University of Rizal System-Morong Campus

Province of Rizal
College of Engineering
Electrical Engineering Department

Industrial Electronics

ASSIGNMENT #1 Principles of Steady-

State Converter Analysis

John Maledrex P. Mandanas

1011801054
3EE-A

Engr. Jessie O.Barreto

Instructor

Date:
January 27, 2021
 CHAPTER 2. Introduction
SECTION 2.1 Introduction to Principles of Steady-State Converter Analysis

Copy-Paste from the Book Paragraph Summary

1st Paragraph In the previous chapter, the The switch generates a

buck converter was introduced rectangular waveform 𝑣𝑠 (𝑡)
as a means of reducing the dc The voltage vs(t) is equal to
voltage, using only the dc input voltage 𝑉𝑔 when
nondissipative switches,
the switch is in position 1 and
inductors, and capacitors. The
switch produces a rectangular equal to zero when the
waveform 𝑣𝑠 (𝑡)as illustrated in switch is in position 2. In
Fig. 2.1. The voltage 𝑣𝑠 (𝑡) is practice, the switch is made
equal to the dc input voltage Vg using power semiconductor
when the switch is in position 1, devices, such as transistors
and is equal to zero when the and diodes, which are
switch is in position 2. In controlled to switch on and
practice, the switch is realized off as required to perform
using power semiconductor the function of the ideal
devices, such as transistors and switch. The switching
diodes, which are controlled to frequency 𝑓𝑠 , equal to the
turn on and off as required to
inverse of the switching
perform the function of the
period 𝑇𝑠 , is generally within
ideal switch. The switching
frequency fs, equal to the the range of 1 kHz–1 MHz,
inverse of the switching period depending on the switching
Ts, generally lies in the range of speed of the semiconductor
1 kHz–1 MHz, depending on the devices. The duty ratio D is
switching speed of the the fraction of the time the
semiconductor devices. The switch spends in position 1
duty ratio D is the fraction of and the number is between
time that the switch spends in zero and one.
position 1, and is a number
between zero and one. The
complement of the duty ratio, D
is defined as (1 − D).
2nd Paragraph The switch reduces the dc The switch reduces the voltage
component of the voltage: the dc component: the output
switch output voltage 𝑣𝑠 (𝑡)) voltage 𝑣𝑠 (𝑡) switch has a dc
has a dc component that is less component that is less than the
than the converter dc input input voltage dc converter Vg.
voltage 𝑉𝑔 . From Fourier From the Fourier analysis, we
analysis, we know that the dc know that the dc component of
component of 𝑣𝑠 (𝑡) is given by 𝑣𝑠 (𝑡) is determined by its
its average value average value 𝑣𝑠 .
So the average value, or dc

vs, or
the integral is given by the area
under the curve, or DTsVg. The
component, of vs(t) is equal to
average value is therefore
the duty cycle times the dc
input voltage Vg. The switch
So, the average value, or dc reduces the DC voltage by the
component, of vs(t) is equal to factor D.
the duty cycle times the dc
input voltage 𝑉𝑔 . The switch
reduces the dc voltage by a
factor of D.

3th Paragraph The network of Fig. 2.3 also The network also allows the
allows control of the output. output control, which is the
Figure 2.4 is the control control characteristic of the
characteristic of the converter. converter. The buck converter
The output voltage, given by Eq. has a linear control feature.
(2.3), is plotted vs. duty cycle. Also, the output voltage is less
The buck converter has a linear than or equal to the input
control characteristic. Also, the voltage, as 0 ≤ D ≤ 1. Feedback
output voltage is less than or systems are often designed to
equal to the input voltage, since adjust the duty cycle D in order
0 ≤ D ≤ 1. Feedback systems are to control the output voltage of
often constructed that adjust the converter. Inverters or
the duty cycle D to regulate the power amplifiers may also be
converter output voltage. built in which the duty cycle
Inverters or power amplifiers varies slowly with time and the
can also be built, in which the output voltage follows.
duty cycle varies slowly with
time and the output voltage
follows.
4th Paragraph The buck converter is just one The Buck converter is just one
of many possible switching of many potential converters
converters. Two other for switching. Two other
commonly used converters, commonly used converters that
which perform different voltage perform different voltage
conversion functions, are conversion functions. The
illustrated in Fig. 2.5. In the positions of the inductor and
boost converter, the positions switch are reversed in the
of the inductor and switch are booster converter. The buck-
reversed. It is shown later in this boost converter can either
chapter that the boost increase or decrease the
converter steps the voltage up: voltage, but the polarity is
V ≥ Vg. Another converter, the reversed. So with a positive
buck–boost converter, can input voltage, the ideal buck-
either increase or decrease the boost converter can produce a
magnitude of the voltage, but negative output voltage of any
the polarity is inverted. So with magnitude. The DC output
a positive input voltage, the voltages can be produced that
ideal buck–boost converter can are larger in magnitude than
produce a negative output the input voltage or have
voltage of any magnitude. It opposite polarity. In fact, a
may at first be surprising that dc passive network of inductors,
output voltages can be condensers and embedded
produced that are greater in switches is able to produce all
magnitude than the input, or desires dc output voltages.
that have opposite polarity. But
it is indeed possible to produce
any desired dc output voltage
using a passive network of only
inductors, capacitors, and
embedded switches.
5th Paragraph In the above discussion, it was It may not be immediately
possible to derive an expression obvious how to directly apply
for the output voltage of the these arguments in order to
buck converter, Eq. (2.3), using find the DC output voltage of
some simple arguments based the boost, buck-boost, or other
on Fourier analysis. However, it converters. The aim of this
may not be immediately chapter is to develop a more
obvious how to directly apply general method for the analysis
these arguments to find the dc of any switching converter
output voltage of the boost, made up of a network of
buck–boost, or other inductors, capacitors and
converters. The objective of this switches.
chapter is the development of a
more general method for
analyzing any switching
converter comprised of a
network of inductors,
 capacitors, and switches [4, 8–
13].

6th Paragraph The principles of inductor volt- The principles of inductor volt-
second balance and capacitor second balance and capacitor
charge balance are derived; charge balance are derived and
these can be used to solve for can be used to solve switching
the inductor currents and converters' inductor currents
capacitor voltages of switching and capacitor voltages.
converters. A useful
approximation, the small-ripple
or linear-ripple approximation,
greatly facilitates the analysis.
Some simple methods for
selecting the filter element
values are also discussed.
SECTION 2.2 Inductor Volt-Second Balance, Capacitor Charge Balance, and the Small-Ripple
Approximation

Copy-Paste from the Book Paragraph Summary

1st Paragraph Let us more closely examine the A perfect low-pass filter that
inductor and capacitor waveforms in allows the dc component to pass
the buck converter of Fig. 2.6. It is is impossible to build, but at the
impossible to build a perfect low-pass switching frequency and its
filter that allows the dc component to harmonics, it completely
pass but completely removes the removes the components. The
components at the switching low-pass filter must therefore
frequency and its harmonics. So the allow at least a small amount of
low-pass filter must allow at least the high-frequency harmonics
some small amount of the high- that the switch generates to
frequency harmonics generated by the reach the output, which can be
switch to reach the output. Hence, in expressed as;
practice the output voltage waveform Thus, the actual output voltage
v(t) appears as illustrated in Fig. 2.7,
and can be expressed as
𝑣(𝑡) consists of the desired dc
component V plus a small
So the actual output voltage v(t) undesired AC component
consists of the desired dc component 𝑣𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑒 (𝑡) resulting from the
V, plus a small undesired ac unfinished attenuation of the
component 𝑣𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑒 (𝑡) arising from the switching harmonics by the low-
incomplete attenuation of the pass filter.
switching harmonics by the low-pass
filter. The magnitude of 𝑣𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑒 (𝑡)has
been exaggerated in Fig. 2.7.
2nd Paragraph The output voltage switching ripple In any well designed converter,
should be small in any well-designed the output voltage switching
converter, since the object is to ripple should be small, since the
produce a dc output. This object is to produce a dc output.
approximation, known as the small- This estimation, known as a
ripple approximation, or the linear- small-triple approximation or
ripple approximation, greatly simplifies linear-triple approximation,
the analysis of the converter greatly simplifies the analysis of
waveforms and is used throughout this the converter waveforms,
book. With this approximation, we replaces the exponential or
replace the exponential or damped damp sinusoidal expressions of
sinusoidal expressions for the inductor the inductor and capacitor
and capacitor waveforms with simpler waveforms with simpler linear
linear waveforms; this approximation waveforms; this approximation
is justified provided that the switching is justified. Provided that the
period is much shorter than the switching period is much shorter
natural time constants of the circuit. than the circuit's natural time
 The small-ripple approximation is constants. For the inductor
applied to the inductor currents and currents and capacitor voltages
capacitor voltages of the converter, of the converter, which are
which are continuous variables. It must continuous variables, the small-
not be applied to discontinuous ripple approximation is applied.
waveforms of the converter, such as The discontinuous waveforms of
the switch voltage, switch current, or the converter, such as the switch
inductor voltage. voltage, the switch current or
the inductor voltage, must not
be applied.

3rd Paragraph Next let us analyze the inductor We can find the inductor current
current waveform. We can find the by integrating the waveform of
inductor current by integrating the the inductor voltage. When the
inductor voltage waveform. With the switch is in position 1, the left
switch in position 1, the left side of the side of the inductor is connected
inductor is connected to the input to the input voltage Vg and the
voltage Vg, and the circuit reduces to circuit is reduced. The voltage of
Fig. 2.8a. It should be noted here that the inductor 𝑣𝐿 (𝑡) is specified;
the reference polarities of 𝑣𝐿 (𝑡) and The output voltage v(t) consists
𝑖𝐿 (𝑡) have been carefully defined in of the dc component V, plus a
Fig. 2.6, and these reference polarities
are consistently followed in the circuits
of Fig. 2.8a,b. The inductor voltage small ac ripple term 𝑣𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑒 (𝑡),
𝑣𝐿 (𝑡) is given by as described above. Here, we
can make a small-triple
approximation to replace v(t)
As described above, the output voltage
with its V-component dc:
v(t) consists of the dc component V,
Using the definition, the
plus a small ac ripple term 𝑣𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑒 (𝑡)
We can make the small-ripple
approximation here, Eq. (2.6), to inductor current can be found by
replace v(t) with its dc component V: knowledge of the inductor
voltage waveform;
So with the switch in position 1, the
inductor voltage is essentially constant
and equal to Vg −V, as shown in Fig.
2.9. By knowledge of the inductor during the first interval, when
voltage waveform, the inductor 𝑣𝐿 (𝑡) is approximately (Vg − V),
current can be found by use of the the slope of the inductor current
definition waveform is;

Thus, during the first interval, when

vL(t) is approximately (Vg − V), the
 slope of the inductor current
waveform is

Which follows by dividing Eq. (2.9) by

L, and substituting Eq. (2.8). Since the
inductor voltage 𝑣𝐿 (𝑡) is essentially
constant while the switch is in position
1, the inductor current slope is also
essentially constant and the inductor
current increases linearly.

4th Paragraph We can now sketch the inductor The inductor current begins at
current waveform (Fig. 2.10). The some initial value 𝑖𝐿 (0). During
inductor current begins at some initial the first subinterval, with the
value 𝑖𝐿 (0). During the first switch in position 1, the inductor
subinterval, with the switch in position current increases with the slope
1, the inductor current increases with given. At time 𝑡 = 𝐷𝑇𝑠 , the
the slope given in Eq. (2.10). At time t = switch changes to position 2.
DTs, the switch changes to position 2. The current then decreases with
The current then decreases with the the constant slope given. At time
constant slope given by Eq. (2.13). At 𝑡 = 𝑇𝑠 , the switch changes back
time t = Ts, the switch changes back to to position 1, and the process
position 1, and the process repeats. repeats.

5th Paragraph It is of interest to calculate the The peak inductor current plus
inductor current ripple ΔiL. As the peak-to-average ripple 𝛥𝑖𝐿 is
illustrated in Fig. 2.10, the peak equal to the dc component 𝐼.
inductor current is equal to the dc This peak current flows through
component I plus the peak-to-average the semiconductor devices that
ripple ΔiL. This peak current flows comprise the switch, not only
through not only the inductor, but also through the inductor. When
through the semiconductor devices specifying the ratings of these
that comprise the switch. Knowledge devices, knowledge of the peak
of the peak current is necessary when current is needed.
specifying the ratings of these devices.
6th Paragraph Typical values of ΔiL lie in the range of Typical 𝛥𝑖𝐿 values are in the
10%– 20% of the full-load value of the 10%– 20% range of the dc
dc component I. It is undesirable to component I full-load value.
allow ΔiL to become too large; doing so Allowing the 𝛥𝑖𝐿 to become too
would increase the peak currents of large is undesirable; this would
the inductor and of the semiconductor increase the peak currents of the
switching devices, and would increase inductor and semiconductor
their size and cost. So by design the switching devices and increase
inductor current ripple is also usually their size and cost. Compared to
small compared to the dc component I. the dc component I, the inductor
The small-ripple approximation iL(t) ≈ I current ripple is also typically
is usually justified for the inductor small by design. For the inductor
current. current, the small-ripple
approximation 𝑖𝐿 (𝑡) ≈ 𝐼 is
usually justified.
7th Paragraph The inductor current waveform of Fig. Under steady-state conditions,
2.10 is drawn under steady-state with the converter operating in
conditions, with the converter equilibrium, the inductor current
operating in equilibrium. Let us waveform is drawn. Suppose the
consider next what happens to the inductor current and output
inductor current when the converter is voltage are initially zero, and
first turned on. Suppose that the then 𝑉𝑔 is applied to the input
inductor current and output voltage voltage. We know that the
are initially zero, and an input voltage inductor current will increase,
Vg is then applied. As shown in Fig. with a slope of /L and with v
2.11, 𝑖𝐿 (0) is zero. During the first initially zero, during the first
subinterval, with the switch in position subinterval, with the switch at
1, we know that the inductor current position 1. With the switch at
will increase, with a slope of (𝑉𝑔 − v)/L position 2, with a slope of -v/L,
and with v initially zero. Next, with the the inductor current will change;
switch in position 2, the inductor since v is initially zero, this slope
current will change with a slope of is essentially zero. During the
−v/L; since v is initially zero, this slope second and successive switching
is essentially zero. It can be seen that periods, the process repeats,
there is a net increase in inductor with the inductor current
current over the first switching period, increasing during every
because 𝑖𝐿 (𝑇𝑠 ) is greater than 𝑖𝐿 (0). subinterval 1 and decreasing
Since the inductor current flows to the during every subinterval 2.
output, the output capacitor will
charge slightly, and v will increase
slightly. The process repeats during the
second and succeeding switching
periods, with the inductor current
increasing during each subinterval 1
and decreasing during each subinterval
2.
8th Paragraph As the output capacitor continues to As the output capacitor
charge and v increases, the slope continues to charge and v
during subinterval 1 decreases while increases, the slope decreases
the slope during subinterval 2 becomes during subinterval 1, while the
more negative. Eventually, the point is slope becomes more adverse
reached where the increase in inductor during subinterval 2. The point
current during subinterval 1 is equal to where the increase in inductor
the decrease in inductor current during current during sub-interval 1 is
subinterval 2. There is then no net equal to the decrease in
change in inductor current over a inductor current during sub-
complete switching period, and the interval 2 is eventually reached. .
converter operates in steady state. The The converter waveforms are
converter waveforms are periodic: periodic: 𝑖𝐿 (𝑛𝑇𝑠) = 𝑖𝐿 ((𝑛 +
𝑖𝐿 (𝑛𝑇𝑠) = 𝑖𝐿 ((𝑛 + 1)𝑇𝑠 ). From this 1)𝑇𝑠 ).
point on, the inductor current
waveform appears as in Fig. 2.10.
9th Paragraph The requirement that, in equilibrium, The requirement that, in
the net change in inductor current over equilibrium, the net change in
one switching period be zero leads us inductor current be zero over
to a way to find steady-state one switching period leads us to
conditions in any switching converter: a way in any switching converter
the principle of inductor volt-second to find steady-state conditions:
balance. Given the defining relation of the inductor volt-second balance
an inductor: principle. Expressed in the
realtion of inductor;
Integration over one complete

Integration over one complete

switching period, say from t = 0 to Ts,
yields switching period, say from 𝑡 = 0
to 𝑇𝑠 , yields

The right-hand side of Eq. (2.19) has

the units of volt-seconds or flux-
linkages. Equation (2.19) states that
the total area, or net volt-seconds,
under the vL(t) waveform must be
zero.
10th Paragraph The inductor voltage waveform of Fig. With the area under the 𝑣𝐿 (𝑡)
2.9 is reproduced in Fig. 2.12, with the curve specifically identified, the
area under the 𝑣𝐿 (𝑡) curve specifically inductor voltage waveform is
identified. The total area λ is given by reproduced. The areas of the
the areas of the two rectangles, or two rectangles give the total
area λ

The average value is therefore

Then average value;

By equating
𝑣𝐿 to zero, and noting that D + D’ = 1, By equating 𝑣𝐿 to zero, and
one obtains noting that 𝐷 + 𝐷′ = 1,

Solution for V yields

Now for V yields;

which coincides with the result

So, the inductor volt-second
obtained previously, Eq. (2.3). So the
balance principle allows us to
principle of inductor voltsecond
derive an expression for the dc
balance allows us to derive an
component of the output
expression for the dc component of
voltage of the converter.
the converter output voltage. An
advantage of this approach is its
generality—it can be applied to any
converter. One simply sketches the
applied inductor voltage waveform,
and equates the average value to zero.
This method is used later in this
chapter, to solve several more
complicated converters.

11th Paragraph This should be an intuitive result. If a If a dc current is applied to a

dc current is applied to a capacitor, capacitor, it will continuously
then the capacitor will charge charge the capacitor and its
continually and its voltage will increase voltage will increase without
without bound. Likewise, if a dc binding. Similarly, if an inductor
voltage is applied to an inductor, then is applied with a dc voltage, then
the flux will increase continually and the flux increases continuously
the inductor current will increase and the inductor current
without bound. Equation (2.27), called increases without being bound.
the principle of capacitor amp-second The principle of capacitor amp-
balance or capacitor charge balance, second balance or capacitor
can be used to find the steady-state charge balance, can be used to
currents in a switching converter. find the steady-state currents in
a switching converter.
 SECTION 2.3 Boost Converter Example

Copy-Paste from the Book Paragraph Summary

1st Paragraph The boost converter, Fig. 2.13a, Another well-known switched-
is another well-known switched- mode converter that is capable of
mode converter that is capable producing a dc output voltage
of producing a dc output voltage greater than the voltage of the dc
greater in magnitude than the input is the boost converter. Using
dc input voltage. A practical a MOSFET and diode, a practical
realization of the switch, using a realisation of the switch.
MOSFET and diode, is shown in
Fig. 2.13b. Let us apply the
small-ripple approximation and
the principles of inductor volt-
second balance and capacitor
charge balance to find the
steady-state output voltage and
inductor current for this
converter.
2nd Paragraph With the switch in position 1, The inductor voltage an capacitor
the right-hand side of the current for this subinterval are
inductor is connected to ground, given by;
resulting in the network of Fig.
2.14a. The inductor voltage and
capacitor current for this
subinterval are given by
Use of the linear-ripple
approximation, 𝑣 ≈ 𝑉,

Use of the linear-ripple

approximation, v ≈ V, leads to
The inductor is connected to the
output, leading to the circuit of
the inductor voltage and capacitor
current are then;
With the switch in position 2,
the inductor is connected to the
output, leading to the circuit of
Fig. 2.14b. The inductor voltage
and capacitor current are then Use of the small-ripple
approximation, 𝑣 ≈ 𝑉 and 𝑖𝐿 ≈
𝐼;
 Use of the small-ripple
approximation, v ≈ V and 𝑖𝐿 ≈ I,
leads to

Equations (2.29) and (2.31) are

used to sketch the inductor
voltage and capacitor current
waveforms of Fig. 2.15.

3rd Paragraph It can be inferred from the 𝑉𝐿 (𝑡) is equal to the dc input
inductor voltage waveform of voltage 𝑉𝑔 during the first sub-
Fig. 2.15a that the dc output interval, and positive volt-seconds
voltage V is greater than the are applied to the inductor. As the
input voltage Vg. During the first total volt-seconds applied over a
subinterval, 𝑣𝐿 (𝑡) is equal to the single switching period must be
dc input voltage 𝑉𝑔 , and positive zero in the steady-state state,
volt-seconds are applied to the negative volt-seconds must be
inductor. Since, in steady-state, applied during the second
the total volt-seconds applied subinterval. During the second
over one switching period must subinterval, (𝑉𝑔 − V), the inductor
be zero, negative volt-seconds voltage must therefore be
must be applied during the negative. V is, therefore, greater
second subinterval. Therefore, than 𝑉𝑔 .
the inductor voltage during the
second subinterval, (𝑉𝑔 − V),
must be negative. Hence, V is
greater than 𝑉𝑔 .
4th Paragraph The total volt-seconds applied to The total volt-seconds that are
the inductor over one switching applied over one switching period
period are to the inductor are;

By equating this expression to By equating this expression to

zero and collecting terms, one zero and collecting terms, you get;
obtains Solution for V, and by noting that

Solution for V, and by noting (D + 𝐷’) = 1, yields the expression

that (D + D’) = 1, yields the for the output voltage,
expression for the output
voltage,
 The voltage conversion ratio The voltage conversion ratio M(D)
M(D) is the ratio of the output is the ratio of the output to the
to the input voltage of a dc–dc input voltage of a dc–dc
converter. Equation (2.34) converter.
predicts that the voltage
conversion ratio is given by

As D increases, the output voltage

increases and, in the optimal case,
This equation is plotted in Fig. tends to infinity as D tends to 1.
2.16. At D = 0, V = Vg. The Any output voltage greater than
output voltage increases as D the input voltage can therefore be
increases, and in the ideal case produced by the ideal boost
tends to infinity as D tends to 1. converter.
So the ideal boost converter is
capable of producing any output
voltage greater than the input
voltage. There are, of course,
limits to the output voltage that
can be produced by a practical
boost converter. In the next
chapter, component
nonidealities are modeled, and
it is found that the maximum
output voltage of a practical
boost converter is indeed
limited. Nonetheless, very large
output voltages can be
produced if the nonidealities are
sufficiently small.
5th Paragraph The dc component of the By using the principle of capacitor
inductor current is derived by charge balance, the dc component
use of the principle of capacitor of the inductor current is derived.
charge balance. During the first The capacitor supplies the load
subinterval, the capacitor current during the first
supplies the load current, and subinterval, and the capacitor is
the capacitor is partially partially discharged. The inductor
discharged. During the second current supplies the load during
subinterval, the inductor current the second sub-interval and, in
supplies the load and, addition, recharges the capacitor.
additionally, recharges the By integrating the 𝑖𝐶 (𝑡)
capacitor. The net change in waveform, the net change in
capacitor charge over one capacitor charge over one
switching period is found by switching period is found.
integrating the 𝑖𝐶 (𝑡) waveform
of Fig. 2.15b,
 Collecting terms, and equating
Collecting terms, and equating the
the result to zero, leads to the
result to zero, leads to the steady-
steady-state result
state result

By noting that (D+D’) = 1, and by

solving for the inductor current By noting that (D+D’) = 1, and by
dc component I, one obtains solving for the inductor current dc
component I;

So the inductor current dc

component I is equal to the load So the inductor current dc
current, V/R, divided by D . component I is equal to the load
Substitution of Eq. (2.34) to current, V/R, divided by D‘.
eliminate V yields Substitution of to eliminate V
yields;

This equation is plotted in Fig.

2.17. It can be seen that the
inductor current becomes large
as D approaches 1.
6th Paragraph This inductor current, which This inductor current, which
coincides with the dc input matches the dc input current of
current in the boost converter, the booster converter, is greater
is greater than the load current. than the load current. Physically,
Physically, this must be the case: this must be the case: the input
to the extent that the converter and output powers of the
elements are ideal, the converter are equal to the extent
converter input and output that the converter elements are
powers are equal. Since the ideal. As the output voltage of the
converter output voltage is converter is greater than the input
greater than the input voltage, voltage, the input current must
the input current must likewise also be greater than the output
be greater than the output current. Consequently, at a high
current. In practice, the inductor duty cycle, the efficiency of the
current flows through the boost converter decreases quickly.
semiconductor forward voltage
drops, the inductor winding
resistance, and other sources of
power loss. As the duty cycle
approaches one, the inductor
current becomes very large and
these component nonidealities
lead to large power losses. In
consequence, the efficiency of
the boost converter decreases
rapidly at high duty cycle.
 SECTION 2.4 Cuk Converter Example
Copy-Paste from the Book Paragraph Summary

1st Paragraph As a second example, consider Similar to the buck-boost

the Cuk converter of Fig. ´ 2.20a. converter, this converter
This converter performs a dc performs a dc conversion
conversion function similar to feature: it can either increase or
the buck–boost converter: it can decrease the dc voltage
either increase or decrease the magnitude, and it inverts the
magnitude of the dc voltage, polarity.
and it inverts the polarity. A
practical realization using a
transistor and diode is
illustrated in Fig. 2.20b.

2nd Paragraph This converter operates via Through capacitive energy

capacitive energy transfer. As transfer, this converter
illustrated in Fig. 2.21, capacitor operates. Capacitor C1 is
C1 is connected through L1 to connected to the input source
the input source while the through L1 while the switch is in
switch is in position 2, and position 2, and the energy of the
source energy is stored in C1. source is stored in C1. This
When the switch is in position 1, energy is released through L2 to
this energy is released through the load when the switch is in
L2 to the load. position 1.

3rd Paragraph The inductor currents and Inductor currents and voltages
capacitor voltages are defined, of the capacitor are defined,
with polarities assigned with polarities somewhat
somewhat arbitrarily, in Fig. arbitrarily assigned. To find the
2.20a. In this section, the dc components of the inductor
principles of inductor volt- currents and capacitor voltages,
second balance and capacitor the principles of inductor volt-
charge balance are applied to second balance and capacitor
find the dc components of the charge balance are applied.
inductor currents and capacitor
voltages. The voltage and
current ripple magnitudes are
also found.
4th Paragraph During the first subinterval, During the first subinterval,
while the switch is in position 1, while the switch is in position 1,
the converter circuit reduces to the converter circuit reduces
Fig. 2.21a. The inductor voltages The inductor voltages and
and capacitor currents are capacitor currents are;

5th Paragraph Similar arguments cannot be It is not possible to use similar

used to estimate the switching arguments to estimate the
ripple magnitude in the output magnitude of the switching
capacitor voltage 𝑣2 (𝑡).. ripple in the output capacitor
According to Fig. 2.22d, the voltage 𝑣2 (𝑡). If the 𝑖2 (𝑡)
current 𝑖2 (𝑡)) is continuous: switching ripple is ignored, the
unlike 𝑣𝐿 1 , 𝑣𝐿 2, and 𝑖𝐶1 , the 𝑖𝐶2 (𝑡) capacitor current does
capacitor current 𝑖𝐶2 (𝑡) is not contain an AC component.
nonpulsating. If the switching The approximation of the small-
ripple of 𝑖2 (𝑡) is neglected, then ripple then leads to the
the capacitor current𝑖𝐶2 (𝑡) conclusion that zero is the
does not contain an ac output switching ripple Δv2.
component. The small-ripple
approximation then leads to the
conclusion that the output
switching ripple Δv2 is zero.
6th Paragraph Of course, the output voltage The switching ripple of the
switching ripple is not zero. To output voltage is not zero. We
estimate the magnitude of the must not neglect the switching
output voltage ripple in this ripple present in the inductor
converter, we must not neglect current 𝑖2 (𝑡) to estimate the
the switching ripple present in magnitude of the output voltage
the inductor current i𝑖2 (𝑡), since ripple in this converter, since
this current ripple is the only this current ripple is the only
source of ac current driving the source of AC current driving the
output capacitor C2. A simple output capacitor C2.
way of doing this in the Cuk
converter and in other similar
converters is ´ discussed in the
next section.
SECTION 2.5 Estimating the Output Voltage Ripple in Converters Containing Two-Pole Low-
Pass Filters

Copy-Paste from the Book Paragraph Summary

1st Paragraph A case where the small-ripple The issue is that in these cases,
approximation is not useful is in the only component of the
converters containing two-pole output capacitor current is that
low-pass filters, such as in the resulting from the ripple of the
output of the Cuk converter (Fig. inductor current. Therefore, the
´ 2.20) or the buck converter inductor current ripple can not
(Fig. 2.25). For these converters, be neglected when calculating
the small-ripple approximation the voltage ripple of the output
predicts zero output voltage capacitor, and a more precise
ripple, regardless of the value of approximation is required.
the output filter capacitance.
The problem is that the only
component of output capacitor
current in these cases is that
arising from the inductor
current ripple. Hence, inductor
current ripple cannot be
neglected when calculating the
output capacitor voltage ripple,
and a more accurate
approximation is needed.
2nd Paragraph An improved approach that is Another better solution that is
useful for this case is to estimate useful in this case is to measure
the capacitor current waveform more precisely the current
𝑖𝐶 (𝑡) more accurately, waveform 𝑖𝐶 (𝑡)of the capacitor,
accounting for the inductor allowing for the current ripple of
current ripple. The capacitor the inductor. The voltage ripple
voltage ripple can then be of the capacitor can then be
related to the total charge related to the total charge
contained in the positive portion contained in the positive portion
of the 𝑖𝐶 (𝑡) waveform. of the waveform of the 𝑖𝐶 (𝑡).
3rd Paragraph When the capacitor current Charges are deposited on the
𝑖𝐶 (𝑡) is positive, charge is capacitor plates when the
deposited on the capacitor capacitor current 𝑖𝐶 (𝑡) is
plates and the capacitor voltage positive, and the capacitor
𝑣𝐶 (𝑡) increases. Therefore, voltage 𝑣𝐶 (𝑡)increases.
between the two zero crossings Therefore, the capacitor voltage
of the capacitor current changes between its minimum
waveform, the capacitor voltage and maximum extremes
changes between its minimum between the two zero crossings
and maximum extrema. The of the capacitor current
waveform is symmetrical, and waveform. The waveform is
the total change in 𝑣𝐶 is the symmetrical, and the peak-to-
peak-to-peak output voltage peak output voltage ripple, or
ripple, or 2Δv. 2Δv, is the total change in 𝑣𝐶 .

4th Paragraph This expression can be used to It is possible to use this

select a value for the expression to select a
capacitance C such that a given capacitance C value such that a
voltage ripple Δv is obtained. In given voltage ripple Δv is
practice, the additional voltage obtained. In reality, it is also
ripple caused by the capacitor necessary to include the
equivalent series resistance additional voltage ripple caused
(ESR) must also be included. by the capacitor equivalent
series resistance (ESR).