Core T2 : Algebra [UNIT-II ]

Dr. T. K. Jana
Department of Mathematics
R.S.Mahavidyalaya, Ghatal 721212, India
Email : [email protected]
 Integers
Well ordering principle: Every non-empty subset of natural numbers contains a least
element.

Theorem( Division Algorithm ): Given integers a and b , where b  0 , there exists unique
integers q and r such that a  bq  r , 0  r  b .
Proof: Let us consider the subset of integers S  a  bx : x  
Z , a  bx  0
.
First we show that S is non-empty. Since b  1 , a b  a .
Therefore a  a b  a  a  0 .
Or, a  bx  0 for x   a .
This proves that S is non-empty.
Since S is a non-empty subset of non-negative integers, either
(i) S contains 0 as its least element, or
(ii) S contains a smallest positive integer as its least element by the well ordering
property of the set N.
In either case, we call it r . Therefore there exists an integer q such that a  bq  r , r  0
.
We assert that r  b . Because if r  b , then a   q  1 b   a  qb   b  r  b  0 .
This shows that a   q  1 b belongs to S and also a   q  1 b  r  b  r .
This leads to a contradiction to the fact that r is the least element in S .
Hence r  b .
In order to establish uniqueness of q and r , let us suppose that a has two
representations: a  bq  r , a  bq1  r1 where 0  r  b , 0  r1  b .
Then b  q  q1   r1  r or, b q  q1  r1  r .
But 0  r1  b and b  r  0 yield b  r1  r  b , i.e., r1  r  b .
Consequently, q  q1  1 .
Since q and q1 are integers, the only possibility is q  q1 and therefore r  r1 .

Definition: Given integers a and b , where b  0 , there exists unique integers q and r
such that a  bq  r , 0  r  b . q is called the quotient and r is called the remainder in
the division of a by b .

Definition: An integer a is said to be divisible by an integer b  0 if there exists some

integer c such that a  bc .
We express this in symbol b | a and read “ b divides a ”. We also express this by the
statements “ b is a divisor of a ”, “ a is a multiple of b ”.
If b is a divisor of a , then b is also a divisor of a , because a  bc  a   b  c  .
Properties:
(i) a | b and b | c  a | c ,
(ii) a | b and b | a if and only if a  b .
Theorem: If a | b and a | c then a |  bx  cy  for arbitrary integers x and y .
Proof: Since a | b , b  ad for some integer d .
Since a | c , c  ae for some integer e .
Therefore bx  cy  adx  aey  a  dx  ey  .
This shows that a | bx  cy whatever integers x , y may be.
Q. Prove that the product of any m consecutive integers is divisible by m .
A. Let the consecutive integers be c , c  1 , c  2 ,…………, c   m  1 .
Let q be the quotient and r be the remainder when c is divided by m .
Then c  mq  r , 0  r  m .
When r  0 , c  mq and therefore m | c ,
When r  1 , c   m  1  m  q  1 and therefore m | c   m  1 ,
When r  2 , c   m  2   m  q  1 and therefore m | c   m  2  ,
…………………………………………………………………………
When r  m 1 , c  1  m  q  1 and therefore m | c  1 .
Therefore whatever integer r may be, m divides one of the integers
c, c  1, c  2,............., c   m  1 and it follows that the product
c  c  1 c  2  ..........  c  m  1 is always divisible by m .
Q. Use division algorithm prove that the square of an odd integer is of the form 8k  1 ,
where k is an integer.
A. By division algorithm every integer, upon division by 4 , leaves one of the remainders
0,1, 2,3 . Therefore any integer is one of the forms 4q , 4q  1 , 4q  2 , 4q  3 .
Odd integers are of the forms 4q  1 , 4q  3 .
  4q  1  16q2  8q  1  8  2q2  q   1 is of the form 8k  1 ,
2
Now

 4q  3  16q2  24q  9  8  2q2  3q  1  1 is of the form 8k  1 .

2

Hence the square of an odd integers is of the form 8k  1 .

Definition: If a and b are integers then an integer d is said to be a common divisor

of a and b if d | a and d | b .
Definition: If a and b are integers, not both zero, the greatest common divisor of a
and b , denoted by gcd  a, b  is the positive integer d satisfying
(i) d | a and d | b ;
(ii) if c | a and c | b then c | d .
Example: Let a  12 , b  18 . Then the positive divisors of 12 are 1, 2,3,6,12 and those
of 18 are 1, 2,3,6,9,18 .
Therefore the positive common divisors are 1, 2,3,6 and gcd 12, 18   6 .
Note: It follows from definition that gcd  a, b   gcd  a, b   gcd  a, b   gcd  a, b  ,
where a, b are integers, not both zero.
Theorem: If a and b are integers, not both zero, then there exists integers u and v
such that gcd  a, b   au  bv .
Q. Calculate gcd  567,315  and express gcd  567,315  as 567u  315v , where u , v are
integers.
A. By division algorithm,
567 252 315 63 252
 1 ,  1 ,  4.
315 315 252 252 63
Then 567  315.1  252 , 315  252.1  63 , 252  63.4  0 .
The last non-zero remainder is 63. Therefore gcd  567,315   63 .
We have 63  315  252.1
 315   567  315 
 567.  1  315.2
 567u  315v , where u  1 , v  2 .
Q. Find two integers u and v satisfying 63u  55v  1 .
A. 63 and 55 are integers prime to each other and therefore there exist integers u, v
such that 63u  55v  1 .
By division algorithm,
63  55.1  8 , 55  8.6  7 , 8  7.1  1.
We have 1  8  7  8   55  8.6   8.7  55   63  55  .7  55  63.7  55.  8  .
Therefore u  7 , v  8 .
Q. Find two integers u and v satisfying 54u  24v  30 .
A. Let us find the gcd  54, 24  .
By division algorithm, 54  24.2  6 , 24  6.4  0 .
Now 6  54  24.2  54.1  24.  2  .
Consequently, 30  54.5  24.  10  .
Therefore u  5 and v  10 .

Euclid’s Algorithm : Let a and b be two non-zero integers. Then there exists
an integer d such that
1. d = gcd(a, b), and
2. there exist integers u, v such that d = au + bv.

The Diophantine equation:

An equation in one or more unknowns which is to be solved in integers is said to be a
Diophantine equation.
A given linear Diophantine equation of the form ax  by  c may have many solutions
in integers or may not have even a single solution.
For example, the equation 2 x  4 y  6 has many solutions in integers, since 2.1  4.1  6 ,
2.5  4.  1  6 , 2.9  4.  3  6 ,…………..
Whereas, the equation 2 x  4 y  3 cannot have a solution in integers, since the left hand
side is always an even integer for every pair of integers x, y , while the right hand side
is odd.
Prime numbers:
An integer p  1 is said to be a prime number, or simply a prime, if its only positive
divisors are 1 and p .
Composite number: An integer  1 which is not prime is said to be a composite
number.
The integer 1 is regarded as neither composite nor prime.

Definition: Let m be a fixed positive integer. Two integers a and b are said to be
congruent modulo m if a  b is divisible by m . Symbolically that is expressed as
a  b  mod m  .
Example: 1  5  mod 4  , 1  2  mod 3 .
Theorem: For any two integers a and b , a  b  mod m  if and only if a and b leave
the same remainder when divided by m .
Properties:
(1) a  a  mod m  .
(2) If a  b  mod m  then b  a  mod m  .
(3) If a  b  mod m  , b  c  mod m  then a  c  mod m  .
(4) If a  b  mod m  then for any integer c .
a  c  b  c  mod m  .
ac  bc  mod m  .
(5) If a  b  mod m  and c  d  mod m  then
a  c  b  d  mod m 
ac  bd  mod m  .
(6) If a  b  mod m  and d | m , , then a  b  mod d  .
Definition: If a  b  mod m  then b is said to be a rssidue of a modulo m .
By division algorithm there exist integers q and r satisfying a  qm  r with
0  r  m 1 .
Since a  r  qm , a  r  mod m  and this shows that r is a residue of a modulo m . r
is said to be the least non-negative residue of a modulo m .
Let a be an arbitrary integer. Upon division by m , a leaves one and only one of the
integers 0,1, 2,.........., m 1 as the remainder.
Therefore whatever the integer a may be , the least non-negative residue of a is one
and only one of 0,1, 2,............, m  1 .
The whole set of integers is divided into m distinct and disjoint subsets, called the
residue classes modulo m , denoted by 0 , 1 , 2 , ………………, m  1 and is defined by
0  0,  m, 2m,...................
1  1,1  m,1  2m,......................
 2  2, 2  m, 2  2m,......................
……………………………………………
m  1  m  1,  m  1  m,  m  1  2m,......................
Theorem: If a  b  mod m  then a n  b n  mod m  for all positive integers n .
Note: The converse of the theorem fails to hold.
a k  b k  mod m  does not necessary imply a  b  mod m  .
Theorem: If ax  ay  mod m  and a is prime to m then x  y  mod m  .
 m
Theorem: If d  gcd  a, m  then ax  ay  mod m   x  y  mod  .
 d
 m
Corollary: If ax  ay  mod m  and a | m then x  y  mod  .
 a
Theorem: x  y  mod mi  for i  1, 2,........., r  x  y  mod m  where
m   m1 , m2 ,............., mr  .
Corollary: If x  y  mod m1  , x  y  mod m2  and m1, m2 are relatively prime then
x  y  mod m1m2  .
Theorem: Let f  x   an x n  an 1 x n 1  .............  a1 x  a0 be a polynomial with integral
coefficients ai .
If a  b  mod m  then f  a   f  b  mod m  .
Q. Let n  am10m  am110m1  ..............  a2102  a110  a0 where ak are integers and
0  ak  9 , k  0,1, 2,........., m be the decimal representation of a positive intger n .
Let S  a0  a1  a2  ............  am , T  a0  a1  a2  ..........   1 am . Then
m

(i) n is divisible by 2 if and only if a0 is divisible by 2 ;

(ii) n is divisible by 9 if and only if S is divisible by 9 ;
(iii) n is divisible by 11 if and only if T is divisible by 11 .
A. Let us consider the polynomial f  x   am x m  am1 x m1  ..............  a1 x  a0 .
(i) We have 10  0  mod 2  .
Therefore f 10   f  0  mod 2  .
But f 10   n and f  0   a0 .
Therefore n  a0 is divisible by 2 .
Hence n is divisible by 2 if and only if a0 is divisible by 2 .
(ii) We have 10  1 mod 9  .
Therefore f 10   f 1 mod 9  .
But f 10   n and f 1  S .
 Therefore n  S  mod 9  .
This proves that n  S is divisible by 9 .
Hence n is divisible by 9 if and only if S is divisible by 9 .
(iii) We have 10  1 mod11 .
Therefore f 10   f  1 mod11 .
But f 10   n and f  1  T .
Therefore n  T  mod11 .
This proves that n  T is divisible by 11 .
Hence n is divisible by 11 if and only if T is divisible by 11 .
Q. Let n  am 1000   am 1 1000   .............  a1 1000   a0 where ak are integers and
m m 1

0  ak  999 , k  0,1,..........., m be the representation of a positive integer n .

Let T  a0  a1  a2  ..........   1 am . Then
m

(i) n is divisible by 7 if and only if T is divisible by 7 ,

(ii) n is divisible by 11 if and only if T is divisible by 11 ,
(iii) n is divisible by 13 if and only if T is dovisible by 13 .
A. Let us consider the polynomial f  x   am x m  am1 x m1  ...........  a1 x  a0 . (i) We
have 1000  1 mod 7  since 1001  7.11.13 .
Therfore f 1000   f  1 mod 7  .
But f 1000   n and f  1  T .
Therefore n  T  mod 7  .
This implies n  T is divisible by 7 .
Hence n is divisible by 7 if and only if T is divisible by 7 .
(ii) and (iii) Similar proof.
Q. Find the least positive residues in 336  mod 77  .
A. 34  4  mod 77 
Therefore 312  43  mod 77   13  mod 77  .
This gives 324  169  mod 77   15  mod 77 
Therefore 336  15.  13 mod 77   36  mod 77  .
Hence the least positive residue is 36 .
Q. Use theory of congruence to prove that 7 | 25n3  52n3 for all n  1 .
A. 25n3  52n3  8.32n 125.25n .
32n  25n  0  mod 7  for all n  1 .
Therefore 8.32n  8.25n  0  mod 7  for all n  1 .
Also we have 133  25   0  mod 7  for all n  1 .
n

Therefore 8.32n  125.25n  0  mod 7  for all n  1 .

This implies 7 | 25n3  52n3 for all n  1 .
Q. Prove that 1920  1 mod181 .
A. We have 192  1 mod181
Therefore 1920   1  mod181 ,
10

Or, 1920  1 mod181 .

Q. Prove that 3.4 n1  3  mod 9  for all positive integers n .
A. 3.4n1  12.4n  9.4n  3.4n
3.4n  12.4n1  9.4n1  3.4n1
…………………………………..
3.42  12.4  9.4  3.4
3.4  12  9  3 .
Therefore 3.4n 1  9 1  4  42  ...........  4n   3 .
Hence 3.4 n1  3  mod 9  .
Q. Find the remainder when 1! 2! 3! ............  50! is divisible by 15 .
A. 5!  0  mod15  and for any integer n ,  5  n !  0  mod15  .
Therefore 1! 2! 3! ..........  50!  1! 2! 3! 4! mod15  .
Now 1! 2! 3! 4!  33  15.2  3 .
This shows that 33  3  mod15  and therefore 1! 2! ......  50!  3  mod15  .