scene with the collapse of the Roman
Empire. During the Dark Ages education was kept alive only in the monastic
schools.
At the height of the Renaissance many schools flourished under private

auspices, usually that of a scholar. Also there were many schools in the court
of the nobles and aristocracy. The complete break with church-controlled
education came with the Reformation.
The reformers maintained that education was a state function. Thus,

one finds the first completely independent public school system in the
Protestant district of Wurtemberg, Germany about the middle of 16th Century.
Humanism regarded education as equal to physical procreation as a

necessity in making man. He had come across reports of instances in which
infants have been reared by animals and as a result followed a pattern of life
closer to that of the animals with which they have lived than to human
patterns. They argued therefore that the culture of man had to give form to the
human potentialities with which we are born, in order for us to be men. And
this is the task of education. This is why they characterized education as “a
tru e fo rg in g p la ce o f m e n .”
1.2.6 M A R X IS M
M a rx ism – C o n c e p t o f S ch o o l
In order to destroy the

influence of the family in the education of the children, state-sponsored

nursery schools were established as rapidly as possible. When a child was
three (3) years old he/she was placed in these nursery schools so that he/she
could be given the “proper start” in his/her educational career and so that
his/her mother can participate in productive labor and the political life of the
nation. These nursery schools assumed the responsibility of the family in
providing food, shelter, exercise, and the general physical development of the
child. Character development, training of the will, and early intellectual
development were given high priority in these preschool years. Habits of
cleanliness, respect for his/her own belongings and for public property
coupled with training in cooperative activities with his/her fellow pupils. The
whole program is designed to make the child a more effective member of the
collective.
Although it is not possible for all children to be placed in nursery

schools and kindergartens, great efforts are expended to enroll as many as
possible. Special attention is given to those children who might be turned
against the Soviet state by parents who do not sympathize with revolution.
And once the child enrolls in the first grade his/her working hours are largely
under the control of the school and communist youth groups.
With the family and the Church “out of the show” the state has a free
hand in designing an educational program to serve its needs. The
centralization of educational power in state is absolute. “S cho o ls a re o p en e d,
a p pro ve d, a n d ru n b y th e state .”
Some countries have centralized control of education. But this control

is in the hands of educators. In the Communist countries, the party leaders
decree what the schools shall teach it, and how shall it be taught. Centers for
educational research exist, but their findings can be applied in schools only
when they are approved by party authorities. The only criterion applied to
such research regarding its acceptability is whether or not it serves the needs
of the state and is in harmony with Marxist ideology.
1.3 L E T ’S A D D T O W H A T Y O U K N O W
After you have gotten an idea of the philosophies you learn let us know
more about each of them.
Philosophy Why Teach What to Teach How to Teach

Constructivism Constructivists The learners are taught In the constructivist
see to develop how to learn. They are classroom, the
intrinsically taught learning teacher provides
motivated and processes and skills students with data or

independent such as searching, experiences that
learners critiquing, and allow them to
adequately evaluating information, hypothesize, predict,
equipped with relating these pieces of manipulate objects,
learning skills for information, reflecting pose questions,
them to be able on the same, making research, investigate,
to construct meaning out of them, imagine, and invent.
knowledge and drawing insights, posing The constructivist
make meaning questions, researching classroom is
of them. and constructing new interactive. It
knowledge out of these promotes dialogical
bits of information exchange of ideas
learned. among learners and
between teacher and
learners. The
teacher’s role is to
facilitate this process.
Knowledge isn’t a
thing that be simply
deposited by the
teacher into the
empty minds of the
learners. Rather
knowledge is
constructed by the
learners through an
active mental process
of development;
learners are the
builders and creators
of knowledge. Their
minds are not empty.
Instead, their minds
are full of ideas
waiting to be
“midwifed” by the
teacher with his/her
skillful facilitating
skills.
Essentialism This philosophy Essentialist programs Essentialist teachers
contends that are academically emphasize mastery of
teachers teach rigorous. The emphasis subject matter. They
for learners to is on the academic are expected to be
acquire basic content for students to intellectual and moral
knowledge, learn the basic skills or models of their
skills, and the fundamental r’s – students. They are

values. reading, ‘riting, seen as “fountain” of
Teachers teach ‘rithmetic, right conduct information and as
“not to radically – as these are essential “paragon of virtue,” if
reshape society to the acquisition of ever there is such a
but rather to higher or more complex person. To gain
transm it the skills needed in mastery of basic
traditional m oral preparation for adult life. skills, teachers have
values and The essentialist to observe “core
intellectual curriculum includes the requirem ents, longer
know ledge that “traditional disciplines school day, a longer
students need to such as m ath, natural academ ic year… ”
becom e m odel science, history, foreign
citize ns.” language, and literature. With mastery of
E ssentialists frow n upon academic content as
vocational courses … ” primary focus,
or other courses with teachers rely heavily
watered down academic on the use of
content… The teachers prescribed textbooks,
and administrators the drill method, and
decide what is most other methods that
important for the will enable them to
students to learn and cover as much
place little emphasis on academic content as
student interest, possible like the
particularly when they lecture method. There
divert time and attention is a hevery stress on
from the academic memorization and
curriculum. discipline.
Progressivism Progressivist The progressivists are Progressivist teachers
teachers teach identified with need- employ experiential
to develop based and relevant methods. They
learners into curriculum. This is a believe that one
becoming curriculum that learns by doing. For
enlightened and “responds to students’ John Dewey, the
intelligent needs and that relates most popular
citizens of a to the student’s advocate of
democratic personal lives and progressivism, book
society. This experiences.” learning is no
group of substitute for actual
teachers Progressivists accept experience. One
teaches learners the impermanence of experiential teaching
so they may live life and the inevitability method that
life fully NOW of change. For the progressivist teachers
not to prepare progressivists, heavily rely on is the
them for the everything else problem-solving
adult life. changes. Change is the method. This
only thing that does not problem-solving

change. Hence, method makes use of
progressivist teachers the scientific method.
are more concerned
with teaching the Other “hands-on-
learners the skills to minds-on-hearts-on”
cope with change. teaching methodology
Instead of occupying that progressivist
themselves with teachers use are field
teaching facts and bits trips during which
of information that are students interact with
true today but become nature or society.
obsolete tomorrow, they Teachers also
would rather focus their stimulate students
teaching on the skills or through thought-
processes in gathering provoking games, and
and evaluating puzzles.
information and in
problem-solving.
The subjects that are

given emphasis in
progressivist schools
are the “natural and
social sciences.”
Teachers expose
students to many new
scientific, technological,
and social
developments, reflecting
the progressivist notion
that progress and
change are
fundamental…. In
addition, students solve
problems in the
classroom similar to
those they will
encounter outside the
schoolhouse.
Perennialism We are all The perennilaist The perennialist
rational animals. curriculum is a universal classrooms are
Schools, should, one on the view that all “centered around
therefore, human beings possess teachers.” the
develop the the same essential teachers do not allow
students’ nature. It is heavy on the students’ interests
rational and the humanities, on or experiences to
moral powers. general education. It is substantially dictate

According to not a specialist what they teach. They
Aristotle, if we curriculum but rather a apply whatever
neglect the general one. There is creative techniques
students’ less emphasis on and other tried and
reasoning skills, vocational and technical true methods which
we deprive them education. Philosopher are believed to be
of the ability to Mortimer Adler claims most conducive to
use their higher that the “G reat B ooks of disciplining the
faculties to ancient and m edieval as students’ minds.
control their w ell as m odern tim es Students engaged in
passions and are a repository of Socratic dialogues, or
appetites. know ledge and w isdom , mutual inquiry
a tradition of culture sessions to develop
w hich m ust initiate each an understanding of
generation.” What the history’s most
perennialist teachers timeless concepts.
teach are lifted from the
Great Books.
Essentialism The main “In an existentialist E xistentialist m ethods
concern of the curriculum , students are focus on the
existentialists is given a w ide variety of individual. Learning is
“to help students options from w hich to self-paced, self-
understand and choose.” Students are directed. It includes a
appreciate afforded great latitude in great deal of
them selves as their choice of subject individual contact w ith
unique matter. The humanities, the teacher, w ho
individuals w ho however, are given relates to each
acceet com plete tremendous emphasis student openly and
responsibility for “to provide students w ith honestly. T o help
their thoughts, various experiences that students know
feelings, and w ill help unleash their them selves and their
actions.” Since ow n creativity and self- place in society,
‘existence expression. F or teachers em ploy
precedes exam ple, rather than values clarification
essence’, the em phasizing historical strategy. In the use of
existentialist events, existentialists such strategy,
teacher’s role is focus upon the actions teachers rem ain non-
to help students of historical individuals, judgm ental and take
define their own each of w hom provides care not to im pose
essence by possible m odels for the their values on their
exposing them students’ ow n behavior. students since values
to various paths … M oreover, vocational are personal.”
they take in life education is regarded
and by creating m ore as a m eans of
an environment teaching students about
in which they them selves and their
freely choose potential than of earning

their own a livelihood. In teaching
preferred way. art, existentialism
Since feeling is encourages individual
not divorced creativity and
from reason in im agination m ore than
decision making, copying and im itating
the existentialist established m odels.”
demands the
education of the
whole person,
“not just the
mind.”
Behaviorism Behaviorist Because behaviorists Behaviorist teachers
schools are look at “people and “ought to arrange
concerned with other anim als… as environm ental
the modification com plex com binations conditions so that
and shaping of of m atter that act only in students can m ake
students’ response to internally or responses to stim uli.
behavior by externally generated P hysical variables like
providing for a physical stim uli,” light, tem perature,
favorable behaviorist teachers arrangem ent of
environment, teach students to furniture, size , and
since they respond favorably to quantity of visual aids
believe that they various stimuli in the have to be controlled
are a product of environment. to get the desired
their responses from the
environment. learners… T eachers
They are after ought to m ake the
students who stim uli clear and
exhibit desirable interesting to capture
behavior in and hold the learners’
society. attention. T hey ought
to provide appropriate
incentives to reinforce
positive responses
and w eaken or
elim inate negative
ones.” (Trespeces,
2005)
Linguistic To develop Learners should be The most effective
Philosophy communication taught to communicate way to teach
skills of the clearly – how to send language and
learner because clear, concise communication is the
the ability to messages, and how to experiential way.
articulate, to receive and correctly Make them
voice out the understand messages experience sending
meaning and sent. Communication and receiving

values of things takes place in three (3) messages through
that one obtains ways – verbal, non- verbal, non-verbal,
from his/her verbal, and para-verbal. and para-verbal
experience of V erb al component manner. Teacher
life and the refers to the content of should make the
world is the very our message, the classroom a place for
essence of man. choice and arrangement the interplay of minds
It is through of our words. This can and hearts. The
his/her ability to be oral or written. N o n - teacher facilitates
express verb al component dialogue among
him/herself refers to the message learners and in
clearly, to get we send through our between him/her.
his/her ideas body language while
across, to make p ara-verb al component
known to others refers to how we say
the values that what we say – the tone,
he/she has pacing, and volume of
imbibed, the our voices.
beauty that
he/she has There is need to teach
seen, the learners to use
ugliness that language that is correct,
he/she rejects, precise, grammatical,
and the truth coherent, and accurate
that he/she has so that they are able to
discovered. communicate clearly
Teachers teach and precisely their
to develop in the thoughts and feelings.
learner the skill There is a need to help
to send students expand their
messages vocabularies to enhance
clearly and their communication
receive skills. There is a need to
message teach the learners how
correctly. to communicate clearly
through non-verbal
means and consistently
through para-verbal
means.
There is need to caution

the learners for the
verbal and non-verbal
barriers of
communication.
Teach them to speak as

many languages as you
can. The more
languages one speaks,
the better he/she can
communicate with the
world. A multilingual has
an edge over
monolingual or bilingual.
1.4 K E Y P R O P O N E N T S O F E D U C A T IO N A L P H IL O S O P H IE S
Philosophy Proponent Quotable Quotes

Idealism Socrates  “T h e u ltim a te o f e d uca tio n is tru th.”
 “T h e p ro ble m o f e vil is th e re su lts o f
ig n ora n ce .”
Plato  “T h e im p o rta nt fu nctio n o f e d uca tio n
is to d ete rm in e w ha t e ve ry
in d ivid u al is b y d o ing th in gs.”
 “T h e u ltim a te g o al o f e d uca tio n is
ju stice .”
Rene Descartes  “I th ink, th e refo re I a m .”
(F a th e r o f M o d e rn  “T h e re a lity o f th e w orld is
P h ilo sop h y) g u ara n tee d to h im b y th e g o od n ess
o f G o d.”
George Berkelay  “T h a t m in d is a ctive a nd is a n a g en t
(F o u n de r o f o f id e a s w h ich a re p a ssive e ffects
M o d e rn Id ea lism ) o f m e n tal a ctivity.”
Realism Aristotle  “T h e u ltim a te g o al o f e d uca tio n is
(F o u n de r o f h a pp in ess.”
R e a lism ; In ven tor  “T h e e nd o f e d uca tio n is n ot
o f F o rm a l L o gic) kn o w le dg e d o ne . It is th e u n io n o f
th e in n a te in telle ct o f th e in d ivid ua l
a n d o f h is w ill.”
 “K n ow le d g e is e xpre sse d in a ctio n.”
Harris Broudy  “T h e va lu e o f e d uca tio n is to live th e
g o od life , th rou g h se lf-re a liza tio n
a n d se lf-in te gra tio n.”
John Locke  “E d uca tion ca n sh a pe th e p up il
(P ro p o ne nt o f a cco rd ing to th e d isp o sition o f th e
T a b ula R a sa o r te ach e r.”
“B la n k S tate ”  “A g o od life is a life o f p le asu re .”
T h e ory; F a the r o f
E n glish
E m p iricism )
John Comenius  “E ffective le a rn ing is d o ne th rou g h
(F a th e r o f M o d e rn ve rn a cula r.”
E d uca tio n)
Johan Heinrich  “T e a chin g sh o uld p ro cee d fro m th e
Pestalozzi kn o w n to th e u n kno w n .”
 “E d uca tion is a so cia l p ro cess o f
o rg a nize d g ro w th a nd
d e velo p m e n t.”
Jean Jacques  “M a n is b o rn fre e b ur e ve ryw h ere is
Rousseau in ch a in s.”
(F a th e r o f M o d e rn  “T h e ch ild is the m o st im p o rta n t
D e m o cra cy) co m p o n e nt o f th e sch o ol syste m .”
Pragmatism/ John Dewey  “L e arn in g b y d o in g.”
Experimentalism/ (F o u n de r o f  “E d uca tion is g ro w th and
Progressivism P ra g m a tism ) co n tin u ou s re co n stru ctio n of
e xp erie n ce .”
Charles Sanders  “T h in kin g th ro ug h p h ilo sop h ical a nd
Pierce scie n tific p ro ble m .”
William James  “T h e ory o f kn ow le dg e is th e th eo ry
o f tru th.”
W hy n o t try to e n jo y yo u r co ffee b y n o w ? Ju st b e fore yo u

sta rt th e a ssessm e n t.
A s ses sm e n t
K in d ly a n sw e r th e ite m s b elo w .
1 . What elements of each of the theory/philosophy of education do you

agree with? (S p ecify th e p h ilo sop h y.)
2. Which of these elements would you incorporate into your own

philosophy?
3. Prepare a comparison matrix of major philosophies.
Idealism Realism Pragmatism

Aims of
Education
Role of
Teachers
Role of
Students
Curriculum
4 . How does each philosophy view education? (S p e cify th e p h ilo sop h y.)
5. Explain briefly but substantively the following:

5 .1 “I th in k, th e refo re I a m .”
5 .2 “E du ca tio n is a so cia l p ro ce ss o f o rg a nize d g ro w th a n d
d eve lo p m e n t.”
5 .3 “M a n is b o rn fre e b u t e ve ryw h ere is in ch a in s.”
5 .4 “E du ca tio n ca n sh ap e th e p u pil a cco rd ing to th e d isp o sition o f th e
te ach ers.”
5 .5 “T h e th e ory o f kn ow le dg e is the th eo ry o f tru th .”
6. Agree or Disagree. Take your side then discuss your point.

6 .1 “E du ca tio n is g ro w th a n d co n tinu o us re co n stru ctio n o f e xp erie n ce .”
6 .2 “E ffe ctive le a rn in g is d on e th ro ug h ve rn acu la r.”
6 .3 “A g o od life is a life o f p le a sure .”
6 .4 A . “T h e u ltim a te g o al o f e d uca tio n is ju stice .”
B . “T h e u ltim a te g o al o f e d uca tio n if h ap p ine ss.”
C . “T h e u ltim a te g o al o f e d uca tion is tru th .”
6 .5 “T h e p ro b lem o f e vil is th e re su lts o f ig n o ran ce .”
7. Discuss the role of each of the word listed below in shaping the minds
of the students:
 Society
 Community
 Education
 Social Interaction
 School Culture
8. Write your own experience on how you were influenced (yo u r

p e rso na lity a n d co n viction s in life ) by:
 Society
 Community (neighborhood)
 School Culture
 Social Interaction (friends and others)
S U G G E S T E D R E A D IN G S
De Asis, L.A. D e m o cra tiza tio n o f E d uca tio n. Modules in Education 331
(Foundation of Education). University of Eastern Philippines, Catarman,
Northern Samar
Lim, L.S. T h e T e a chin g P ro fe ssion
Men in the Modern Education Periods (online source)
Musgrave, P.W. T h e R e la tio nsh ip b e tw ee n S ch oo l a nd T h e C o m m u n ity.
Community Development Journal
REFERENCES:
Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (2015). The Concepts of
Community.
https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/communityengagement/pce_concepts.html
Bilbao, Purita, et.al (2018). T h e T e ach in g P ro fessio n. Lorimar Publishing, Inc.,

Quezon City, Philippines.
Bilbao, Purita, et.al (2016). B eco m in g a 2 1 st C e n tu ry E du ca tio n al L e ad e r.

Lorimar Publishing, Inc., Quezon City, Philippines.
Cohen, L.M. (1999). B ra n che s o f P h ilo sop h y. School of Education, Oregon

State University, USA. https://oregonstate.edu/instruct/ed416/PP1.html
Cohen, L.M. (1999). F o u r G e n era l o r W orld P hilo so p hie s. Section III –

Philosophical Perspectives in Education Part 2. School of Education,
Oregon State University, USA.
https://oregonstate.edu/instruct/ed416/PP2.html
Great Schools Partnership (2013). S ch oo l C u ltu re. The Glossary of Education

Reform https://www.edglossary.org/school-culture/
Hoy, W.K. & Mickel, C.G. (2016). E d uca tio na l A dm in istra tio n. McGraw. Hill
Companies, Inc., New York, NV., USA.
Lim, L.S., Caubic, RA., & Casihan (2014). T h e T e a chin g P ro fe ssion . Adriane
Publishing Co., Inc., Quezon City, Philippines.
Lumen. Understanding Social Interaction. Boundless Sociology.

https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-
sociology/chapter/understanding-social-interaction/
Output Education (2016). T h e T ru e M e a n ing o f E d uca tion .

https://www.outputeducation.com/the-true-meaning-definition-and-
concept-of-education/
School, Community, and Teacher. http://hec.gov.pk.
Thompson, K. (2017). What is society, and should sociologists study it? Social
Theory (A2) Sociological Concepts
https://revisesociology.com/2017/07/07/what-is-society-sociology/
Vega, V.A. & Prieto (2009). S o cial D im e n sio n s o f E d uca tio n. Lorimar
Publishing, Inc., Quezon City, Philippines

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The Teacher and the Community, School Culture, and Organizational Leadership 1

Republic of the Philippines

All photos are from www.google.com/search

1.1 C lassical P h ilo so p h ies

Welcome to this class – The Teacher and the Community, School

This course focuses on society as a context of schools and schooling

This Module I discusses the basic concepts and definitions of society,

As would be educators, I am encouraging you to have the right focus

There are three major branches of philosophy. Each branch focuses on

Branch Metaphysics: What Epistemology: What is the Axiology: What

‘Society is a concept used to describe the structured relations and

The concept of society can be traced to the fourteenth century, when

Durkheim argued that society has an independent reality from

However, the relevance of bounded-societies has been questioned

The concept of sociology has been fundamental to sociology’s ‘self-

Talcott Parsons added another important defining

For most of sociology’s history, sociologists have studied and

There have been many attempts to understand social change by

However, the problem with a ‘bounded sociology’ which limits itself to

A community is actually a small or large social unit (a group of living

th e w ho le o rg a nism . A healthy community has well-

The philosopher and psychologist William James shed light

are thinking about themselves in more complex ways than

The eligibility criteria that scientists, policy makers, and others

T h e T ru e M e a n in g , D e fin itio n a n d C o n c e p t o f E d u c a tio n

Education has various meanings:

According to some learned people, the word “Education” came from

According to a few others, the word “Education” has originated from

By educating an individual we attempt to give him some desirable

As an individual in the society, he has to think critically about various

C o n c e p ts o f E d u c a tio n a s D e fin e d b y W e s te rn P h ilo so p h e rs

Western Concept of Education

Friedrich “E d uca tio n is u n fold in g o f w h a t is a lre a dy e nfo ld ed in th e g e rm .

 A social interaction is an exchange between two or more individuals

 By interacting with one another, people design rules, institutions and

 With symbolic interactionism, reality is seen as social, developed

Key Term Meaning

In sociology, social interaction is a dynamic sequence of social actions

A social interaction is a social exchange between two or more

Social structures and cultures are founded upon social interactions. By

The empirical study of social interaction is one of the subjects of

With symbolic interactionism, reality

The term s c h o o l c u ltu re generally refers to the beliefs, perceptions,

Generally speaking, school cultures can be divided into two basic

Broadly defined, positive school cultures are conducive to professional

 The individual successes of teachers and students are recognized and

 Relationships and interactions are characterized by openness, trust,

Philosopghy can be defined as a set of ideas that answer questions

These are the philosophical questions that maybe important in

Greek thinkers divided philosophy into three (3) branches: metaphysics,

1. M e ta p h ys ic s addresses reality. It is divided into two (2) categories:

2. E p is te m o lo g y is concerned with the nature of knowledge – how we

3. A x io lo g y and its corollaries relate to value.

Philosophy of education is a set of

 What is the purpose of education?

In education, metaphysics refers to the knowledge of most worth which

P h ilo s o p h ica l R o o ts o f E d u c atio n

Philosophies present generalized views of reality. Major philosophies

Idealism contends that reality lies in our consciousness or our intellect.