Notes

Class 10 Chapter 1 – Resources and Development Geography

Resources: - Everything in our environment which can be used to satisfy our needs and is
technologically accessible, economically feasible and culturally acceptable is termed as ‘Resource’.
Human beings themselves are essential components of resources. They transform material available
in the environment into resources and use them.

Classification of Resources
Resources can be classified in the following ways:
On the basis of
Origin exhaustibility ownership status of development
Biotic and Renewable and Individual, Potential
Abiotic Non-renewable Community Developed stock and
National and Reserves
International

Biotic Resources are obtained from the biosphere and have life. Eg: Human beings, flora and
fauna, fisheries, livestock etc.
Abiotic Resources: All those things which are composed of non-living things are called abiotic
resources. Eg: rocks and metals.
Renewable Resources: The resources which can be renewed or reproduced by physical,
chemical or mechanical processes. Eg: Solar and wind energy, water, forests and wildlife, etc.

Non-Renewable Resources occur over a very long geological time. Take millions of years in
their formation. Some of the resources like metals are recyclable and some like fossil fuels
cannot be recycled and get exhausted with their use. Eg: Minerals and fossil fuels.

Individual Resources are owned privately by individuals. In villages people own lands whereas
in urban areas people own plots, houses and other properties. Eg: Plantation, pasture lands,
ponds, water in wells etc.
Community Owned Resources are accessible to all the members of the community. Eg:
Grazing grounds, burial grounds, public parks, picnic spots, playgrounds etc.
National Resources are owned by a nation or country. All the minerals, wildlife, land within the
political boundaries and oceanic area up to 12 nautical miles (22.2 km) from the coast. Eg:
Roads, canals, railways etc.
International Resources are regulated by international institutions. The oceanic resources
beyond 200 nautical miles of the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) belong to open ocean and
no individual country can utilise these without the concurrence of international institutions
Potential Resources: Resources found in a region but not in use. Eg: Rajasthan and Gujarat
have enormous potential for the development of wind and solar energy.
Developed Resources: Resources which are surveyed and their quality and quantity have been
determined for utilisation. The development of resources depends on technology and level of
their feasibility.
Stock: Resources available but do not have appropriate technology to access, e.g., lack of
technical know how to use hydrogen and oxygen as source of energy; and
Reserves are the subset of the stock. Can be used for future needs. Eg: Water in the dams,
forests etc. is a reserve which can be used in the future.

Development of Resources
Resources have been used by human beings indiscriminately and this has led to the following
major problems.
 Depletion of resources for satisfying the greed of a few individuals.
 Accumulation of resources in a few hands, which, in turn, divided the society into two
segments i.e rich and poor.
 It has led to global ecological crises such as global warming, ozone layer depletion,
environmental pollution and land degradation.
Resource planning is essential for the sustainable existence of all forms of life. 

Sustainable Economic Development means “development should take place without

damaging the environment, and development in the present should not compromise with the
needs of future generations.” I

Earth Summit, 1992 - In June 1992, more than 100 heads of states met in Rio de Janeiro in
Brazil, for the first International Earth Summit. The Summit was convened for addressing
urgent problems of environmental protection and socioeconomic development at the global
level. The Rio Convention endorsed the global Forest Principles and adopted Agenda 21 for
achieving Sustainable Development in the 21st century. It is the declaration signed by world
leaders in 1992 at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED).

Resource Planning
In India, there are some regions which can be considered self-sufficient in terms of the
availability of resources and there are some regions which have acute shortage of some vital
resources. This calls for balanced resource planning at the national, state, regional and local
levels.

Resource Planning in India

Resource planning is a complex process which involves:
(i) Identification and inventory of resources across the regions of the country. This involves
surveying, mapping and qualitative and quantitative estimation and measurement of the
resources.
(ii) Evolving a planning structure endowed with appropriate technology, skill and institutional set
up for implementing resource development plans.
(iii) Matching the resource development plans with overall national development plans.
Resources can contribute to development only when they are accompanied by appropriate
technological development and institutional changes. India has made concerted efforts towards
achieving the goals of resource planning, right from the First Five Year Plan launched after
Independence.
 Land Resources
Plains-43%, Mountains-30%, Plateaus-27%
 About 43 percent of the land area is plain, which provides facilities for agriculture and industry.
 About 30 percent of the total surface area of the country are mountains which ensure perennial
flow of some rivers and provide facilities for tourism and ecological aspects.
 About 27 per cent of the area of the country is the plateau region that possesses rich reserves
of minerals, fossil fuels and forests

Land Utilisation
Land resources are used for the following purposes:
1. Forests
2. Land not available for cultivation
a) Barren and wasteland b) Land put to non-agricultural uses
3. Fallow lands
4. Other uncultivated lands (excluding fallow land)
5. Net sown area

Land Use Pattern in India

The use of land is determined
1. Physical factors: such as topography, climate, soil types
2. Human factors: such as population density, technological capability and culture and
traditions etc.

Waste land is the land put to other non-agricultural uses which include rocky, arid and desert
areas, roads, railways, industry etc. Continuous use of land over a long period of time without
taking appropriate measures to conserve and manage it, has resulted in land degradation. Or
Wasteland: Land which is not fit for cultivation.

Land Degradation and Conservation Measures

Human activities such as deforestation, overgrazing, mining and quarrying have contributed
significantly to land degradation. Mining sites leave deep scars and traces of over-burdening the
land. In recent years, industrial effluents as waste have become a major source of land and
water pollution in many parts of the country.

Some of the ways through which we can solve the problems of land degradation are:
1. Afforestation
2. Control on over grazing.
3. Control of mining activities.
4. Planting of shelter belts of plants.
5. Stabilisation of sand dunes by growing thorny bushes.
6. Proper management of waste lands.
7. Avoid over-irrigation and overuse of fertilizers and pesticides;
8. Proper discharge and disposal of industrial effluents and wastes after treatment.

Soil as a Resource
Soil is the most important renewable natural resource. It is the medium of plant growth and
supports different types of living organisms on the earth.
1. It takes millions of years to form soil upto a few cms in depth.
2. Parent rock or bedrock, climate, vegetation and other forms of life and time are important
factors in the formation of soil.
3. Soil also consists of organic (humus) and inorganic materials.

Classification of Soils
On the basis of the factors responsible for soil formation, colour, thickness, texture, age,
chemical and physical properties, the soils of India are classified in different types as
mentioned below.

1. Alluvial Soils
1. The entire northern plains are made of alluvial soil.
2. The Alluvial Soil is deposited by 3 important Himalayan river systems – the Indus, the
Ganga and the Brahmaputra.
3. It is also found in Rajasthan, Gujarat and eastern coastal plains particularly in the deltas
of the Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna and the Kaveri rivers.
4. The alluvial soil particles appear to be bigger in size.
5. Alluvial soils are very fertile. These soils contain an adequate proportion of potash,
phosphoric acid and lime, which are ideal for the growth of sugarcane, paddy, wheat
and other cereal and pulse crops.

Based on age, alluvial soils can be classified as:

Bangar: Bangar is a less fertile soil and it is an old alluvial soil. The Bangar soil has a
higher concentration of kanker nodules than the Khadar.
Khadar: Khadar is more fertile soil and it is a new alluvial soil. It has more fine particles and
is more fertile than the Bangar.

2. Black Soil
1. This soil is black in colour and is also known as regur soil.
2. The soil is ideal for growing cotton and is also known as black cotton soil.
3. This type of soil is typical of the Deccan trap (Basalt) region spread over northwest
Deccan plateau and is made up of lava flows.
4. The soil covers the plateaus of Maharashtra, Saurashtra, Malwa, Madhya Pradesh and
Chhattisgarh and extends in the south-east direction along the Godavari and the
Krishna valleys.
5. The black soils are made up of extremely fine i.e. clayey material and well-known for
their capacity to hold moisture.
6. Black soil is nutrients rich and contains calcium carbonate, magnesium, potash and
lime.

3. Red and Yellow Soils

1. This type of soil develops on crystalline igneous rocks in areas of low rainfall in the
eastern and southern parts of the Deccan plateau.
2. These soils develop a reddish colour due to diffusion of iron in crystalline and
metamorphic rocks. It looks yellow when it occurs in a hydrated form.
3. Found in parts of Odisha, Chhattisgarh, southern parts of the middle Ganga plain and
along the piedmont zone of the Western Ghats

4. Laterite Soil
1. The laterite soil develops under tropical and subtropical climate with the alternate wet
and dry season.
2. Lateritic soils are acidic (pH<6.0) in nature and generally deficient in plant nutrients. This
type of soil is found mostly in Southern states, Western Ghats region of Maharashtra,
Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Odisha, some parts of West Bengal and North-east
regions.
3. The soil supports deciduous and evergreen forests but Low Humus content.
4. This soil is very useful for growing tea and coffee.

5. Arid Soils
1. Arid soils range from red to brown in colour.
 2. This soil is generally sandy in texture and saline in nature. In some areas, the salt
content is very high and common salt is obtained by evaporating the water.
3. Arid soil lacks humus and moisture.
4. Found in the western parts of Rajasthan. After proper irrigation these soils
become cultivable.
6. Forest Soils
1. These soils are found in the hilly and mountainous areas where sufficient rain
forests are available.
2. The soil texture is loamy and silty in valley sides and coarse grained in the upper
slopes.
3. In the snow covered areas of Himalayas, these soils experience denudation and are
acidic with low humus content. The soil is fertile on the river terraces and alluvial fans.

Soil Erosion and Soil Conservation

The denudation of the soil cover and subsequent washing down is soil erosion. Reasons for
soil erosion include—
(a) Human activities like deforestation, over grazing construction, mining defective method of
fanning etc.
(b) Natural activities like wind, glacier and water flow.

Types of erosion:
1. Gully erosion: The running water cuts through the clayey soils and makes deep channels
known as gullies. This makes the land bad land and in the Chambal basin such land is known
as ravines;
2. Sheet erosion: When top soil over large area is washed away it is known as sheet erosion.
3. Wind erosion: Wind blows loose soil off flat or sloping land.

Different Ways for Soil Conservation

1. Contour Ploughing: Ploughing along the contour lines decelerate the flow of water down the
slopes.
2. Terrace cultivation restricts erosion.
3. Strip Cropping: When a large field is divided into strips and strips of grass are left to grow
between the crops. Then, this breaks up the force of the wind.
4. Shelter Belts: Planting lines of trees to create shelter helps in the stabilisation of sand dunes
and in stabilising the desert in western India. Rows of such trees are called Shelter Belts.
 Chapter 2 – Forest and Wildlife Resources
Biodiversity or Biological Diversity is immensely rich in wildlife and cultivated species, diverse
in form and function but closely integrated in a system through multiple network of
interdependencies. Or
Biodiversity: It is the sum total of all the varieties of species of plants, animals and micro-
organisms living on the earth.

Biosphere: Part of the earth which is covered by living organisms both plants and animals.
Flora: Plants of a particular region or period are referred to as flora.
Fauna: Species of animals are known as fauna.

Flora and Fauna in India

India is one of the world’s richest countries in terms of its vast array of biological diversity. 10 per
cent of India’s recorded wild flora and 20 per cent of its mammals are on the threatened list.
Many of these would now be categorised as ‘critical’.

Classification of species
International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) has classified
plants and animal species in order of existence.
1. Normal Species: Species whose population levels are considered to be normal for their
survival, such as cattle, sal, pine, rodents, etc.
2. Endangered Species: These species are in danger of extinction. For examples- black buck,
crocodile, Indian wild ass, Indian rhino, lion tailed macaque, sangai (brow anter deer in
Manipur), etc.
3. Vulnerable Species: These are species whose population has declined to levels that it is
likely to move into the endangered category in the near future if it continues to decline in the
same manner. Eg: Blue sheep, Asiatic elephant, Gangetic dolphin, etc.
4. Rare Species: Species with a small population may move into the endangered or vulnerable
category if the negative factors affecting them continue to operate. The examples of such
species are the Himalayan brown bear, wild Asiatic buffalo, desert fox and hornbill, etc.
5. Endemic Species: These are species which are only found in some particular areas usually
isolated by natural or geographical barriers. Examples of such species are the Andaman teal,
Nicobar pigeon, Andaman wild pig, Mithun in Arunachal Pradesh.
6. Extinct Species: These species may be extinct from a local area, region, country, continent
or the entire earth. Eg: Asiatic cheetah, pink head duck.

Cause of depletion of the flora and fauna-

 Human beings transformed nature into a resource obtaining directly and indirectly from the
forests and wildlife such as wood, barks, leaves, rubber, medicines, dyes, food, fuel, fodder,
manure, etc. which depleted our forests and wildlife.
 The various factors that cause depletion of the flora and fauna are: - Large-scale
development projects, Shifting cultivation, Mining, Grazing and fuel-wood collection, Over-
population.
 Factors responsible for decline in India's biodiversity like - Habitat destruction, Hunting,
Poaching, Over-exploitation, Environmental pollution, Poisoning and forest fire.

Conservation of Forest and Wildlife in India

 Conservation preserves the ecological diversity and our life support systems - water, air and
soil. Due to conservationist's demand, The Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act was
implemented in 1972, with various provisions for protecting habitats.
 The aim of the programme was protecting the remaining population of certain endangered
species by banning hunting, giving legal protection to their habitats, and restricting trade in
wildlife.
 The central and many state governments established national parks and wildlife
sanctuaries.
 The central government also announced several projects for protecting specific animals,
which were gravely threatened, including the tiger, the one-horned rhinoceros and other
 Project Tiger was also launched by the Government of india in the year 1973 to save the
endangered species of tiger in the country.
 Under Wildlife Act of 1980 and 1986, several hundred butterflies, moths, booties, and one
dragonfly have been added to the list of protected species.
 In 1991 for the first time plants were also added to the list, starting with six species.

Types of Forest
In India, forest resources are owned and managed by the government through the Forest
Department. These are classified under the following categories.
1. Reserved Forests: These forest are regarded as the most valuable as far as the
conservation of forest and wildlife resources are concerned. It cover half of the total forest
land.
2. Protected Forests: Forest Department has declared one-third of the total forest area as
protected forest.
3. Unclassed Forests: These are the forests and wastelands which belong to both government
and private individuals and communities. North-eastern states and parts of Gujarat have a
very high percentage of their forests as unclassed forests.
Reserved and protected forests are also referred to as permanent forests, which are
maintained for the purpose of producing timber and other forest produce, and for protective
reasons. Madhya Pradesh has the largest area under permanent forests.

Community and Conservation

The forests are also home to some of the traditional communities. - Local communities are
struggling to conserve those habitats along with government officials, to secure their long term
livelihood.
Conservation of the forest and wildlife resources is very important. Here are a few steps were
taken by common people:

1. In Sariska Tiger Reserve, Rajasthan, villagers have fought against mining by citing the
Wildlife Protection Act. And Blackbuck, peacocks and nilgai are seen as an integral part
of the Bishnoi villages in Rajasthan and aren’t harmed or killed.
2. The inhabitants of five villages in the Alwar district of Rajasthan have declared 1,200
hectares of forest as the Bhairodev Dakav ‘Sonchuri’. Villages came up with their own
set of rules and regulations which do not allow hunting. They are also protecting the
wildlife against any outside encroachments.
3. The famous Chipko movement in the Himalayas was one successful attempt to resist
deforestation in several areas. The movement has also resulted in community
afforestation.
4. Farmers and citizen’s groups like the Beej Bachao Andolan in Tehri and Navdanya
have shown that adequate levels of diversified crop production without the use of
synthetic chemicals are possible and economically viable.
5. India joint forest management (JFM) programme furnishes a good example for
involving local communities in the management and restoration of degraded forests.
6. Mahua is worshipped by the the Mundas and the Santhal of Chota Nagpur region while
tamarind and mango are worshipped by the tribes of Odisha and Bihar during weddings.
In Indian Hindu society, peepal trees is considered sacred.
 Chapter 3 –Water Resources
Fresh water:
96.5 % of the total volume of world’s water is estimated to exist as oceans and only 2.5 per cent
exists as fresh water. 70% of the fresh water occurs as ice sheets and glaciers in Antarctica,
Greenland and the mountainous regions of the world. Less than 30% is stored as
groundwater in the world’s acquirers.
Fresh water is mainly obtained from surface run off and ground water. This is continually being
renewed and recharged through the hydrological cycle. All the water moves within the
hydrological cycle making water a renewable resource.
Three fresh water sources are:
Precipitation—from rainfall
Surface water—in rivers, lakes, etc.
Ground water—water stored in underground acquirers which gets recharged by rainfall.

Water scarcity:- Water scarcity means shortage of water. It is usually associated with regions
having low rainfall or drought prone areas.

Many other reasons which lead to scarcity of water

 Large growing population
 More water required for irrigation purposes to facilitate higher food production
 There is greater demand for water with growing urbanization and industrialization
 Over exploitation.

Main causes of water pollution:

Domestic wastes, especially urban sewers; industrial wastes are disposed off in the water
without proper treatment; chemical effluents from industries and from aricultural sector; and
many human activities, e.g., religious rituals and immersing of idols, etc. in the water also
pollute water.

Measures for water conservation and manage:

 Do not overdraw the ground water, recharge it by techniques like rainwater
harvesting; tapping rainwater in reservoirs, watershed development programmes,
etc.
 Avoid wastage of water at all levels and do not pollute the water.
 Adopting water conserving techniques of irrigation, e.g., drip irrigation and
sprinklers etc., especially in dry areas.
 To safeguard ourselves from health hazards.
 To ensure food security, continuation of our livelihoods and productive activities.
 To prevent degradation of our natural ecosystems.

Multi-Purpose River Projects

Jawahar Lai Nehru pro-claimed that multipurpose projects are ‘The Temples of Modem
India’, because they were thought of as the vehicle that would lead the nation to
development and progress.
In ancient times, we used to conserve water by constructing sophisticated hydraulic structures
like dams built of stone rubble, reservoirs or lakes, embankments and canals for irrigation. We
have continued this tradition in modern India by building dams in most of our river basins.

Dams
A dam is a barrier across flowing water that obstructs, directs or retards the flow, often creating a
reservoir, lake or impoundment. “Dam” refers to the reservoir rather than the structure.

Uses of Dam or Advantages of multi-purpose river projects:

 To impound rivers and rainwater that can be used later to irrigate agricultural fields.
 For electricity generation.
 Water supply for domestic and industrial uses.
 Flood control.
 Recreation, inland navigation and fish breeding.

Side effects of Creating Dams or Disadvantages of Multi-purpose river projects

 Regulating and damming of rivers affect their natural flow.
 Poorer the habitats for the rivers’ aquatic life.
 Excessive sedimentation at the bottom of the reservoir.
 They affect the fertility levels of the soil;
 Dams created on the floodplains submerge the existing vegetation and soil leading to its
decomposition over a period of time.
 Creating of large dams has been the cause of many new environmental movements like
the ‘Narmada Bachao Andolan’ and the ‘Tehri Dam Andolan’ etc.
 Many times local people had to give up their displacement, land & livelihood.
Most of the objections to the projects arose due to their failure to achieve the purposes for
which they were built. Most of the dams were constructed to control floods but, these dams have
triggered floods. Dams have also caused extensive soil erosion. Excessive use of water has
resulted in earthquakes, caused water-borne diseases and pests and pollution.

Movements against Mult-purpose river projects

 These projects cause of many new social movements like the 'Narmada Bachao
Andolan and the Tehri Dam Andolan' etc.
 This is due to the large-scale displacement of local communities.
 Inter-state water disputes are also becoming common with regard to sharing the costs
and benefits of the multi-purpose project.

Rain Water Harvesting

Rainwater harvesting is a simple method by which rainfall is collected for future usage. The
collected rainwater may be stored, utilised in different ways or directly used for recharge
purposes.
Different methods have been adopted in different areas for Rain Water Harvesting.
1. In hill and mountainous regions, people have built diversion channels like the ‘guls’ or
‘kuls’ of the Western Himalayas for agriculture.
2. “Rooftop rainwater harvesting” is commonly practised to store drinking water,
particularly in Rajasthan.
3. In the flood plains of Bengal, people developed inundation channels to irrigate their
fields.
4. In arid and semi-arid regions, agricultural fields were converted into rain-fed storage
structures that allowed the water to stand and moisten the soil such as ‘khadins’ in
Jaisalmer and ‘Johads’ in other parts of Rajasthan.
 5. The tankas are part of the well-developed rooftop rainwater harvesting system and
are built inside the main house or the courtyard. This is mainly practised in Rajasthan,
particularly in Bikaner, Phalodi and Barmer areas for saving the rainwater.
6. Many houses have constructed underground rooms adjoining the ‘tanka’ to beat the
summer heat as it would keep the room cool.
7. Tamil Nadu is the first state in India which has made rooftop rainwater harvesting
structure compulsory to all the houses across the state. There are legal provisions to
punish the defaulters.

Chapter 4 – Agriculture
India is an agricultural country because of the following reasons:
1. Two-third of its population is engaged in agricultural activities.
2. Agriculture is a primary activity and produces most of the food and food grains.
3. It produces raw materials for our various industries, e.g., cotton textile, sugar
industry.
4. Agricultural products, like tea, coffee, spices are exported and earn foreign
exchange.

Types of Farming
The cultivation methods depend upon the characteristics of the physical environment,
technological know-how and socio-cultural practices. There are various types of farming systems
in different parts of India are:

1. Primitive Subsistence Farming

It is a ‘slash and burn’ agriculture. Farmers clear a patch of land and produce food crops. When
the soil fertility decreases, the farmers shift and clear a fresh patch of land for cultivation. It is
known as jhumming in north-eastern states. It is done with the help of primitive tools like hoe,
dao and digging sticks, and family/community labour.
 This type of farming depends on monsoon and natural fertility of the soil.
 This farming is practised in a few parts of India.

2. Intensive Subsistence Farming

 This type of farming is practised in areas of high population pressure on land.
 It is labour-intensive farming, where high doses of biochemical inputs and irrigation are
used for higher production.

3. Commercial Farming
This type of farming uses higher doses of modern inputs such as high yielding variety (HYV)
seeds, chemical fertilisers, insecticides and pesticides to obtain higher productivity.
Plantation is a type of commercial farming in which a single crop is grown on a large area. All
the produce is used as a raw material in industries. Eg: Tea, Coffee, Rubber, Sugarcane.

Cropping Pattern
India has three cropping seasons: Rabi, Kharif & Zaid
Rabi Kharif Zaid

Sowing Winter from Beginning of the In between the Rabi and the Kharif
Season October to rainy season between seasons, there is a short season during the
December April and May summer months known as the Zaid season
(in the months of March to July)
Harvesting Summer from September-October
 Season April to June

Important Wheat, Barley, Paddy, Maize, Watermelon, Muskmelon, Cucumber,

Crops Peas, Gram and Jowar, Bajra, Tur Vegetables and Fodder crops
Mustard. (Arhar),
Moong, Urad,
Cotton, Jute,
Groundnut and
Soyabean.

Major Crops in India

A variety of food and non-food crops and Major crops grown in India are rice, wheat, millets,
pulses, tea, coffee, sugarcane, oil seeds, cotton and jute, etc.

Rice:
 Staple food crop
 Our country is the second largest producer of rice in the world after China.
 It is a kharif crop which requires high temperature, (above 25°C) and high humidity with
annual rainfall above 100 cm.
 It is grown in the plains of north and north-eastern India, coastal areas and the deltaic regions.

Wheat
 The second most important cereal crop.
 It is the main food crop, in north and north-western part of the country.
 This rabi crop requires a cool grawing season with 50 to 75 cm of annual rainfall and a bright
sunshine at the time of ripening.
 Wheat growing regions are the Ganga-Satluj plains in the north-west and black soil region of
the Deccan.

Millets:
 Jowar, bajra and ragi are the important millets grown in India.
 Thoso have very high nutritional value.
Jowar Bajra Ragi

3rd most important food crop with Grows well on sandy It is a crop of dry regions.
respect to area and production. soils and shallow black
soil.
It is a rain-fed crop mostly grown Grows well on red, black,
in the moist areas. sandy, loamy soils.

Mainly produced in Maharashtra, Major producing states Major producing states are
Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and are Rajasthan, Uttar Karnataka, Tamil Nadu,
Madhya Pradesh. Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh,

Maize
1. It is a Kharif crop.
2. It requires temperature between 21°C to 27°C and grows well in old alluvial soil.
3. It is used both as food and fodder.
 4. Major maize-producing states are Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar,
Andhra Pradesh and Telangana.
Pulses
1. India is the largest producer and consumer of pulses in the world.
2. Pulses are the major source of protein in a vegetarian diet.
3. Major pulses grown in India are Tur (Arhar), Urad, Moong, Masur, Peas and Gram.
4. Pulses are mostly grown in rotation with other crops so that the soil restores fertility.
5. Major pulse producing states are Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Uttar
Pradesh and Karnataka.

Food Crops other than Grains

Sugarcane
1. It is a tropical as well as a subtropical crop.
2. It grows well in hot and humid climates with a temperature of 21°C to 27°C and annual
rainfall between 75cm to 100cm.
3. Needs manual labour from sowing to harvesting.
4. India is the second largest producer of sugarcane only after Brazil.
5. Sugarcane is the main source of Sugar, Gur (Jaggery), Khansari.
6. The major sugarcane-producing states are Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil
Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Bihar, Punjab and Haryana.

Oil Seeds
Different oil seeds are grown covering approximately 12% of the total cropped area of India.
Main oil-seeds produced in India are Groundnut, Mustard, Sesamum (til), Coconut, Soyabean,
Cotton seeds and Sunflower.

Tea
1. It is also an important beverage crop introduced by the British in India.
2. The tea plant grows well in tropical and sub-tropical climates with deep and fertile well-
drained soil, rich in humus and organic matter.
3. Tea bushes require warm and moist frost-free climate all through the year.
4. Tea is a labour-intensive industry.
5. Major tea producing states are Assam, hills of Darjeeling and Jalpaiguri districts, West
Bengal, Tamil Nadu and Kerala.

Coffee
Coffee is produced in India and this variety of coffee is in great demand all over the world.
Its cultivation is confined to the Nilgiri in Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu.

Horticulture Crops
India is a producer of tropical as well as temperate fruits.
Major crops produced are pea, cauliflower, onion, cabbage, tomato, brinjal and potato.

Non-Food Crops

Rubber Fibre Cotton Jute

It is an equatorial crop. Cotton, Jute, Hemp It is a Kharif crop. It is known as the

and Natural Silk are golden fibre.
the four major fibre
crops.
 It requires a moist and Cotton, Jute and It requires high It grows fertile soils in
humid climate with Hemp are grown in Temperature, light the flood plains. High
rainfall of more than the soil. rainfall, 210 frost-free temperature is
200cm and temperature days and bright sunshine required for its growth.
above 25°C. for its growth.

It is an important obtained from Cotton grows It is used in making

industrial raw material cocoons of the Well in black cotton soil gunny bags, mats,
silkworms fed on of the Deccan plateau. ropes, yarn, carpets
green leaves and other artefacts.

Mainly grown in Kerala, Rearing of silkworms Major cotton-producing Major jute producing
Tamil Nadu, Karnataka for the production of states are Maharashtra, states are West Bengal,
silk fibre is known as Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Assam, Odisha
Sericulture. Karnataka, Andhra and Meghalaya.
radesh.

Technological and Institutional Reforms

 More than 60 % of India's population depends on agriculture.
 After independence, major institutional reforms such as Collectivisation, consolidation of
holdings, cooperation and abolition of zamindari, etc. were given priority.
 In 1960s and 1970s, technical reforms such as Green Revolution and White Revolution
also introduced to improve the condition of agriculture.
 In 1980s and 1990s, various provisions for crop insurance, establishment of Grameen
banks, cooperative societies and banks for providing loan facilities to the farmers at
lower rates of interest.
 Kissan Credit Card (KCC), Personal Accident Insurance Scheme (PAIS) are some other
schemes introduced by the Government of India for the benefit of the farmers.
 Special weather bulletins and agricultural programmes for farmers were introduced on the
radio and television.
 Minimum support price (MSP), remunerative and procurement prices for important crops to
check the exploitation of farmers by speculators and middlemen.

Contribution of agriculture to the national economy, employment and output

 In 2020-21 about ….. Percent of the total workforce of India was employed by the farm
sector.
 India's GDP growth rate is increasing over the years but it is not generating sufficient
employment opportunities in the country.
 Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), agricultural universities and horticulture
development, research and development in the field of meteorology and weather forecast,
etc. are a few of the initiatives introduced by the government to improve Indian agriculture.

Food Security
 The government designed national food security system to ensure the food security to every
citizen:
 It consists of two components (a) buffer stock and (b) public distribution system (PDS)
 Food Corporation of India (FCI) is responsible for procuring and stocking food grains,
whereas distribution is ensured by public distribution system (PDS).
 PDS is a programme which provides food grains and other essential commodities at
subsidised prices in rural and urban areas.
The primary objective of national food security are:
 Ensure availability of food grains to the common people at an affordable price.
 The poor should have access to food.
 Growth in agriculture production
 Fixing the support price for procurement of wheat and rice, to maintain their stocks.

Impact of Globalisation on Agriculture

 Globalisation is present at the time of colonisation.
 After 1990, the agricultural products of India are not able to compete with the developed
countries because of the highly subsidised agriculture in those countries.
 Genetic engineering is revolutionising the agricultural production now a days.
 Organic farming is also in fashion these days because it is practised without factory made
chemicals such as fertilisers and pesticides. Hence, it does not affect environment in a
negative manner.
 Indian farmers should diversify their cropping pattern from cereals to high-value crops which
will increase incomes and reduce environmental degradation simultaneously.

Chapter 5 – Minerals and Energy Resources 

What is a Mineral?
Mineral is defined as a “homogenous, naturally occurring substance with a definable internal
structure.” Minerals are found in varied forms in nature, ranging from the hardest diamond
to the softest talc. Rocks are combinations of homogeneous substances called minerals.
Mode of Occurrence of Minerals
Minerals are usually found in “ores”. The accumulation of any mineral mixed with other
elements is called ores.
Minerals generally occur in the following forms:
 In igneous and metamorphic rocks minerals may occur in the cracks, crevices,
faults or joints. The smaller occurrences are called veins and the larger are called
lodes. Example: tin, copper, zinc and lead etc.
 In sedimentary rocks, a number of minerals occur in beds or layers. Example: Coal,
iron gypsum. Potash salt, sodium salt etc.
 Minerals also found in the decomposition of surface rocks, and the removal of
soluble constituents, leaving a residual mass of weathered material containing ores.
Example: Bauxite.
 Minerals may occur as alluvial deposits in sands of valley floors and the base of
hills known as placer deposits Example: Gold, silver, tin and platinum etc.
 The ocean waters contain vast quantities of minerals, Example: Common salt,
bromine and magnesium etc.

Classification of Minerals

Minerals can be classified into three types:

Metallic Minerals Non-Metallic Minerals Energy Minerals

1. Metallic Minerals
These minerals contain metals. These are of three types:
A. Ferrous minerals: - These minerals contain iron.
It accounts for about three-fourths of the total value of the production of metallic minerals.
They provide a strong base for the development of metallurgical industries.

Iron Ore
 It is the basic mineral and the backbone of industrial development.
 Magnetite is the finest iron ore with a very high content of iron up to 70 percent.
 Hematite ore is the most important industrial iron ore in terms of the quantity used, but has
slightly lower iron content than magnetite. (50-60 %),
 India is rich in good quality iron ores.
 The major iron ore belts in India are:
- Odisha Jharkhand belt
-Durg-Bastar-Chandrapur belt Chhattisgarh and Maharashtra
- Bellary-Chitradurga-Chikmaglur-Tumkur belt in Karnataka
- Maharashtra-Goa bolt in Goa and Ratnagiri district of Maharashtra

Manganese
 It is mainly used in the manufacturing of steal and Ferro-manganese alloy.
 Nearly 10 kg of manganese is required to manufacture 1 tonne of steel.
 It is also used in manufacturing bleaching powder, insecticides and paints.
 Orissa is the largest producer of manganese ores in India

B. Non-Ferrous Minerals: - These minerals do not contain iron.

They play role in a number of metallurgical, engineering and electrical industries.
Ex. of Non-ferrous minerals includes copper, bauxite, lead, zinc and gold.

Copper
 Malleable, ductile and good conductor of heat and electricity.
 Mainly used in electrical cables, electronics and chemical industries.
 The Balaghat mines in Madhya Pradesh, Khetri mines in Rajasthan and Singhbhum district of
Jharkhand are leading producers of copper.

Bauxite
 Bauxite deposits are formed by the decomposition of a wide variety of rocks rich in aluminium
silicates.
 Aluminium is obtained from bauxite. Aluminium has good conductivity and great malleability.
 Deposits are mainly found in the Amarkantak plateau, Maikal hills and the plateau region of
Bilaspur-Katni.

2. Non-Metallic minerals: - These minerals do not contain metal.

Mica
 It is a mineral made up of a series of plates or leaves
 it can be clear, black, green red yellow or brown
 Mica is one of the most indispensable mineral used in electric and electronic industries due to its
excellent di-electric strength, low power loss factor insulating properties and resistance to high
voltage,
 Leading producer are northern edge of the Chota Nagpur plateau. Koderma Gaya-Hazaribagh belt
of Jharkhand.
 Also produce in Ajmer, Rajasthan, Nellore mien belt of Andhra Pradesh

Limestone
 Limestone is found in association with rocks composed of calcium carbonates or calcium and
magnesium carbonates
 It is the basic raw martial for the cement industry and essential for smelting iron ore in the blast
furnace
Conservation of Minerals
Why to conserve minerals?
 Mineral deposits are present in very less quantity in the world i.e. 1% of the earth's crust.
 The geological processes of mineral formation are so slow while the consumption rate is very fast
therefore; mineral resources are finite and non-renewable.
 So, we have to conserve minerals so that it is available for future generation.
How to conserve minerals?
 A joint effort has to be made in order to use our mineral resources in a planned and sustainable
manner.
 Improved technologies need to be constantly evolved to allow use of low grade ores at low costs.
 Recycling of metals, using scrap metals and other substitutes.

3. Energy Resources
 Energy is needed to cook, to provide light and heat, to propel vehicles and to drive machinery in
industries.
 It can be generated from fuel minerals like coal, petroleum natural gas, and uranium from
electricity.
 Energy resources can be classified as
1. Conventional Sources: It includes firewood, cattle dung cake, coal, petroleum, natural
gas and electricity.
2. Non-Conventional Sources: It includes solar, wind, tidal, geothermal, biogas and
atomic energy

Conventional Sources of Energy

Coal:
1. It is the most abundantly available fossil fuel.
2. It is used for power generation, to supply energy to the industry as well as for
domestic needs.
3. Lignite is a low grade brown coal, which is soft with high moisture content.
4. Coal that has been buried deep and subjected to increased temperatures
is bituminous coal.
5. Anthracite is the highest quality of hard coal.
6. Jharia, Raniganj, Bokaro are important coalfields.
Petroleum
1. It provides fuel for heat and lighting, lubricants for machinery and raw materials for a
number of manufacturing industries.
2. Petroleum refineries act as a “nodal industry” for synthetic textile, fertiliser and
numerous chemical industries.
3. Mumbai High, Gujarat and Assam are major petroleum production areas in India.

Natural Gas
1. Natural gas is an important clean energy resource. It is considered an environment-
friendly fuel.
2. The power and fertilizer industries are the key users of natural gas.
3. Compressed Natural Gas (CNG ) is used in vehicles to replace liquid fuels.
4. Large reserves of natural gas have been discovered in the Krishna-Godavari basin

Electricity
Electricity is generated mainly in 2 ways:
1. By running water which drives hydro turbines to generate Hydro Electricity. It is a
renewable resource of energy. India has a number of multi-purpose projects like the
Bhakra Nangal, Damodar Valley Corporation, the Kopili Hydel Project.
2. By burning other fuels such as coal, petroleum and natural gas to drive turbines to
produce Thermal Power. It uses non-renewable fossil fuels for generating electricity.
Non-Conventional Sources of Energy

The renewable energy sources like solar energy, wind, tide, biomass and energy from waste
material are called Non-Conventional Energy Sources.

Nuclear or Atomic Energy :- Nuclear Energy is obtained by altering the structure of atoms.
Uranium and Thorium are used for generating atomic or nuclear power.

Solar Energy :- Solar energy is produced by the Sun’s light. Photovoltaic technology
converts sunlight directly into electricity.

Wind Power :- Wind Energy or Power is the use of wind to generate electricity. Wind
turbines are used for this purpose. The largest wind farm cluster is located in Tamil Nadu
from Nagarcoil to Madurai.

Biogas: -Biogas is a type of biofuel that is naturally produced from the decomposition of
organic waste. Biogas is the most efficient use of cattle dung. It improves the quality of
manure.

Tidal Energy : -Tidal energy is the form of hydropower that converts the energy obtained
from tides into useful forms of power, mainly electricity. In India, the Gulf of Khambhat, the
Gulf of Kachchh in Gujarat on the western coast and Gangetic delta in Sunderban regions of
West Bengal provide ideal conditions for utilising tidal energy.

Geo-Thermal Energy: -When heat and electricity are produced by using the heat from the
interior of the earth, it is known as Geo-Thermal Energy. In India, geothermal energy is
harnessed from Parvati valley near Manikarn in Himachal Pradesh and from Puga Valley,
Ladakh.
Conservation of Energy Resources
 Every sector of the national economy like agriculture, industry, transport, commercial and
domestic needs inputs of energy.
 There is an urgent need to develop a sustainable path for energy development.
 Here are some ways that each one of us can contribute to save energy resources:
 Using public transport systems instead of individual vehicles
 Switching off electricity when not in use
 Using power-saving devices.
 Using non-conventional sources of energy
 Increased use of renewable energy resources.