Lesson 2: The Flexure Formula

Bending Deformation of a Straight Member

In this module, we will discuss the deformations that occur when a straight prismatic beam, made of
homogeneous material, is subjected to bending. The discussion will be limited to beams having a cross-sectional area that
is symmetrical with respect to an axis, and the bending moment is applied about an axis perpendicular to this axis of
symmetry as shown in Fig. 6–18

By using a highly deformable material such as rubber, we can illustrate what happens when a straight prismatic
member is subjected to a bending moment. Consider, for example, the undeformed bar in Fig. 6–19a, which has a
square cross section and is marked with longitudinal and transverse grid lines. When a bending moment is applied, it
tends to distort these lines into the pattern shown in Fig. 6–19b. Notice that the longitudinal lines become curved and
the vertical transverse lines remain straight and yet undergo a rotation.

The bending moment causes the material within the bottom portion of the bar to stretch and the material within
the top portion to compress. Consequently, between these two regions there must be a surface, called the neutral surface,
in which longitudinal fibers of the material will not undergo a change in length, Fig. 6–18.
 From these observations we will make the following three assumptions
regarding the way the stress deforms the material. First, the longitudinal axis x,
which lies within the neutral surface, Fig. 6–20a, does not experience any change in
length. Rather the moment will tend to deform the beam so that this line becomes
a curve that lies in the x–y plane of symmetry, Fig. 6–20b. Second, all cross sections
of the beam remain plane and perpendicular to the longitudinal axis during the
deformation. And third, any deformation of the cross section within its own plane,
as noticed in Fig. 6–19b, will be neglected. In particular, the z axis, lying in the plane
of the cross section and about which the cross section rotates, is called the neutral
axis, Fig. 6–20b.
 In order to show how this distortion will strain the material, we will isolate a small segment of the beam located
a distance x along the beam’s length and having an undeformed thickness ∆𝑥 Fig. 6–20a.This element, taken from the
beam, is shown in profile view in the undeformed and deformed positions in Fig. 6–21. Notice that any line segment ∆𝑥
located on the neutral surface, does not change its length, whereas any line segment ∆𝑠 located at the arbitrary distance
y above the neutral surface, will contract and become ∆𝑠′ after deformation. By definition, the normal strain along is
determined from Eq. 2–2, namely,

∆𝑠 ′ −∆𝑠
𝜖 = lim
∆𝑠→0 ∆𝑠

We will now represent this strain in terms of the location y of the segment and the radius of curvature of the
longitudinal axis of the element. Before deformation, ∆𝑠 = ∆𝑥 , Fig. 6–21a. After deformation ∆𝑥 has a radius of curvature
𝜌, with center of curvature at point O’ Fig. 6–21b. Since ∆𝜃 defines the angle between the sides of the element, ∆𝑥 =
∆𝑠 = 𝜌∆𝜃 .In the same manner, the deformed length of ∆𝑠 becomes ∆𝑠 ′ = (𝜌 − 𝑦)∆𝜃. Substituting into the above
equation, we get
(𝜌−𝑦)∆𝜃−𝜌∆𝜃
𝜖 = lim
∆𝜃→0 𝜌∆𝜃
𝑦
Or 𝜖=− (6-7)
𝜌
 This important result indicates that the longitudinal normal strain of any element within the beam depends on its
location y on the cross section and the radius of curvature of the beam’s longitudinal axis at the point. In other words, for
any specific cross section, the longitudinal normal strain will vary linearly with y from the neutral axis. A contraction (−𝜖)
will occur in fibers located above the neutral axis (+y) whereas elongation (+𝜖) will occur in fibers located below the axis
(-y) This variation in strain over the cross section is shown in Fig. 6–22. Here the maximum strain occurs at the outermost
𝑐
fiber, located a distance of y = c from the neutral axis. Using Eq. 6–7, since 𝜖𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜌 , then by division,

𝜖 𝑦 ⁄𝜌
= −( )
𝜖𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑐 ⁄𝜌
𝑦
So that 𝜖 = −( )𝜖𝑚𝑎𝑥 (6-8)
𝑐
This normal strain depends only on the assumptions made with regards to the deformation. When a moment is
applied to the beam, therefore, it will only cause a normal stress in the longitudinal or x direction. All the other components
of normal and shear stress will be zero. It is this uniaxial state of stress that causes the material to have the longitudinal
normal strain component 𝜖𝑥 , defined by Eq. 6–8. Furthermore, by Poisson’s ratio, there must also be associated strain
components 𝜖𝑦 = −𝑣𝜖𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜖2 = −𝑣𝜖𝑥 , which deform the plane of the cross-sectional area, although here we have
neglected these deformations. Such deformations will, however, cause the cross-sectional dimensions to become smaller
below the neutral axis and larger above the neutral axis. For example, if the beam has a square cross section, it will actually
deform as shown in Fig. 6–23.

The Flexure Fomula

In this module, we will develop an equation that relates the stress distribution in a beam to the internal resultant
bending moment acting on the beam’s cross section. To do this we will assume that the material behaves in a linear-elastic
manner and therefore a linear variation of normal strain, Fig. 6–24a, must then be the result of a linear variation in
normal stress, Fig. 6–24b. Hence, like the normal strain variation, 𝜎 will vary from zero at the member’s neutral axis to a
maximum value, 𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 a distance c farthest from the neutral axis. Because of the proportionality of triangles, Fig. 6–23b,
𝑦
or by using Hooke’s law,𝜎 = 𝐸𝜖 and 𝜖 = −( 𝑐 )𝜖𝑚𝑎𝑥 , we can write
𝑦
𝜎 = −( )𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 (6-9)
𝑐
This equation describes the stress distribution over the cross-sectional area. The sign convention established here is
significant. For positive M, which acts in the +z direction, positive values of y give negative values for 𝜎, that is, a
compressive stress since it acts in the negative x direction. Similarly, negative y values will give positive or tensile values
for 𝜎. If a volume element of material is selected at a specific point on the cross section, only these tensile or
compressive normal stresses will act on it. For example, the element located at is shown in Fig. 6–24c.

We can locate the position of the neutral axis on the cross section by satisfying the condition that the resultant
force produced by the stress distribution over the cross-sectional area must be equal to zero. Noting that the force 𝑑𝐹 =
𝜎 𝑑𝐴 acts on the arbitrary element dA in Fig. 6–24c, we require
0 0
𝐹𝑅 = ∑ 𝐹𝑥 ; 0 = ∫ 𝑑𝐹 = ∫ 𝑑𝐴
𝐴 𝐴
 0 𝑦
= ∫𝐴 −( ) 𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝐴
𝑐
−𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 0
=
𝑐
∫𝐴 𝑦𝑑𝐴
Since 𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 /𝑐 is not equal to zero, then
0
∫𝐴 𝑦𝑑𝐴 = 0 (6-10)

In other words, the first moment of the member’s cross-sectional area about the neutral axis must be zero. This
condition can only be satisfied if the neutral axis is also the horizontal centroidal axis for the cross section.* Consequently,
once the centroid for the member’s cross-sectional area is determined, the location of the neutral axis is known We can
determine the stress in the beam from the requirement that the resultant internal moment M must be equal to the
moment produced by the stress distribution about the neutral axis. The moment of dF in Fig. 6–24c about the neutral axis
is 𝑑𝑀 = 𝑦 𝑑𝐹. 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑑𝐹 = 𝜎 𝑑𝐴, using Eq. 6–9, we have for the entire cross section,

𝑦
(𝑀𝑅 )𝑧 = ∑𝑚𝑧 ; 𝑀 = ∫ 𝑦 𝑑𝐹 = ∫ 𝑦(𝜎 𝑑𝐴) = ∫ 𝑦 ( 𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 ) 𝑑𝐴
𝐴 𝐴 𝐶
𝐴
𝜎max
Or 𝑀=
𝐶
∫𝐴 𝑦 2 𝑑𝐴 (6-11)
The integral represents the moment of inertia of the cross-sectional area about the neutral axis. We will symbolize its
value as I. Hence, Eq. 6–11 can be solved for and written as
𝑀
𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ( 𝑐 ) (6-12)
𝐼

Here

𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 =maximum normal stress in the member, which occurs at a point on the cross-sectional area farthest away from the
neutral axis

M=The resultant internal moment, determined from the method of sections and the equations of equilibrium, and
calculated about the neutral axis of the cross section

c=the perpendicular distance from the neutral axis to a point farthest away from the neutral axis. This is where acts

I=the moment of inertia of the cross-sectional area about the neutral axis
𝜎max −𝜎
Since
𝑐
= 𝑦
, Eq. 6–9, the normal stress at the intermediate distance y can be determined from an equation
similar to Eq. 6–12. We have
𝑀𝑦
𝜎=− (6-13)
𝐼
Note that the negative sign is necessary since it agrees with the established x, y, z axes. By the right-hand rule, M
is positive along the +z axis, y is positive upward, and 𝜎 therefore must be negative (compressive) since it acts in the
negative x direction, Fig. 6–24c.
 Either of the above two equations is often referred to as the flexure formula. It is used to determine the normal
stress in a straight member, having a cross section that is symmetrical with respect to an axis, and the moment is applied
perpendicular to this axis. Although we have assumed that the member is prismatic, we can in most cases of engineering
design also use the flexure formula to determine the normal stress in members that have a slight taper. For example, using
a mathematical analysis based on the theory of elasticity, a member having a rectangular cross section and a length that
is tapered 15° will have an actual maximum normal stress that is about 5.4% less than that calculated using the flexure
formula.

Important Points
• The cross section of a straight beam remains plane when the beam deforms due to bending. This causes tensile stress
on one portion of the cross section and compressive stress on the other portion. In between these portions, there exists
the neutral axis which is subjected to zero stress.

• Due to the deformation, the longitudinal strain varies linearly from zero at the neutral axis to a maximum at the outer
fibers of the beam. Provided the material is homogeneous and linear elastic, then the stress also varies in a linear fashion
over the cross section.

• The neutral axis passes through the centroid of the cross-sectional area.This result is based on the fact that the resultant
normal force acting on the cross section must be zero.

• The flexure formula is based on the requirement that the resultant internal moment on the cross section is equal to the
moment produced by the normal stress distribution about the neutral axis.

Procedure for Analysis

In order to apply the flexure formula, the following procedure is suggested.

Internal Moment.

• Section the member at the point where the bending or normal stress is to be determined, and obtain the internal
moment M at the section.The centroidal or neutral axis for the cross section must be known, since M must be calculated
about this axis.

• If the absolute maximum bending stress is to be determined, then draw the moment diagram in order to determine the
maximum moment in the member.

Section Property

• Determine the moment of inertia of the cross-sectional area about the neutral axis. Methods used for its calculation are
discussed in Appendix A, and a table listing values of I for several common shapes is given on the inside front cover.

Normal Stress.

• Specify the distance y, measured perpendicular to the neutral axis to the point where the normal stress is to be
−𝑀𝑦 𝑀𝑐
determined. Then apply the equation 𝜎 = 𝐼
or if the maximum bending stress is to be calculated, use 𝜎max = 𝐼
When
substituting the data, make sure the units are consistent.

• The stress acts in a direction such that the force it creates at the point contributes a moment about the neutral axis that
is in the same direction as the internal moment M, Fig. 6–24c. In this manner the stress distribution acting over the entire
cross section can be sketched, or a volume element of the material can be isolated and used to graphically represent the
normal stress acting at the point.

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Examples:

1. A beam has a rectangular cross section and is subjected to the stress distribution shown in Fig. 6–25a. Determine
the internal moment M at the section caused by the stress distribution (a) using the flexure formula, (b) by finding
the resultant of the stress distribution using basic principles.

Solution:
2. The simply supported beam in Fig. 6–26a has the cross-sectional area shown in Fig. 6–26b. Determine the absolute
maximum bending stress in the beam and draw the stress distribution over the cross section at this location.

Solution:
3. The beam shown in Fig. 6–27a has a cross-sectional area in the shape of a channel, Fig. 6–27b. Determine the
maximum bending stress that occurs in the beam at section a–a.

Solution:

References:
1. Mechanics of Materials by R.C. Hibbeler, 8th edition
2. Mathalino.com