NAME-PRANAY PANDA

REGD NO.-191704210005
PROGRAMME-B.Sc. MRT 5th SEM
BATCH-2019
SUBJECT-BASIC OF MAGNETIC
RESONANCE IMAGING
TOPIC-MRI PARAMETERS AND
OPTIONS
SUBMITTED TO-Mr. JITENDRA
GUPTA
 MRI Parameters and Options

⮚ Imaging parameters are

– TR
– TE
– T1
– Number of signal averages
– Flip angle
– Field of view (FOV)
– Matrix
– Number of slices
– Slice thickness and gap
– Phase and frequency
– Echo train length (ETL)
– Effective TE (target TE)

⮚ Imaging options are

– Dimensionality (2D vs 3D)

– Bandwidth
– Slice order
– Saturation pulses
– Gradient moment nulling
– Fat suppression
– Physiologic gating and triggering
Echo time
The echo time (TE) refers to the time between the application of the radiofrequency
excitation pulse and the peak of the signal induced in the coil. It is measured in milliseconds.
The amount of T2 relaxation is controlled by the TE.

Repetition time
The repetition time (TR) is the time from the application of an excitation pulse to the
application of the next pulse. It determines how much longitudinal magnetization recovers
between each pulse. It is measured in milliseconds.

TI
The time between the 180° inverting pulse and the 90°-pulse is called the inversion time (TI).
Number of signal averages
Number of excitations (NEX) or number of signal averages/acquisitions (NSA) is a
measurement parameter. It is used to represent the number of times each line of k-space data
is acquired and is primarily used to improve signal-to-noise (SNR) ratio.

Flip angle
The flip angle is an MRI phenomenon by which the axis of the hydrogen proton shifts from
its longitudinal plane (static magnetic field B0) Z axis to its transverse plane XY axis by
excitation with the help of radiofrequency (RF) pulses. A RF pulse is sent in at the
precise Larmor frequency in relation to the gyromagnetic ratio and magnetic field strength.

Field of view (FOV)

Field-of-view (FOV) refers the distance (in cm or mm) over which an MR image is acquired
or displayed. The FOV is typically divided into several hundred picture elements (pixels),
each approximately 1 mm² in size.

Spatial resolution (MRI)

In MRI, spatial resolution is defined by the size of the imaging voxels. Since voxels are three-
dimensional rectangular solids, the resolution is frequently different in the three different
directions.  The size of the voxel and therefore the resolution depends on matrix size, the
field-of-view, and the slice thickness.

Matrix size 
The matrix size is the number of frequency encoding steps, in one direction; and the number
of phase encoding steps, in the other direction of the image plane. Assuming everything else
is constant, increasing the number of frequency encodings or the number of phase steps
results in improved resolution. The frequency encoding depends on how rapidly the FID
signal is sampled by the scanner. Increasing the sampling rate results in no time penalty.
Increasing the number of phase steps increases the time of the acquisition proportionately.
This is why images that have fewer phase encodings than frequency encodings, e.g., 128x256
or 192x256 will be used.

Field of view
The field of view is the size of the area that the matrix of phase and frequency encoding
cover. Dividing the field of view by the matrix size gives you the in-plane voxel size; hence,
increasing the field of view in either direction increases the size of the voxels and decreases
the resolution. Decreasing the field of view improves the resolution.

Slice thickness
The slice thickness determines the depth of the voxel. This is almost always the largest
dimension of the voxel in 2D imaging. Therefore, the resolution perpendicular to the image
plane is the poorest. This is related to the maximum strength of the z-gradient coils as well as
time restraints limiting the number of slices available. 3-D imaging utilizing phase encoding
in the z-direction is capable of smaller slice thickness than 2-D imaging but carries a time
penalty proportional to the number of slices.

Slice thickness and slice increment are central concepts that surround CT/MRI imaging. Slice
thickness refers to the (often axial) resolution of the scan (2 mm in the illustration). Slice
Increment refers to the movement of the table/scanner for scanning the next slice (varying
from 1 mm to 4 mm in the illustration).

Matrix

A matrix is a square arrangement of numbers in columns and rows, and in digital imaging,
the numbers correspond to discrete pixel values. Each box within the matrix also corresponds
to a specific location in the image and corresponds to a specific area of the patient's tissue.

Phase and frequency

The second step of spatial localization is called phase encoding. A magnetic gradient field is
applied briefly in one direction. As the change in frequency is very brief, when the gradient is
switched off, it causes a change in phase that is proportional to the distance.

Frequency encoding is used to determine one axis in the xy-plane of the slice. Just like with
slice selection, remember that the presence of a magnetic field gradient creates a
corresponding gradient in the precession frequencies of the protons along that direction.

Echo train length (ETL)

Echo train length (ETL) refers to the number of echoes used in FSE. The ETL ranges
typically from 3 to 32.

The time interval between successive echoes (or between 180° pulses) is called the echo
spacing (ESP). A typical ESP is on the order of 16 to 20 msec at a typical high field
bandwidth (BW) of 32 kHz (±16 kHz).
Effective TE (target TE)
As the echoes are received at different echo times, the echoes corresponding to the central k-
space lines are the ones that will determine image contrast. The moment at which theses
echoes are acquired is called effective TE.

The apparent or "effective" TE of the image depends on how the FSE-generated echoes are
used to fill K space. A common technique involves filling the center of K space, which
contributes the most to image contrast, using the echoes that have desirable TE

Dimensionality (2D vs 3D)

2D TOF is commonly used for imaging of long vascular segments running perpendicular to
the plane of imaging (like the aorta or femoral arteries).

The 3D mode is used for more compact anatomic regions with various flow directions (like
the carotid bifurcation, circle of Willis, or renal arteries).

3D fast spin-echo sequences are relatively recent MRI pulse sequences that are able to rapidly
image relatively large volumes of tissue with high resolution whilst retaining many of the
advantages of fast spin-echo sequences. 

They are able to create the same weightings as traditional 2D sequences (i.e., T1, T2, proton
density, and FLAIR) with submillimeter isotropic resolution 1,2.

Proprietary sequences
Many manufactures have their own implementation of 3D fast spin-echo.

● 3D MVOX: 3D multivoxel (Canon)

● CUBE (GE): not an abbreviation
● isoFSE (Hitachi)
● SPACE: sampling perfection with application-optimized contrasts using different flip
angle evolution (Siemens)
● VISTA: 3D volume isotropic turbo spin-echo acquisition

Bandwidth
In MRI bandwidth is defined as the amount of frequencies or wavelengths that can be
transmitted or received in a limited amount of time. Bandwidth is measured in cycles per
second or Hertz (Hz). An MRI sequence is designed with two types of bandwidths:
transmitter bandwidth (tBW) and receiver bandwidth (rBW).
Slice order

Slice selection in MRI is the selection of spins in a plane through the object. The principle
behind slice selection is explained by the resonance equation. Slice selection is achieved by
applying a one-dimensional, linear magnetic field gradient during the period that the RF pulse
is applied.

Pulse sequences can be broadly grouped as follows:

● spin echo sequences

● inversion recovery sequences
● gradient echo sequences
● diffusion weighted sequences
● saturation recovery sequences
● echo-planar pulse sequences
● spiral pulse sequences

Spin echo sequences

Spin-echo pulse sequences are one of the earliest developed and still widely used (in the form
of fast spin-echo) of all MRI pulse sequences. The pulse sequence timing can be adjusted to
give T1-weighted, proton density, and T2-weighted images. Dual echo and multiecho
sequences can be used to obtain both proton density and T2-weighted images simultaneously.

The two variables of interest in spin echo sequences are the repetition time (TR) and the echo
time (TE). All spin echo sequences include a slice selective 90-degree pulse followed by one
or more 180 degree refocusing pulses as shown in the diagrams.

Gradient echo sequences

Gradient echo sequences (GRE) are an alternative technique to spin-echo sequences, differing
from it in two principal points:

● utilization of gradient fields to generate transverse magnetization

● flip angles of less than 90°
Compared to the spin-echo and inversion recovery sequences, gradient echo sequences are
more versatile. Not only is the basic sequence varied by adding dephasing or rephasing
gradients at the end of the sequence, but there is a significant extra variable to specify in
addition to the usual TR and TE. This variable is the flip or tip angle of the spins.

Gradient echo
The gradient echo is generated by the frequency-encode gradient, except that it is used twice
in succession, and in opposite directions: it is used in reverse at first to enforce transverse
dephasing of spinning protons and then right after, it is used as a readout gradient (like in
spin-echo MRI) to re-align the dephased protons and hence acquire signal.

Because low flip angles are used, there is some retention of the original longitudinal
magnetization as opposed to the 90° pulse used in spin echo, which completely eliminates the
longitudinal magnetization. As a result, the build-up time for longitudinal magnetization is
significantly reduced for the subsequent pulses, allowing faster image acquisition in GE.
Another important feature of GRE is that the dephasing of spinning protons occurs as a result
of T2* decay which is more rapid than the T2 decay process underlying a spin-echo sequence
(leading to shorter TE) and is susceptible to static field inhomogeneities (leading to
compounded influence of degraded blood products, and metal objects on the signal).   

Diffusion-weighted imaging
Diffusion-weighted imaging (DWI) is a form of MR imaging based upon measuring the
random Brownian motion of water molecules within a voxel of tissue. In general, simplified
terms, highly cellular tissues or those with cellular swelling exhibit lower diffusion
coefficients. Diffusion is particularly useful in tumor characterization and cerebral ischemia. 

Saturation recovery sequences

Saturation recovery (SR) sequences are rarely used for imaging now. Their primary use at
this time is as a technique to measure T1 times more quickly than an inversion recovery pulse
sequence. Saturation recovery sequences consist of multiple 90-degree RF pulses at relatively
short repetition times (TR). An example of a SR sequence is shown below. Residual
longitudinal magnetization after the first 90-degree RF pulse is dephased by a spoiling
gradient (in this case with the slice select gradient). Longitudinal magnetization that develops
during the TR period after the dephasing gradient is rotated into the transverse plane by
another 90-degree pulse. A gradient echo is acquired immediately after this. The signal will
reflect T1 differences in tissues because of different amounts of longitudinal recovery during
the TR period.
Inversion recovery sequences
Inversion recovery pulse sequences are a type of MRI sequence used to selectively null the
signal for certain tissues (e.g. fat or fluid).

Inversion recovery can also generate heavily T1-weighted images and was originally
developed for this purpose.

Physics
Basically, an inversion recovery (IR) pulse sequence is a spin echo pulse sequence preceded
by a 180° RF pulse. The preparatory pulse inverts longitudinal magnetization (Mz), namely, it
flips Mz to its negative value, -Mz. Tissues regain Mz at different longitudinal (T1) relaxation
rates determined by their T1 relaxation times. The spin echo 90° readout pulse is applied at
the exact time when longitudinal magnetization reaches the null point for the tissue we wish
to suppress.
The time elapsed between the preparatory 180° pulse and the 90° readout pulse is
termed time to inversion (TI) (figure 1).

By choosing the appropriate TI, suppression of different tissues is possible:

● short tau inversion recovery (STIR): fat is nulled

● fluid attenuated inversion recovery (FLAIR) or double inversion recovery (DIR): fluid is
nulled
● phase-sensitive inversion recovery (PSIR): no nulling

Image reconstruction
Virtually all IR spin echo sequences use magnitude reconstruction for the final image. What
this means is that pixel intensity reflects only the magnitude of longitudinal magnetization,
disregarding polarity; absolute values (i.e. absolute distances from the null point) are used.
The little-used phase-sensitive inversion recovery (PSIR) reconstruction method, by
contradistinction, takes polarity into account, rendering pixels with negative Mz values darker
and vice versa.

Advantages
● twice the dynamic range of T1W spin echo sequences; due to the 180° inverting pulse,
longitudinal relaxation goes from -Mz to Mz
● using a short TI, longer T1 values will contribute to T2 contrast since inverted values are
also rendered as positive when using magnitude reconstruction (see above) 
● can be performed on a device with any magnetic field strength
● relatively insensitive to magnetic field inhomogeneity (cf. SPIR/SPAIR)
● relatively low susceptibility to metal, particularly useful for imaging patients with
orthopaedic hardware
● can be used with fast (turbo) spin echo sequences, thereby reducing scan times.
Fat suppressed imaging
Fat suppression is commonly used in magnetic resonance (MR) imaging to suppress the
signal from adipose tissue or detect adipose tissue 1. It can be applied to both T1 and T2
weighted sequences. 

Due to short relaxation times, fat has a high signal on magnetic resonance images (MRI).
This high signal, easily recognized on MRI, may be useful to characterize a lesion 2.

However, small amounts of lipids are more difficult to detect on conventional MRI. In
addition, the high signal due to fat may be responsible for artifacts such as ghosting and
chemical shift. The high signal can also mask subtle contrast difference in non-fatty tissue by
filling the dynamic range of the receiver with mostly fat signal. Lastly, a contrast enhancing
tumor may be hidden by the surrounding fat. These problems have prompted development of
fat suppression techniques in MRI 3.

Fat suppression can be achieved in a number of different ways 3,5,6:  

1. difference in resonance frequency with water by means of frequency selective pulses

(CHESS): fat saturation (fat-sat) techniques
2. phase contrast techniques (by same mechanism as black boundary or India ink artifacts)
3. short T1 relaxation time by means of inversion recovery sequences (STIR technique)
4. Dixon method
5. hybrid techniques combining several of these fat suppression techniques such as SPIR
(spectral presaturation with inversion recovery)

Physiologic gating and triggering

Gating techniques use an electrical impulse based on a physiologic marker (e.g., R wave from
an electrocardiographic [ECG] or diaphragm position indicator) to accept, reject, or reorder
data in k-space contributing to an image. Gating techniques fall into two broad categories: (i)
prospective and (ii) retrospective
Cardiac gating or cardiac triggering refers to the gain of information about specific time
points and their use for image acquisition during the cardiac cycle.

Technique
Cardiac synchronization can be achieved by the ECG signal or with a peripheral pulse
transducer. The following two types of cardiac gating exist 1:

Prospective triggering
Data acquisition is carried out subsequently after an estimation of the number of cardiac
phases or segments within an R-R interval has been made. 

The data acquisition is triggered by each R-wave and is stopped after the data of the
estimated number of cardiac phases has been collected.
This acquisition scheme results in a small-time interval of no data collection.

Retrospective gating
Imaging data is acquired constantly throughout the whole cardiac cycle.  

The data segments from the different R-R intervals are then interpolated onto an average
length R-R interval which has been calculated during image reconstruction.

The advantage of this approach is that all cardiac phases are imaged.

The main disadvantage in cardiac MRI occurs in arrhythmia with large R-R interval
variations.

Retrospective gating is essential if mitral or tricuspid valve function is assessed.