Indian Society

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RAHAAR
The final hit to UPSC Exam
Comprehensive, Integrated and Current Linked Notes for CSE Mains 2021
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OnlyIAS PRAHAAR
PREFACE
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OnlyIAS PRAHAAR: INDIAN SOCIETY
INDEX
1. Salient features of Indian Society and Diversity of India___________________________________________________________ 2

2. Role Of Women And Women’s Organisation_______________________________________________________________________16
3. Population And Associated Issues__________________________________________________________________________________40
4. Poverty And Development Issues___________________________________________________________________________________53
5. Urbanisation: Problems And Remedies____________________________________________________________________________61
6. Effect Of Globalization On Indian Society__________________________________________________________________________70
7. Social Empowerment________________________________________________________________________________________________90
8. Communalism______________________________________________________________________________________________________102
9. Regionalism_________________________________________________________________________________________________________111
10. Secularism__________________________________________________________________________________________________________120
11. Impact Of Covid 19 On Indian Society____________________________________________________________________________129
12. Health: Social Perspective_________________________________________________________________________________________142
13. Education: Social Perspective_____________________________________________________________________________________152
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1. SALIENT FEATURES OF INDIAN SOCIETY AND DIVERSITY

OF INDIA
TABLE OF CONTENT
• Introduction o Elderly/Senior Citizen
• Characteristics Of Indian Society o Scheduled Castes
• Social Institutions: o Schedule Tribe
1. Kinship o Other Backward Class (OBC)
2. Marriage o Minorities
3. Family o Beggars
• Races In India o LGBT
• Tribes In India o Victims Of Substance Abuse
• Caste • Diversity Of India:
• Religious Pluralism o Various Forms Of Diversity In India
• India As A Multi-Lingual Society o Factors Leading To Unity Amidst Diversity In
• Stakeholders In Indian Society: India
o Women o Factors That Threaten India’s Unity
o Children o Conclusion
PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS
1. Has caste lost its relevance in understanding the multicultural Indian Society? Elaborate your 2020
answer with illustrations.
2. “Caste system is assuming new identities and associational forms. Hence, caste system cannot be 2018
eradicated in India.” Comment.
3. How the Indian concept of secularism is different from the western model of secularism? Discuss. 2018
4. ‘Communalism arises either due to power struggle or relative deprivation. Argue by giving suitable 2018
illustrations.
5. The spirit tolerance and love are not only an interesting feature of Indian society from very early 2017
times, but it is also playing an important part at the present. Elaborate.
6. In the context of diversity of India, can it be said that the regions form cultural units rather than the 2017
States? Give reasons with examples for your viewpoint.
7. Has the formation of linguistic States strengthened the cause of Indian Unity? 2016
8. Mahatma Gandhi and Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, despite having divergent approaches and strategies, had 2015
a common goal of amelioration of the downtrodden. Elucidate.
9. Describe any four cultural elements of diversity in India and rate their relative significance in 2015
building a national identity.
10. Debate the issue of whether and how contemporary movements for assertion of Dalit identity work 2015
towards annihilation of caste.
11. How do the Indian debates on secularism differ from the debates in the West? 2014
INTRODUCTION
• Indian society is an example of a grand synthesis of multicultural, multi-ethnic and multi-ideological
construct. Amid the complexities and diversities all the sections of Indian society carry the ethos of Indian-
ness.
• Since time immemorial, ‘Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam’ (the world is one family) has been the guiding light for
the Indian society and based on this perceptive phrase India has accommodated and integrated many
communities which has shaped the ethos and socio-cultural fabric of Indian society.
• Thus Mark Twain has rightly said, “India is the cradle of the human race”.

OnlyIAS PRAHAAR : INDIAN SOCIETY
• Meaning of Society: Society may be illustrated as economic, social, industrial, or cultural infrastructure,
made up of a varied collection of individuals. R.M. Maclver (1937) also defined society as a “web of social
relations which is always changing” where an individual forms the basic unit of it.
“Our ability to reach unity in diversity will be the beauty and the test of our civilization.” - Mahatma Gandhi
CHARACTERISTICS OF INDIAN SOCIETY

• Multi-ethnic society: Since time immemorial, its society
has evolved through the ages and has also been affected by
foreign influences giving it extreme diversity.
• Multi-lingual society: Multilingualism in India is a product
of its rich history and a reflection of its diverse cultures.
• Multi-class society: Indian society is segmented into
multiple classes. This division can be on the basis of birth as
well as financial and social achievements during one's
lifetime.
• Patriarchal society: Indian society is largely a patriarchal
society where men hold primary power, predominating in
the roles of political leadership, moral authority, special privilege and control of property.
• Unity in Diversity: Indian Society is a grand synthesis of cultures, religions and languages of the people
belonging to different castes and communities has upheld its unity and cohesiveness. However, beneath this
diversity, there is fundamental unity in social institutions and practices.
• Co-existence of traditionalism and modernity: The spread of education and technological advances has
played a major role in the increase of modern thinking among Indians.
• Balance between Individualism and collectivism: Individualism is a moral, political or social outlook that
stresses human independence, self-reliance and liberty. Whereas collectivism is the practice of giving a group
priority over each individual in it.
SOCIAL INSTITUTION
• Social institutions are structures of society like family, education, religion, etc. that fulfil the needs of the
society. They guide and shape the expected behaviour of individuals, they also help to build and sustain
the society itself. There are social institutions that constrain and control, punish and reward.
1. KINSHIP
• The Kinship system represents one of the basic social institutions. Kinship is universal and, in most
societies, plays a significant role in the socialisation of individuals and the maintenance of group
solidarity.
• Kinship assigns guidelines for interactions between persons. It defines a proper, acceptable role
relationship between father- daughter, brother-sister etc. Kinship determines family line relationships, gotra
and kula.
• Kinship decides who can marry with whom and where marital relationships are taboo. In rural and tribal
societies kinship or kinship relations determine the rights and obligations of the family and marriage, system
of production and political power.
2. MARRIAGE
• Marriage is an important social institution to satisfy physical, psychological, social, cultural and economic
needs of men and women. It is a relationship, which is socially approved and sanctioned by custom and law.
It is also a set of cultural mechanisms that ensure the continuation of the family. It is more or less a universal
social institution in India.
TYPES OF MARRIAGE:
1. Monogamy: Monogamy is that form of marriage in which a man or woman remains married to only one
woman or man at a time. One can marry in certain extraordinary circumstances such as the death of the
spouse or divorce.
2. Polygamy: In this form if marriage, a man or woman is permitted to marry more than one woman or man
and live with all the wives or husbands at the same time. Polygamy may be further divided into Polygyny and
Polyandry.
STRUCTURAL AND FUNCTIONAL CHANGES IN THE MARRIAGE SYSTEM:

• Changes in the form of marriage: Traditional forms of marriages like polygamy, polygyny are legally
prohibited in India. Nowadays, mostly monogamous marriages are practiced.
• Changes in the aim and purpose of marriage: In traditional Indian societies especially among Hindus the
primary objective of marriage was considered as ‘dharma’ or duty. But today in this fast evolving modern
world the objective of marriage is more related to ‘life-long companionship’ between husband and wife.
• Change in stability of Marriage: In the past divorce carried a considerable stigma and the pressure for the
sake of the children and also for the sake of appearances and family honour, was very strong. Now due to
legislatives, education, technology advancement and more awareness has changed stability in the institution
of marriage.
• Change in the Age at Marriage: Earlier children used to get married at an early age and it was more in case
of girls. But in post independent India legislation like the Special Marriage Act, 1954 and the Prohibition of
Child Marriage Act, 2006 prescribed 18 and 21 years as the minimum age of consent for marriage for women
and men respectively.
• Live-in relationships: Currently, in the Indian metropolitan cities, youths are more inclined to live in
relationships. The institution also had legal recognition as a three-judge bench of SC in 2010 observed that
a man and a woman living together without marriage cannot be construed as an offense and held that living
together is a Right to Life and Liberty (Article 21).
3. FAMILY
• Perhaps no other social entity appears more ‘natural’ than the family. The family is the basic unit of society.
It is the first and the most immediate social environment to which a child is exposed. No other social
institution appears more universal and unchanging.
CHARACTERISTICS OF A FAMILY:
• Universality: Family as a social unit is universal as it performs many functions which are indispensable for
the individual and society.
• Mating relationship: A family is born by the relatively durable companionship of husband, wife who
procreates children according to prescribed social norms.
• Emotional basis: Family members are emotionally bound to each other. They provide love, care and
protection to each other and are ready to make sacrifices for the welfare of family members.
• Limited size: A family is basically made up of a husband, wife and their children. It is a small group and its
membership is confined to those who are related by either marriage or blood ties.
• Social regulations: Family is run according to social norms. Inter-relationships and interactions among
family members are guided by social and legal regulations.
• Common habitation: A family requires a home or household for its living. This becomes inevitable for
bearing and rearing of children.
• A system of Nomenclature: Every family is known by a name and has its own system of reckoning descent,
be it through the male lineage or the female lineage.
FUNCTIONS OF FAMILY:
• Reproduction or procreation: Production and rearing of children is one of the most essential functions of
the family and is also called as the maintenance function of the family.
• Provision of home: Family provides the home for its members and the entire family is dependent on it for
comfort, protection, space and peace.
• Socialization and cultural transformation: The family guarantees not only the biological continuity of the
human race but also the cultural continuity of the society of which it is a part. The family also indoctrinates
the child with the values, morals, beliefs and ideals of the society.
• Economic functions: With economic advancements, family has become a more consuming unit than a
producing one. Members are engaged in earning wages for ensuring socio-economic well-being of the family.

• Educational functions: The family provides the basis for the child's formal learning. In spite of changes
occurring in society, the family still provides the child the basic training in social attitudes and habits
important to participation in social life.
• Religious functions: The family is a centre for the religious training of the children. The family not only
meets the spiritual needs of its members but also passes on the religious inheritance to the next generation.
TYPES OF THE FAMILY:

• Nuclear Family: A nuclear family is made up of a husband, wife, and unmarried children. The physical
distance between parents and married child or between parents and grandparents minimizes their
interdependence.
• Joint or the Extended Family: The joint family is also called the undivided family or the extended family. In
an extended family, three or more generations are included in a single, functional family consisting of grand-
parents, parents, grand-children, brothers, sisters and their spouse and children.
• Ensures economic progress: The joint family meets the basic needs such as food,
clothing and shelter of its members.
• Advantage of division of labour: Every member in the family is given the advantage of
division of labour.
Merits of the • Social insurance: The joint family acts as a social insurance for the old, sick and
joint family incapable.
system: • Helps social control: The joint family acts as an agent of social control by exercising
control over the behaviour of its members. The individuals are taught to subordinate their
individual interests to family interests.
• Promotes psychological security: The joint family, through creating a harmonious
atmosphere in the family, contributes to the development of social solidarity. It provides
psychological security to its members and prevents the growth of excessive individuation
inside the family.
• Retards the development of personality: The elders take up most of the responsibilities
and the younger ones are over protected. Thus, does not provide enough opportunity to
its members to develop the qualities of adventure, self-determination, industriousness,
Demerits of etc.
joint family • Promotes idleness: The joint family is said to be the home of idlers. Since all members of
system: the family are assured of the basic necessities of life, no one takes much interest in
productive activities.
• Undermines the status of women: In patriarchal joint families, women have only
secondary roles and are not given sufficient freedom to express and to develop their
personality.
STRUCTURAL AND FUNCTIONAL CHANGES IN THE INDIAN FAMILY:

• Smaller family sizes: The traditional large-sized joint family which was also a socioeconomic unit, has been
replaced by small sized nuclear families.
• Influence of urbanization: According to various
sociologists the city life is more favorable to small
nuclear families than to big joint families.
Urbanisation strengthens nuclear family patterns.
• Change in relationship between man and
woman: Women are no longer considered as
inferior to men, but they enjoy equal status. They
are no longer subjected to drudgery and slavery as
in past and have equal say in all matters.
• Legislative measures: Prohibition of early
marriage and fixing the minimum age of marriage
by the Child Marriage Restraint Act, 1929, and the Hindu Marriage Act, 1955 have lengthened the period of
education. The other legislative measures like the Widow Remarriage Act, 1856, Hindu Marriage Act, 1955,

Hindu succession Act, 1956, all have modified interpersonal relations within the family, the composition of
the family and the stability of the joint family.
• Economic independence of women: Women are no longer confined to the four walls of the house, but
rather they are working shoulder to shoulder with men.
• Neo-Local Residence: As a result of industrialization and urbanisation more and more young married
couples set up their residence in the place of their work. Neo-local residence is, therefore, coming to existence
more and more.
• Influence of western values: Values relating to modern science, rationalism, individualism, equality, free
life, democracy, freedom of women etc. have exerted a tremendous change on the joint family system in India.
RACES IN INDIA
1. Negrito: They were the first to arrive in India. Negrito features are found particularly amongst small
provinces in the south, the Kadar, Andamanese, Angami Nagas, and Bagadi of Rajmahal hills (Bihar).
2. Proto-Australoid: Today they constitute the bulk of the population in many isolated and semi-isolated parts
of central and southern India. The Central India tribes like Bhils, Mundas, Santhal, ho, Chenchus manifest
their racial characteristics.
3. Mongoloid: On its northern and eastern frontier, India marches with the great Mongoloid region of the earth.
The tribes of Garo, Khasi, Jaintia, Lipchas, Chakmas, Murmis, Naga and Daffla belong to the Mongoloid race.
4. Mediterranean: They entered the Indian subcontinent from the Mediterranean region. They are connected
to Dravidian languages and culture. They spread over entire subcontinent with a major concentration in
south India.
5. Western Brachycephals: These races are subdivided into three major groups – Alpinoid, Dinaric, Armenoid.
Coorgis and Parsis are representatives of the Brachycephals in India.
6. Nordic: The Nordics constitute the last wave of migration into India. They spoke Aryan language and
migrated to India sometime during the second millennium B.C. The main concentration of these people is in
the north-western part of the country.
TRIBES IN INDIA
• A tribe is a social division in a traditional society consisting of families linked by religious, social, blood
ties, and economics, with a common culture and dialect.
• The tribal communities in India have been recognized by the Indian Constitution under ‘Schedule 5’ of the
constitution. Hence the tribes recognized by the Constitution are known as ‘Scheduled Tribes’.
DATA AND FACTS

• According to the 2011 census, tribals make up 8.6% of India's population. There are over 700 tribal groups
in India, out of which around 75 are Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTGs).
• The Gond comprise the largest tribal group of India. The largest number of tribal communities (62) are
found in Odisha. Every year 9th August is observed as World Tribal Day or International Day of the World’s
Indigenous Peoples.
Region Tribes
Himalayan region Tribes like the Gaddi, the Jaunsari, the Naga, etc),
Middle India Tribes like the Munda, the Santal, etc
Western India Tribes like the Bhil, the Grasia, etc.
South Indian region Tribes like the Toda, the Chenchu, etc.
Andaman and Nicobar Jarawas, Onges, Sentinelese, Shompens.
CONSTITUTIONAL PROVISIONS:
• Article 342(1): The President may with respect to any State or Union Territory, and where it is a State, after
consultation with the Governor, by a public notification, specify the tribes or tribal communities or part of or
groups within tribes or tribal communities as Scheduled Tribe in relation to that State or Union Territory.
• Article 15: Prohibition of discrimination on grounds of religion, race, caste, sex or place of birth only.
• Article 16: Equality of opportunity in matters of public employment.

• Article 46: Promotion of educational and economic interests of scheduled castes, Scheduled tribes and other
weaker sections.
•
• Article 335: Claims of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes to services and posts.
• Article 338-A: the National Commission for Scheduled Tribes has been set-up.
• 5th and 6th Schedule: Administration and control of Scheduled and Tribal Areas.
LEGAL PROVISIONS:
• Protection of Civil Rights Act, 1955 against Untouchability.
• Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Committees Related to Tribal
Atrocities) Act, 1989: to prevent the commission of offences of Communities
atrocities against the members of the Scheduled Castes and the 1. Xaxa Committee (2013)
Scheduled Tribes. 2. Bhuria Commission (2002-
• Provisions of the Panchayats (Extension to the Scheduled Areas) 2004)
Act, 1996: to provide for the extension of the provisions of Part IX of 3. Lokur Committee (1965)
the Constitution relating to the Panchayats to the Scheduled Areas.
• Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006: to
recognize and vest the forest rights and occupation in forest land in forest dwelling scheduled tribes and
other traditional forest dwellers.
CHANGES IN TRIBAL SOCIETY

• Forest resources have declined, and forests have been increasingly brought under reservation. They are
no longer the comfort zones of the tribal people except in certain areas of North-East India.
• Tribal people have been compelled to give away a lot of land to more experienced agriculturists, to
industries, and for big projects like hydro-electric reservoirs.
• Big industries have been established in their areas. So, the bane is they have been displaced by such
industries, and the boon is they have been given employment as wage laborers.
• The impact of the market economy has resulted in the tribal’s production for the market rather than
for meeting their own needs.
CASTE
• Caste can be defined as a hereditary, endogamous group, having a common name, common traditional
occupation, common culture, relatively rigid in matters of mobility, the distinctiveness of status, and forming
a single homogenous community.
• The word refers to a broad institutional arrangement that in Indian languages is referred to by two distinct
terms:
o Varna: Literally ‘colour’, is the name given to a four-fold division of society into brahmana, Kshatriya,
Vaishya and shudra.
o Jati: It is a generic term referring to species or kinds of anything, ranging from inanimate objects to plants,
animals and human beings.
HISTORY OF THE CASTE SYSTEM:

• Ancient age:
o The caste system is associated with the Hindu religion, as per Rig Veda, there were four categories known
as ‘varnas.’ Varnas consist of Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Shudras.
o It is only in the post-Vedic period that caste becomes the rigid institution that is familiar to us from well-
known definitions.
• Colonial times:
o The dominant view in the nationalist movement was to treat caste as a social evil, but on the other hand,
leaders like Mahatma Gandhi were able to work for the upliftment of the lowest caste – Harijan.
o The post-independence state inherited and reflected these contradictions. While the state was committed
to the abolition of caste, it was both unable to push through radical reforms, which would have
undermined the economic basis for caste inequality.
• Post-colonial times:

o 1901 census that sought to collect information on social hierarchy. Land revenue settlements gave legal
recognition to the caste-based rights of the upper class that became landowners in the modern sense.
o Government of India Act 1935 gave legal recognition to the scheduled caste and scheduled tribes and
scheduled caste by marking out special treatment by the state.
DIFFERENCE B/W CASTE AND CLASS:

CASTE CLASS
Acquired by birth and no amount of money, wealth, A person is placed in class by virtue of his acquisition
power, knowledge, education or struggle can change of education, money, wealth, power, status or other
it. achievement.
In general, there is no vertical social mobility but in Horizontal and Vertical both Social mobility is
practice there can be social mobility for Group possible, i.e. it is possible to improve social status by
Only. e.g Sanskritization acquiring wealth, money, education power etc.
Members are normally not conscious of their social Members are generally conscious of their social
status. status.
Caste system expects members to follow certain Social class has no prescribed customs rituals and
customs, folkways, rituals etc. folkways
It is Impossible for a person to marry outside the caste Marriage outside class is allowed without being
without social annoyance. thrown outside of society
FEATURES OF CASTE SYSTEM:

• Segmental Division of Society: The Indian society is stratified into various small social groups called castes.
Caste is never a matter of choice, caste is acquired by birth. One can never change one’s caste, leave it, or
choose not to join it, although there are instances where a person may be expelled from their caste.
• Hierarchy: It is a ladder of command in which the lower rungs are encompassed in the higher ones in regular
succession. The castes teach us a fundamental social principle of hierarchy.
• Endogamy: The most fundamental characteristic of the caste system is endogamy i.e. the members of a caste
or sub-caste should marry within their own caste or sub-caste.
• Civil and religious disabilities: These consist of restrictions based on contact, dress, speech, rituals etc. and
are placed on every caste group. It was done in order to maintain purity of specific caste groups.
• Hereditary Occupation: Castes were traditionally linked to occupations. A person born into a caste could
only practice the occupation associated with that caste, so that occupations were hereditary.
• Untouchability: It is the practice of ostracizing a group by segregating them from the mainstream by social
custom, wherein the untouchables were deemed impure and polluted.
• Manual scavenging: Manual scavenging is linked to India’s caste system and it refers to the practice of
manually cleaning, carrying, disposing or handling in any manner, human excreta from dry latrines and
sewers by the so-called lower castes. It has been officially abolished by the Prohibition of Employment as
Manual Scavengers and their Rehabilitation Act 2013.
• Conflict resolve mechanisms: The status of each caste is carefully protected, not only by caste laws but also
by the conventions. These are openly enforced by the community.
TRANSFORMATION OF CASTES SYSTEM

• Trends for inter-caste marriage: In the last few decades due to economic and social necessities, inter-caste
marriages on western lines are being performed at increased frequency.
• Decline in the supremacy of Brahmins: In the traditional caste system, the Brahmins were at the apex of
the social and religious sphere and thus they enjoyed supremacy over others. But due to the processes of
secularization and westernization, the authority of the Brahmins gradually declined and they ceased to enjoy
the traditional respect and honour in the society.
• Challenge to orthodoxy: Orthodox practices of the caste system such as child marriage, ban on widow
remarriage, ban on conversion, insensitiveness of superior class towards the low caste people are being
challenged in the wake of urbanization.
• Changes in commensality: People are no more confined to their places of origin. They have migrated to
different places and so it becomes very difficult to stick to the restrictions relating to the food habits.

• Occupational changes: In a caste-ridden society, occupations were hereditary and an individual’s birth into
a particular caste determined his occupation forever. But when the rigidity of the caste system broke down,
occupational changes were also marked.
• Changes in the sphere of culture: It has changed the lifestyle of different caste groups, their modes of living,
patterns of worship and performance of rites and rituals, customs and traditional practices.
• Attitudinal changes: Changes in the attitude towards castes have been noticed within the system. This
relates to loss of faith in the ascriptive pattern and jurisdiction of the system itself.
FACTORS AFFECTING THE CHANGES IN THE CASTE SYSTEM

• Sanskritization: It is a process whereby members of a lower caste attempt to raise their social status by
adopting the rituals & social practices of the higher castes. By changing such customs and rituals like,
adopting vegetarianism and teetotalism, people belonging to the low castes are claiming a ‘higher’ position
in the caste hierarchy.
• Westernisation: It indicates adapting to western style of living, language, dress pattern, and behaviour
pattern. In India largely due to the advancement in the spheres of education, food habits, dressing sense,
manners etc., Later on, the lower castes also adapted to this process.
• Modernisation: The process of modernisation is related to the scientific outlook, rational attitudes,
industrialisation, urbanisation, high standard of living, development of civilization and broadness of view
point. This has greatly affected the caste system in the sense that it has become more flexible.
• Dominant caste: Refer to those castes which had a large population and were granted land rights by the
partial land reforms affected after Independence. With this they acquired considerable economic, political
and social power and became dominant in their regions.
• Industrialisation and urbanization: With the growth of industrial towns and cities, migration has spiralled
up. Unlike the source regions, destination areas witness fewer adherence to caste rules.
• Democratic decentralization: Through the introduction of Panchayati Raj, local self-government has been
created in the villages. The reservation provided in the Panchayati Raj system has allowed the lower castes
to empower themselves.
• Caste and politics: They both are closely linked to each other. In fact, the link has led to empowerment
among the lower castes since they ventilate their feelings through elections and power lobby.
• Legislative measures: A plethora of social legislations have been introduced in the post-independence era
to safeguard the interests of the marginalised section of the society, to eradicate untouchability, and to
facilitate the social and economic development of the depressed castes.
A PARADOX IN THE PRESENT CASTE SYSTEM:

Weakening caste system Strengthening caste system
• Change in hierarchical structure: Caste • Caste and politics: Prevalence of caste politics
hierarchy based on purity and pollution has resulted in the enactment of legislations to protect
weakened because of secularization. the rights of disadvantaged and marginalized
• Breakdown of Jajmani system: Jajmani sections of society.
system involved exchange of goods and • Democratic decentralization: The reservation in
services, with each jati contributing its share the Panchayati Raj system has given the opportunity
based on occupational specialty. for the lower castes representation in the
• Disruption of traditionally ordained democracy.
occupational systems: Due to globalization • Caste based affirmative actions: Provision of
and rise of the services sector. caste-based reservation in education and jobs has
strengthened the caste identities.
RELIGIOUS PLURALISM
• Indian society is composed of diverse cultures, peoples, languages and religions. Since ancient times
India has been a land of diverse cultural groups professing many faiths. The Indian subcontinent is the
birthplace of four world religions - Hinduism, Buddhism, Sikhism and Jainism.
• The Indian Constitution has rightly reflected the idea of multi-religions. It states that “every citizen has a
right to freely practice, preach, profess and propagate any religion or faith”.

MULTICULTURALISM AND PLURALISM:

• India is an inherently multi-cultural society that believes in plurality of ideas, belief and faith. It enriches
Indian culture and adds to our diversity.
• We have vibrant communities of Hindus, Muslims, Sikhs, Christians, Jains, Buddhists, Parsis etc. that have
blended well and enhanced the progress of India.
• Striking a balance between unity amidst this vast diversity is always a challenge for a nation. Pluralism
and multiculturalism are the two ways to manage this conundrum simultaneously.
• In India, pluralism describes the reality of cultural diversity. It attempts to

Pluralism in Indian create a society in which the best of all inputs continues to integrate.
Perspectives: • It allows for many different groupings but does not try to impose a uniform
status on all of them.
• Multiculturalism means showing respect and tolerance to other cultures
and faith. It holds that all minority values must have equal status to those of
Multiculturalism in the majority. It also allows assertion of different identities in every sphere of
Indian Perspectives life.
• The Indian constitution also provides fundamental rights for the
preservation of this variety. No community is left out in creating a rainbow
nation.
Pluralism Multiculturalism
• Here individuals in a common (neutral) public • As per multiculturalism, the public sphere is not
sphere are treated as equals. culturally neutral, it is an arena for cultural
• Different cultures are allowed in a separate negotiation.
cultural sphere, but society has no obligation to • Different cultures are encouraged. Individuals are
acknowledge or support alternative cultural considered part of collectivities that provide
forms. meaning to their lives. Multiculturalism seeks
• The dominant principals for pluralism are – ways to support these collectivities.
Equality of opportunity, Freedom of association. • The dominant principals for multiculturalism are
– Affiliation, Cultural recognition
INDIA AS A MULTI-LINGUAL SOCIETY

• The linguistic diversity was one of the primary reasons behind the linguistic reorganization of states in
the post-independence era.
• The Constitution of India has recognised 22 official languages under the 8th schedule. Currently there
are six languages that enjoy the ‘Classical’ status in India -Tamil (declared in 2004), Sanskrit (2005), Kannada
(2008), Telugu (2008), Malayalam (2013), and Odia (2014).
DATA/FACTS
• As per the 1961 census, there are 1,652 major languages in India.
• As per the 2011 census, there are 121 languages recognized by the government as having at least 10,000
speakers.
• The People's Linguistic Survey of India has identified 780 languages, of which 50 are extinct in the past five
decades.
IMPORTANCE OF PRESERVING LINGUISTIC DIVERSITY IN INDIA

• Cultural Identity: For individuals, language is constitutive of cultural identity. Any destruction to language
impacts the identity of individuals leading to identity crisis. This impacts their ability to grow and develop as
an individual.
• Cultural Diversity: Diversity in languages reflects and enhances cultural diversity. This in turn enriches the
world. Unwritten languages rich in oral traditions, stories, songs, poetry, and ritual passed down through the
generations constitute cultural diversity of a nation.
• Human rights: Since language is central to identity, one’s freedom to use one’s language is seen as inherent
in the dignity of the human person.

• A glimpse of our past: Languages provide a glimpse of our history. Once a language is lost it is a loss of
history and culture associated with that language.
• Cognitive abilities: Research has shown a strong correlation between improved cognitive abilities in
children when they are taught in their mother tongue in primary school.
ISSUES AND CHALLENGES

• Increasing Regionalism and Parochialism: The people of different linguistic groups who are concentrated
in a state seem to think only in terms of interests of their own States. This undermines consideration of
national issues and causes parochial feelings.
• Formation of Regional Political Parties: Linguism has resulted in regionalism which has ultimately led to
the formation of regional political parties in some states. Some of these regional political parties have also
formed governments.
• Persecution of the Linguistic Minorities: The State Reorganization Commission had provided for
safeguard of linguistic minorities in States. But in reality the linguistic minorities have been harassed in
different States.
• Demand for Separate States: Linguistic conflicts take place due to selfish motive of politicians. These
politicians instigate the linguistic minority to demand a partition of the States along linguistic lines.
• Erosion of National Feeling: The national feeling is eroded due to linguistic and regional loyalties. The
erosion of national feeling threatens the sovereignty of the country.
• Inter-State Border Dispute: Language problems have created tensions in the border which are bilingual.
For example, the Goans are divided on the basis of Konkani and Marathi languages.
WAY FORWARD
• Government should be sensitive towards the people’s aspirations. Any attempt of forceful imposition of
any one language on masses should be refrained. Rather efforts should be made to preserve and protect
the languages under threat of extinction. For ex: Advanced technologies like Artificial Intelligence can be
used to translate and digitize ancient regional texts.
• Programmes like ‘Ek Bharat Shreshtha Bharat’ are a step in the right direction to promote unity in
diversity. The three-language formula envisaged by Kothari Commission should be implemented in
such a way that the choice of language(s) must be left with the citizens and not the Government.
STAKEHOLDERS IN INDIAN SOCIETY
1. WOMEN
• The history of women in India is the story of progressive decline. In general throughout the early historical
and early medieval periods women were not encouraged to take up any intellectual activity.
• Under the influence of modern education, a set of social reformers campaigned for legislation which would
uplift the status of women in society.
• However, in spite of some efforts, a lot of problems are being faced by women – Domestic violence, Dowry,
Selective abortion and female infanticide, Disproportionate education, Gender discrimination, Sexual
harassment, etc. Empowering women is not only morally essential, but also economically important for the
country.
2. CHILDREN
• A child is the future citizen of the country. Only those children who grow in a healthy atmosphere can
contribute to the development and strength of their country. No country can progress unless it pays adequate
attention to the development of children.
• A large number of children, because of poverty, do not go to school or are withdrawn from schools before
they complete their elementary education and are forced to start working at a young and tender age in
factories, brick-kilns, restaurants, hotels, shops etc.
• This hampers their growth physically, mentally, and emotionally. They grow with hatred and agony and fail
to become worthy citizens of the nation.
• Right to Education Act, 2009 provides for education of all children between the age of 6 - 14 years of age.

ELDERLY/SENIOR CITIZEN
• With the joint family breaking down, especially in the urban areas, where nuclear families are the trend, the
aged are increasingly becoming unwelcome members in their own families.
• Our culture to respect elders should be again imbibed in young generation so that the aged can maintain their
self-respect. Providing social, economic, and psychological support to the aged is emerging as a fundamental
concern of social development.
SCHEDULED CASTES
• The Scheduled Caste is a politico-legal-term. It was first coined by the Simon Commission and then
Government of India, Act, 1935.
• Another term used for the Scheduled Castes or Untouchables as “Harijans” (the children of God), was first
used by Mahatma Gandhi. They were also known as depressed class or classes, this term was used by Dr.
Ambedkar.
• Scheduled castes are those castes/races in the country which are notified as Scheduled Castes as per
provisions contained in Article 341 of the Constitution.
• GoI introduced a reservation policy to help Scheduled Castes to come up, within specified time, at par with
others in the society.
• The reservation policy has three major components:
1. Reservation in government appointments,
2. Reservation in admission to educational institutions and
3. Reservation of seats in the House of People (Lok Sabha) and the Legislative Assemblies of the States.
• By the 89th Amendment Act, GoI also formed the National Commission for Scheduled Castes (NCSC) under
Article 338.
SCHEDULE TRIBE (ST)

• The tribal communities in India have been recognized by the Indian Constitution under ‘Schedule 5’ of the
constitution. Hence the tribes recognized by the Constitution are known as ‘Scheduled Tribes’.
• Article 366 (25) defined ST as "such tribes or tribal communities or parts of or groups within such tribes or
tribal communities as are deemed under Article 342 to be ST for the purposes of this constitution".
• Article 342, which is reproduced below, prescribes procedure to be followed in the matter of specification
of ST.
• The ST are notified in 30 States/UTs and the number of individual ethnic groups etc. notified as ST is about
705. The ST population represents a heterogeneous group scattered in different regions of India.
• The differences are noticed in language, cultural practices, socio-economic status, and pattern of livelihood.
• By 89th Amendment 2003, GoI also formed the National Commission for Scheduled Tribes (NCST) under
Article 338 A.
OTHER BACKWARD CLASS (OBC)

• OBC is a collective term used by the Government of India to classify castes which are educationally or
socially disadvantaged.
• In the Indian Constitution, OBCs are described as socially and educationally backward classes (SEBC),
and the Government of India is enjoined to ensure their social and educational development — for example,
the OBCs are entitled to 27% reservations in public sector employment and higher education.
• In the Mandal case judgement (1992), the Supreme Court directed the central government to constitute a
permanent statutory body to examine the complaints regarding the list of backward classes.
• In pursuant to these directions Parliament passed the NCBC Act in 1993 and constituted the NCBC.
• The 102nd Constitutional Amendment Act of 2018 inserted a new Article 338-B in the constitution.
MINORITIES
• The term "Minority" has not been properly defined anywhere in the Indian Constitution, but minority status
has been conferred on many groups.
• The constitution recognizes minorities based on religion and language, but it neither defines the term
'minority'.
• As per sec 2(c) of the National Commission for Minorities Act 1992, ‘minority’ means a community
notified as such by the Central govt.
• The Union Government notified Six religious communities, viz; Muslims, Christians, Sikhs, Buddhists,
Zoroastrians (Parsis), and Jains as minority communities which constitute about 19% population of the
country.
• The word ‘minority’ mentioned in the Constitution of India used in various articles viz. Article 29, 30, 350
A, and 350 B.
• According to Article 29 of the Constitution, any group living within the jurisdiction of India is entitled to
preserve and promote its own language, script or literature, and culture.
• Article 36 states that a minority group, whether based on religion or language, shall have the right to
establish and administer educational institutions of their choice.
• States governments are also empowered to designate state minorities and set up State Minority
Commissions.
BEGGARS
• India is a large country in area with 1.3 billion population, with such a huge population, some economic
problems have developed. There are the problems of unemployment, inflation, poverty and price rise.
• Chronic unemployment and the consequent poverty are responsible for the erosion of human values and
often leads to begging.
• It is well settled that the right to life is the right to live with dignity and with necessities of life required for
it.
• Begging in India has become a big racket in the country. In fact, there are begging cartels in cities like Delhi,
Noida, Gurgaon, Mumbai, Kolkata etc.
• There is no central Act on beggary, however, many States and Union Territories have used certain sections
of the Bombay Prevention of Beggary Act, 1959, as the basis for their own laws.
• The Centre made an attempt at repealing the Act through the Persons in Destitution (Protection, Care and
Rehabilitation) Model Bill, 2016, with provisions including doing away with the Beggary Act and proposing
rehabilitation centres for the destitute in each district.
• Through these legislations, the governments try to maintain public order, address forced begging or
“begging rackets”, and prevent annoyance to tourists.
LGBTQ
• The LGBTQ community is one of the most vulnerable sections in India and mainstreaming them is a great
challenge. Despite the Constitution's focus on liberation, the marginalised segments such as LGBTQ did not
receive enough attention so far.
• The LGBT face innumerable difficulties in the society where the only accepted orientation is
heterosexuality and homosexuality is regarded as abnormal, they also face problems like – Heterosexuality,
Inequality & Violence, Deprived in Rights, Isolation from society, Conflict in Family itself, Victims of Hate
Crimes.
• The right to sexual orientation was meaningless without the right to choose a partner. In Hadiya's case,
the apex court observed that neither the State nor one’s parents could influence an adult’s choice of partner.
• Various other Judgments in Favour of the LGBT Community – Naz foundation v/s Government of Delhi
case and Koushal Judgment.
VICTIMS OF SUBSTANCE ABUSE

• The habitual use of or dependence on harmful substances like liquor/alcoholic drinks, tobacco,
bidis/cigarettes, drugs (for other than prescribed medical treatment) called substance abuse or addiction.
• As the range of addictive substances continues to expand, more and more persons particularly, in the
younger age groups get addicted. Pushing factors include peer-pressure, non-conducive family
environment and stress. Substance abuse is a condition which needs medical and psychological help.
• The parents have to be considerate to children, particularly during their transition from childhood to
adolescence and adulthood, when many changes occur in their physique.
• Addiction should not be seen as a character flaw, but as an ailment that any other person could be
struggling with. Society needs to understand that drug-addicts are victims and not criminals.
• Radical political decisions like one of alcohol prohibition in Bihar may be another solution. When people do
not exercise self-control, a state has to step in, as part of the Directive Principles of State Policy (Article 47).

• Education curriculum should include chapters on drug addiction, its impact and also on de-addiction.
Proper Counselling is another alternative.
DIVERSITY OF INDIA
• Diverse means 'differing from each other' and 'made up of distinct characteristics, qualities, or
elements'. India is a melting pot of religion, races, language, art and cultures.
• The historical development is conscientious for the emergence of the modern India nation state as a multi-
religious, multi-racial, multicultural, multi-ethnic, and multilingual country.
• This grand synthesis of cultures, religions, and languages of the people belonging to different castes and
communities has upheld its unity and cohesiveness despite multiple foreign invasions.
• Thus the phrase ‘unity in diversity’ is the beauty of India when compared with any other homogenous
society.
VARIOUS FORMS OF DIVERSITY IN INDIA

• Geographical diversity: India is a vast country with an area of about 3.2 lakh sq km. The diverse topography
consisting of dry deserts, evergreen forests, snowy Himalayas, along the coast, and fertile plains.
• Religious diversity: India is a land of diversities. This diversity is also visible in the spheres of religion. India
is a multi-religious country consisting of Hindus (79.9%), Muslims (14.2%), Christians (2.32%), Sikhs (1.7%),
Buddhists (0.6%) and Jains (0.41%).
• Language: India is called a ‘veritable tower of Babel’ and according to A. R. Desai, “India presents a spectacle
of Museum of tongues.” In India, each state has its own language. It is not just the accent, but the dialect that
also changes from region to region. The Census 2011 identified about 122 languages.
• Cultural Diversity: India is among the most diverse societies with a plurality and diversity of cultures which
marks it out as perhaps the largest multicultural society in the world.
• Caste diversity: As a form of stratification, the caste is peculiar to Indian society. It may be called as an
extreme form of closed class system. The status of individuals in the social hierarchy is determined by birth.
• Racial diversity: As mentioned earlier, India has greatly attracted waves of migration from all over the globe
since time immemorial. This is the primary reason behind the absence of a uniform racial composition of its
inhabitants. India has rightly been termed as ‘melting pot’ of races and tribes.
FACTORS LEADING TO UNITY AMIDST DIVERSITY IN INDIA

• Geographical factor: India has its own fixed natural boundary, At broadest level, the country can be divided
into several regions viz. Himalaya, northern plains, plateau of central India and Deccan, Western & Eastern
Ghats, Thar Desert etc.
• Constitutional identity: The Constitution guarantees certain fundamental rights to all citizens regardless of
their age, gender, class, caste, religion, etc.
• Inter-State mobility: The Constitution guarantees freedom to move throughout the territory of India under
Article 19 (1)(d), thus promoting a sense of unity and brotherhood among the masses.
• Religious co-existence: India is a country where people are largely influenced by religious principles and
doctrines. Freedom of religion and religious practice guaranteed by the Constitution promotes religious
coexistence with peaceful means.
• Cultural Unity: Indian culture and civilization is unique in its features. There are people who follow different
languages and customs but one can find a basic unity of literary ideas, philosophy, literature, and conventions
throughout the country.
• Fairs and festivals: They also act as integrating factors as people from all parts of the country celebrate them
as per their own local customs.
• Emotional Unity: Sports and cinema act as a binding force across the length and breadth of India. The
institution of national awards and titles for acts of bravery, social service, spirit of unity concerts cut across
the communal, linguistic or regional bias and evokes the feeling of emotional unity.
FACTORS THAT THREATEN INDIA’S UNITY

• Regionalism: Regionalism is a strong attachment to one’s own region/regions over national interests. It can
adversely impact national integration. Law and order situation is hampered due to regional demands and
ensuing agitation.

• Development deficit: The unequal pattern of socio-economic development, inadequate economic policies
and consequent economic disparities can lead to the backwardness of a region, further threatening the unity
of the nation.
• Divisive politics: Sometimes, ascriptive identities such as caste, religion etc. are evoked by politicians in
order to garner votes. This type of divisive politics can result in violence, feelings of mistrust and suspicion
among minorities.
• Ethnic differentiation and nativism: Ethnic differentiation has often led to clashes between different ethnic
groups especially due to factors such as job competition, limited resources, threat to identity etc.
• Geographical isolation: Regional consciousness and regional identity evolved due to vast Indian geography.
Geography, when combined with the ideology of aggressive regionalism, acts as a divisive factor.
• Inter-religious conflicts: Inter-religious conflict not only hampers relations between two communities by
spreading fear and mistrust but also hinders the secular fabric of the country. E.g. Sikh-Hindu conflict in
Punjab, Religious riots over Babri masjid and ram mandir, Gujrat riots etc.
CONCLUSION
• There are problems like regionalism, communalism, ethnic conflicts etc., which pose a threat to India’s
social fabric. But this can be corrected by upholding the values of mutual respect and tolerance towards each
other, the accommodation of multiple aspirations of a diverse population is necessary. Also the proper and
equal distribution of economic development will eventually help in preserving the very ethos of India i.e.
Unity in Diversity.

2. ROLE OF WOMEN AND WOMENS ORGANISATION

TABLE OF CONTENT
• Introduction o Telangana Movement
• Data/Facts o Anti-Dowry Movements
• Evolution of the Role of Women in Indian o Chipko Movement
Society: o Narmada Bachao Movement
o Rig Vedic (1500 BC – 1000 BC) • Post-Independence Women’s Organisation
o The Later Vedic Period (1000 BC –600 BC) • Women And Education
o The Jainism And Buddhism Period (600 BC – • Women And Political System
200 BC) • Women And Indian Economy
o Medieval Period (6th – 13th Century AD) • Gender Wage Gap And Gender Inequality
o During The Colonial Period • Women In Agriculture
o Post-Independence Period • Challenges Faced By Women:
o Modern India o Domestic Violence
• 19th Century Social Reform Movements and o Dowry Demand And Dowry Death
Early Women's Organizations: o Cyber Crime Against Women
o Brahmo Samaj o Prostitution
o Prarthana Samaj o Foeticide
o Arya Samaj • Constitutional Provisions For Women
o Muslim Women And Social Reform • Legal Provisions To Safeguard Women
o Outcome Of These Movements • National Policy For Women Empowerment,
• Early Women's Organizations: 2001
o Women’s India Association (WIA) • Draft National Policy For Women, 2016
o All India Women’s Conference (AIWC) • Key Supreme Court Judgements For Women:
o National Council For Women In India o Vishaka Case
(NCWI) o Hadiya Case
• Role played by women in freedom struggle: o Judgement On Section 497 Of The Indian
o Sarojini Naidu Penal Code
o Kamaladevi Chattopadhyaya o Sabarimala Case
o Aruna Asaf Ali • Approach For Women Development: FIVE YEAR
o Sucheta Kripalani PLANNING AND WOMEN DEVELOPMENT
o Vijayalakhsmi Pandit • Current Developments: Women
o Durgabai Deshmukh 1. Menstrual Leave
o Kalpana Dutt 2. Hindu Women’s Inheritance Rights
o Pritilata Waddedar 3. Unpaid Work
o Annie Besant 4. Crimes Against Women And Impact Of
• Post-Independence Women’s Movements: Covid-19
1. “Empowering women is the key to control population growth”. Discuss 2019

2. What are the continued challenges for women in India against time and space? 2019
3. ‘Women’s movement in India has not addressed the issues of women of lower social strata. 2018
Substantiate your view.
4. How do you explain the statistics that show that the sex ratio in Tribes in India is more favourable 2015
to women than the sex ratio among Scheduled Castes?
5. How does patriarchy impact the position of a middle-class working woman in India? 2014
6. Discuss the various economic and socio-cultural forces that are driving increasing feminization of 2014
agriculture in India.
7. Why do some of the most prosperous regions of India have an adverse sex ratio for women? Give 2014
your arguments
8. Male membership needs to be encouraged in order to make women’s organization free from
gender bias. Comment 2013
INTRODUCTION
• The history of women in India is the story of progressive decline. Mother nature made women an equal
half of human society, but unfortunately the patriarch society made them subordinates in many ways.
• Under the influence of modern education, a set of social reformers campaigned for legislation which
would uplift the status of women in society. However, in spite of some efforts, a lot of problems are being
faced by women.
“It is impossible to think about the welfare of the world unless the condition of women is improved. It is
impossible for a bird to fly on only one wing.” — Swami Vivekananda.
DATA/FACTS
• According to the World Economic Forum’s Global Gender Gap Index, 2021, India has slipped 28 places
and has been ranked 140th among 156 nations participating in the rankings.
• More than half of the children and women are anaemic in 13 of the 22 States/UTs – NFHS-5
• According to NFHS–IV (2015-16), the prevalence of anaemia among women aged 15 to 49 years is 53% and
among adolescent girls aged 15-19 years is 54%.
• Crime against women showed an increase of 7.3% in 2019 from 2018 (Crime in India, 2019 NCRB report)
• As per the Periodic Labour Force Survey, 2018-19, the female labour force participation rates (LFPR)
among women aged above 15 years are as low as 26.4% in rural areas and 20.4% in urban areas in India.
EVOLUTION OF THE ROLE OF WOMEN IN INDIAN SOCIETY

RIG VEDIC (1500 BC – 1000 BC)
• During this period women were dignified with a respectable status in early Vedic civilization.
• They enjoyed complete freedom in every sphere and were placed as central to creation of all lives in the
cosmos. They were composers of hymns, they could marry the men of their choice at a mature age.
• There were women poets like Apala, Viswavara, Ghosa, and Lopamudra during this era which is also called
Rig Vedic period.
THE LATER VEDIC PERIOD (1000 BC–600 BC)

• In this period, larger kingdoms were formed and a need for having a large army which in turn gave more role
and prestige for men. The early law books reduced the women to the status of a ‘Shudra’. Except for some
personal property (‘stridhana’) they were not entitled to any property. Women were denied to read Vedic
texts. Women also lost their political rights of attending assemblies.
• However, the women in the royal and rich household enjoyed certain privileges and reached the pinnacle of
fame e.g., Gargi and Maitreyi.
THE JAINISM AND BUDDHISM PERIOD (600 BC–200 BC)

• The existence of a persistent gender equality was observed during the period of Jainism and Buddhism.
• During the period of Jainism and Buddhism, Buddhist philosophy encouraged women to lead a liberal
and honorable life. During the benevolent rule of the famous Buddhist kings such as Chandragupta Maurya,
Ashoka, Sri Harsha, and others, women regained a part of their lost freedom and status due to the
relatively broadminded Buddhist philosophy.
• Many women took a leading role in Buddhist monastic-life, women had their sangha called the Bhikshuni
Sangha, which was guided by the same rules and regulations as those of the monks.
• However, women’s economic status deteriorated during the Jainism and Buddhism period, in which
they were also prohibited from political participation.
MEDIEVAL PERIOD (6TH – 13TH CENTURY AD)

• In the medieval period, the practice of keeping a veil on the faces for women became widespread among
the upper class women.
• During the era of Muslim kings, the existing social evils became more prominent like female infanticide, no
education to girls, child marriage etc.
• In this period a menace called Jauhar came into existence, under which wives and daughters of defeated
warriors self-immolate themselves to avoid strain on their modesty and at the hands of the enemy.
• However, with the rise of the bhakti movement and Sufism, the status of women improved significantly
across India. Various popular figures like Shankaracharya, Ramanuja, Guru Nanak vociferously voiced against
ill treatment and suppression of women irrespective of caste and religion.
DURING THE COLONIAL PERIOD

• With the decline of Mughal supremacy and expansion of colonial structure in India, the influence of modern
ideas set in motion a process of change in a different direction.
• With the efforts of Ram Mohan Roy, Radhakanta Deb, Bhawani Charan Banerji the practice of ‘sati’ was
banned in 1829.
• In 1856, through the efforts of Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar the first widow remarriage took place. Pandit
Vishnu Shastri founded the Widow Marriage Association in 1860.
• Various measures aiming at amelioration were enacted, including Bengal Sati Regulation, 1829, Hindu
Widows' Remarriage Act, 1856, Female Infanticide Prevention Act, 1870, and Age of Consent Act,
1891.
POST INDEPENDENCE PERIOD

• The period after Independence was marked by a number of efforts undertaken both by the Government
and the Voluntary sector to uplift women’s status.
• Cultural and Structural changes reduce exploitation of women to a great extent and provide equality of
opportunities to women in various fields.
• Fundamental Rights in the Constitution ensured that women would not face discrimination on account of
their gender. Constitutional safeguards were translated into practice by enacting several legislations
covering the wide spectrum of women’s lives.
• The State, however, was empowered to make affirmative discrimination in favour of women due to the
suppression faced by them for centuries.
• The main thrust of development efforts in post independent India has been reflected in the Five Year Plans.
MODERN INDIA
• Modern India has paved the way to position a woman’s status as professionals with its greatest social
upliftment reforms.
• After the LPG of the economy, the demographics of employment have been changing in India, where
women are represented in the workforce in bigger numbers than ever before.
• Women also exercise their right to vote, contest for Parliament and Assembly, seek appointment in
public office and compete in other spheres of life with men.
• The 73rd and 74th Constitutional Amendments of 1993 reserved 33 percent of seats for women in
elections to local bodies in both the rural and urban areas.
• The Government of India declared 2001 as the year of women’s Empowerment.
• However, it is also true that on one hand women are climbing the ladder of success, on the other hand, they
are also suffering from atrocities of male dominated Indian Society.
19TH CENTURY SOCIAL REFORM MOVEMENTS AND EARLY WOMEN'S ORGANISATIONS

• The 19th century could well be called an “age for women”. Their rights and the wrongs done to them, as well
as their capacities and potentials, used to be the subjects of heated discussions in Europe and even in the
colonies. In India, the wrongs against women began to be deplored by social reformers. Such movements of
‘for’ women, ‘by’ men originated in Bengal and Maharashtra.
BRAHMO SAMAJ
• It was founded by Raja Ram Mohan Roy in 1825. He was known as the father of Indian Renaissance was
versatile genius, who opposed the idolatry, denounced Sati, polygamy and abuses of the caste system,
favoured remarriage of Hindu widows.

• Keshab Chandra Sen stressed the need for educating women at home and government support was sought
for this purpose. A women’s magazine called Bamabodhini Patrika was started.
• An inter-caste marriage was also solemnised under the auspices of the Brahmo Samaj. Opposition to such
moves from Hindu orthodoxy resulted in the passing of Civil Marriage Act, 1872.
• Raja Ram Mohan Roy organised a movement against the inhuman custom of sati and helped William
Bentinck to pass a law banning the practice (1829).
PRARTHANA SAMAJ
• It was founded by MG Ranade & RG Bhandarkar in 1867 and had more or less similar objectives as Brahmo
Samaj.
• In 1869 the Bombay Widow Reforms Association was formed which arranged the first widow remarriage
in 1869.
• Two leaders of the Prarthana Samaj, R.G. Bhandarker and N.G. Chandravarkar, later became Vice-
chancellors of the first Women’s University set up by Karve in 1916 in Bombay.
ARYA SAMAJ
• The Arya Samaj was founded by Dayanand Saraswati in 1875. It advocated for the compulsory education
for both men and women, prohibition of child marriage by law, remarriage of child widows.
• Several Arya Kanya Pathashalas were set up which later became colleges and contributed to the cause of
women’s education.
MUSLIM WOMEN AND SOCIAL REFORM

• Similar movements began within the Islamic community in the late nineteenth century. However, emphasis
on purdah system and slow spread of education among women delayed the development of a
progressive movement to improve the opportunities for Muslim women.
• People like Begum of Bhopal, Syed Ahmad Khan and Sheikh Abdullah in Aligarh and Karmat Hussain in
Lucknow spearheaded a movement to improve women’s education. In 1916 Begum of Bhopal formed the All-
India Muslim Women’s Conference.
OUTCOME OF THESE MOVEMENTS

• The social reformers laid the foundation of the women’s movement in India. Social reform movement
was the first attempt to remove the obstacles in the life of women. But all these movements had a very
limited perspective of changing the position of women within the family without challenging the social
structure and caste inequalities, which perpetuated women’s lower position.
• Their appeal was limited to the urban middle class. Educated Muslims formed only a small segment of
the population in the 19th century and were confined to urban areas in the country.
• The gender bias of the reform movement was most pronounced in the argument that education would
improve women’s efficiency as housewives and mothers. Gender equality was not on their agenda.
• However, the radicals like Ishwarchandra Vidyasagar, Jyotirao Phule and Lokhitvadi Gopal Hari
Deshmukh attacked the caste system, which they said was responsible for the subjugation of women.
EARLY WOMEN'S ORGANISATIONS
WOMEN’S INDIA ASSOCIATION (WIA) (1917)

• Women’s Indian Association, a heritage welfare organization of the women by the women for the women.
• It was formed on 8th May 1917 at Adyar, Chennai by Annie Besant, Margaret Cousins, Jeena Raja Dasa. It is
the first Women’s Association, which brought all Indian women together for mutual assistance.
• The main aim of the organization was to obtain women’s franchise to represent in the local state and central
legislatures and achieved it in the year 1930.
ALL INDIA WOMEN’S CONFERENCE (AIWC) (1926)

• AIWC, the oldest national women’s organization in India was born in January, 1927 in Poona.
• AIWC was founded in 1927 by Margaret Cousins in order to improve educational efforts for women and
children and has expanded its scope to also tackle other women's rights issues.

• AIWC took up the questions of women’s education, and it was at its initiative that the Lady Harding
College for women was set up in Delhi in 1932.
NATIONAL COUNCIL FOR WOMEN IN INDIA (NCWI)

• The NCWI was formed in 1925 as a national branch of the International Council of Women.
• It was formed with the dedicated and influential efforts of women from Bombay, Calcutta and Madras who
had contributed to the war efforts. It provided an opportunity to voice Indian opinion in International
forums.
• Its most prominent member was Mehribai Tata who aggressively campaigned against inert charity and
advised men to support female education and freedom of movement for women.
• The NCWI received active support from both British and Indian women.
ROLE PLAYED BY WOMEN IN FREEDOM STRUGGLE

• The entire history of the Indian freedom movement is replete with the saga of bravery, sacrifice and
political sagacity of hundreds and thousands of women of our country.
• Women participation in India’s freedom struggle began in early 1817 when Bhima Bai Holkar fought
against Britishers.
• With the arrival of Mahatma Gandhi women’s struggle entered a new phase on the Indian political scene.
SAROJINI NAIDU
• Sarojini Naidu emerged as a prominent nationalist around 1917. She was the 2nd woman to become the
president of INC in 1925.
• She joined the national movement during the protest against the partition of Bengal in 1905. She presided
over the East African Indian Congress in South Africa.
• She was awarded the Kaiser-i-Hind medal by the British government for her work during the plague
epidemic in India.
• She was closely associated with the formation of the Women's Indian Association and accompanied the
women’s voting rights delegation to London.
• During salt satyagraha she was one of the women protesters at the Dharasana salt works.
• She played a leading role during the Civil Disobedience Movement and was jailed.
• In 1942 she was arrested during the Quit India Movement.
KAMALADEVI CHATTOPADHYAYA
• While still in London, Kamaladevi came to know of Mahatma Gandhi's Non-Cooperation Movement in 1923,
and she promptly returned to India, to join the Seva Dal, a Gandhian organisation set up to promote social
upliftment.
• She became a founding member of the AIWC and was its first Organizing Secretary.
• Later she was a part of the seven member lead team, announced by Mahatma Gandhi, in the famous Salt
Satyagraha (1930),
ARUNA ASAF ALI

• Aruna Asaf Ali hoisted the INC flag at the Gowalia Tank maidan in Bombay during the Quit India
Movement, 1942. She took her first step into the freedom struggle through Salt Satyagraha.
• She along with Dr. Ram Manohar Lohiya published ‘Inquilab Patra’ that created mass awareness about the
freedom movement.
• She was called ‘Rani Jhansi of 1942’. Her journals Link and Patriot earned her great recognition for her
work.
SUCHETA KRIPALANI
• In 1932, she entered public life as a social worker and in 1939 entered politics and joined the Indian National
Congress. In 1940, she offered individual satyagraha at Faizabad and was imprisoned for two years.
• During the Quit India Movement, she went underground and rendered remarkable service of secretly
organizing anti-British resistance.

VIJAYALAKHSMI PANDIT
• Mrs. Pandit was jailed for her nationalistic activities thrice in 1932, 1940 and 1942.
• During the Salt Satyagraha she led processions and picketed the liquor and foreign cloth selling shops
along with her sister and her baby daughters.
DURGABAI DESHMUKH
• She was imprisoned for three years for participating in the Salt Satyagraha.
• During this Satyagraha when leaders like Rajaji and T. Prakasam in south were busy in organising other
facts of the movement, it was Durgabai who led a group of salt law breakers to Marina Beach at Madras.
• She was instrumental in initiating ‘Andhra Mahila Sabha’ and ‘Hindi Balika Patasala’ at a very young age.
KALPANA DUTT
• Kalpana Dutt joined the Indian Republican Army. She along with Pritilata Waddedar in 1931 attacked the
European club in Chittagong.
• Later she was booked under Chittagong Armoury Raid case and was sentenced to life imprisonment.
PRITILATA WADDEDAR
• Pritilata Waddedar was a Bengali revolutionary nationalist from the Indian subcontinent who was
influential in the Indian independence movement.
• Pritilata joined a revolutionary group headed by Surya Sen.
• She is known for leading fifteen revolutionaries in the 1932 armed attack on the Pahartali European
Club. The revolutionaries torched the club and were later caught by the British police.
ANNIE BESANT
• Annie Besant, a British woman supporter of the Indian nationalist movement was another flag bearer of the
Women movement in India. Annie Besant was the second President of The Theosophical Society from
1907 to 1933.
• Besant was an outstanding orator of her time, a champion of human freedom, educationist,
philanthropist, and author with more than three hundred books and pamphlets to her credit.
• She fought for the causes and rights, such as, women's rights, secularism, birth control, and workers' rights.
She also became involved in Indian National Movement.
POST-INDEPENDENCE WOMEN’S MOVEMENTS

• The post-independence progressive goals were equality based on gender, job opportunities, reforming
the existing laws which gave women only partial justice, and creating a society which did not oppress
women intellectually, physically and emotionally.
TELANGANA MOVEMENT
• The Telangana Movement began in 1946 and continued till 1951. It is one of the two major post-war
insurrectionary peasant struggles in India.
• Large number of women who were desperate because of extreme poverty, slavery and sexual exploitation by
the feudal lords fought courageously in this movement.
• In order to mobilise and develop political acumen among women, the communist party formed a women’s
organisation which published a woman’s Journal Andhra Vanitha.
• Women from all classes participated in the movement with energy and commitment where both the urban
middle class as well as the peasant sections of the population, drew their support slowly but surely into the
movement. Some of the women who took active part in the movement were Dubala Salamma, Ch.
Kamalamma, Regulla Achamma, Chityala Ailamma, etc.
ANTI-DOWRY MOVEMENTS
• Dowry murders have witnessed a sustained campaign by several women’s organisations and civil rights
groups. In the 1980s several women’s and other progressive organisations formed a joint front in Delhi
called “Dahej Virodhi Chetna Manch”.

• Organisations in other major cities also campaigned through protest, demonstrations, discussions, street
theatre, posters etc. against the ghastly murders of young brides for dowry. After much deliberation, the
Dowry Prohibition (Amendment) Act, 1984 was passed.
• The Act sets a limit to the amount given in dowry but does not ban dowry. Cruelty by the husband and
his relatives leading to suicide or death has become an offence, punishable with imprisonment.
CHIPKO MOVEMENT
• Chipko Movement was born in a small hilly village, Advani in Tehri Garhwal district of Uttar Pradesh. The
illiterate adivasi women led this movement in December 1972.
• The women symbolically tied sacred threads around the trees, faced police firing in February 1978 and
later courted arrest. This movement continued under the leadership of Sri Sunderlal Bahuguna in various
villages.
• The movement’s plan is a slogan to plant Five F’s- food, fodder, fuel, fiber and fertiliser to make
communities self-sufficient in all their basic needs.
• The movement points out the link between women’s burden as food providers and gatherers and their
militancy in protecting natural resources from violent devastation.
NARMADA BACHAO MOVEMENT

• Narmada Bachao Andolan is one of its kind of a social movement led by Medha Patkar. First started as a
protest for not providing proper rehabilitation and resettlement for the people who have been displaced by
the construction of Sardar Sarovar Dam.
• It has got active contributions of adivasis, activists, tribals, farmers and environmentalists but it is the
active and huge participation and engagements of women that has led to the huge success of the movement.
POST INDEPENDENCE WOMEN’S ORGANISATION

• Self-Employment Women’s Association (SEWA): It was the first women’s trade union, and it was formed
in 1972 focused on improving the condition of women working in the unorganized sector.
• All India Democratic Women Association (AIDWA): Founded in 1981 as a pan-India women organization,
it committed to achieving democracy, equality, and women’s emancipation.
• Indian Association of Women’s Studies: Established in 1981 as an institution of women academics and
activists, it is involved in research and teaching. It actively publishes books and journals on feminist subjects.
• Annapurna Mahila Mandal: Annapurna Mahila Mandal (AMM) established in 1975 is a registered society
and trust of the urban poor, illiterate, self-employed women. It arose from the needs and the problems of the
wives of textile mill workers.
• Swadhina (Self-esteemed Women): It was formed in 1986. It is principally a civil society organization
focused on empowerment of women and child development based on sustainable development and right
livelihood.
• Bharatiya Grameen Mahila Sangh: Founded in 1955, is a non-political and non-sectarian national
organization with branches all over India, in 14 states and union territories. It is affiliated with the Associated
Country Women of the World (ACWW), the world's largest organization for rural women, which in turn is a
consultative body for UNO, UNESCO, WHO, and ILO.
WOMENS AND EDUCATION

• Education is considered as one of the most important driving force for the
progress and the development of any nation. Not only men but women also According to Census
have to play an equal and significant role in the overall development of the 2011, the female
country. Therefore it is highly desirable that equal opportunities of education literacy rate is
must be provided to both men and women. 65.46%, where the
male literacy rate is
• A report by the World Bank says that educating women does not come under
over 80%.
charity, rather it comes under good economics and in order to eradicate poverty,
countries must educate their women. In India, Literacy is considered as a key for socio-economic progress.
IMPORTANCE OF WOMEN EDUCATION IN INDIA

• Health benefits: Female literacy is one of the most powerful levers to improve a society’s health and
economic well-being.
• Poverty: Women education helps in removing families out of poverty through employment to women.
Women labour force participation in India is low at 26% in 2018.
• Gender equality: Women are part of an unprivileged section of society. Education will help to close the
gender gap in society. Co-education institutes will help children to give respect to females.
• Social development: Woman education will help to solve many issues faced by society. The Kothari
commission of 1968 recommended education as a tool for social development.
• Reduction in infant mortality: A well-educated woman will have more chances of making better decisions
for her family’s health.
• Inclusive growth of a society: As a developing nation India strives for growth in each sector for all sections
of society and education is a way to achieve this goal.
• Woman empowerment: Education is a powerful tool for woman emancipation and empowerment. For a
long time, women have been deprived of their rights. By educating herself she can achieve a place in society.
CHALLENGES AND ISSUES

• Negative parental attitudes: Poor families are more likely to keep girls at home to care for younger siblings
or to work in family enterprise. Negative parental attitudes toward educating daughters can also be a barrier
to a girl’s education.
• Inadequate school facilities: Another challenge to education in India is the lack of adequate school facilities.
Many schools do not have enough classrooms to accommodate all of the school-age children. Classrooms that
are available often lack basic necessities such as sanitary facilities or water.
• Shortage of female teachers: Lack of female teachers is another potential barrier to girls’ education. Girls
are more likely to attend school and have higher academic achievement if they have female teachers.
GOVERNMENT SCHEMES AND INITIATIVES

• Beti Bachao Beti Padhao (BBBP): BBBP Scheme was launched in January, 2015. The scheme is aimed at
promoting gender equality and the significance of educating girls.
• Vigyan Jyoti Scheme: Vigyan Jyoti Scheme is launched by the Department of Science & Technology (DST). It
is an initiative that will create a level-playing field for the meritorious girls in high school to pursue Science,
Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) in their higher education.
• GATI Scheme: The Gender Advancement for Transforming Institutions (GATI) will develop a comprehensive
Charter and a framework for assessing Gender Equality in Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics
(STEM).
• The Science and Engineering Research Board (SERB) POWER: SERB – POWER scheme will mitigate
gender disparity in science and engineering research funding in various S&T programs in Indian academic
institutions and R&D laboratories.
WOMENS AND POLITICAL SYSTEM

• Status of women in politics can be defined as the degree of equality and freedom enjoyed by the women
in shaping and sharing of power. Equal treatment and opportunity to women in political life should start
from the grassroots level.
• 73rd Constitutional Amendment Act of India provides 33% reservation of seats and posts of
chairperson to women in all grassroots level democratic institutions in the country and this act has brought
a silent revolution in the political empowerment of women in India.
DATA/FACTS
• According to a list compiled by the Inter-Parliamentary Union in 2019,
India ranks 153 out of 190 nations in the percentage of women in the lower
house of world parliaments.
• In the recent assembly elections, 70 women made it to their state
legislatures. But out of all winners, they made up less than 9 per cent.
• India is the third-worst performer country in South Asia in World
Economic Forum’s Global Gender Gap Report 2021.

WOMEN IN PANCHAYATI RAJ INSTITUTION

• The 73rd and 74th amendment of Indian Constitution have brought about a silent revolution by the
provisions related to 33% reservation for women in the institutions of local self-government.
• Women in India are much better represented in the Panchayati raj institutions as compared to the
parliament. However, due to poor socio-economic status of women and prevailing patriarchal set-up,
the intended benefit of emergence of women leadership at Panchayat level was not fully realized.
• The effective political power and decision making is wielded by husbands of elected women representatives.
This phenomenon is referred to as ‘sarpanch pati’.
REASONS BEHIND THE EMERGENCE OF 'SARPANCH PATI'

• Poor social status of women: Women in general have poor access to education, they are restricted to
domestic spaces, they lack economic independence, they are not allowed participation in decision making at
family level.
• Social barriers: Indian society in villages is still traditional and conservative e.g. in rural areas tradition of
parda or veil is very strong especially North Indian states, women are discouraged in public spaces, even
government officials at local level avoid talking to women due to conservative outlook.
• Lack of skills: Raising the reservation for women to fifty per cent without showing any concern or efforts
for their capacity building, training or inculcating confidence have led to such a situation.
• Lack of government initiative: Despite this widespread phenomenon, the government failed to act against
the practice, either through a strong deterrence through law or through public awareness.
IMPACT OF 'SARPANCH PATI'

• Lack of decision making opportunity: This phenomenon reduces women’s ability to participate in decision
making at village level.
• Poor implementation of law: The emergence of this phenomenon effectively manipulates the law and
prevents its implementation in letter and spirit. The rule of law in such a situation is casualty to social
prejudices against women.
• Failure to empower women: This phenomenon hinders the intended empowerment of women which was
one of the aims of 73rd constitutional amendments through reservation of seats.
IMPORTANCE OF WOMEN’S PARTICIPATION IN POLITICS

• Their participation is crucial in the policy formulation and regulation as they represent nearly half of the
total population.
• They could act as role models for women empowerment and could bring behavioural change in the
society towards the women.
• More focused policies relating to women safety, education, child care, MMR, child marriage, Domestic
violence etc if women are involved in decision making owing to their emotional quotient towards these
issues.
• Places with women representatives have seen less corruption and improved efficiency.
• Various studies on panchayats have shown the positive effect of reservation on empowerment of women.
REASONS FOR LESS WOMEN REPRESENTATIVES

• Illiteracy: It is one of the main hurdles in making women politically empowered.
• Women are only vote banks: For India’s political parties, women matter, but only as vote banks. Across
states, competing parties have wooed women voters with a wide range of promises including
wages/allowances for “housewives”, washing machines, gas cylinders, free public transport, and so on.
• Work and family balance: Uneven distribution of household work between men and women is also one of
the important factors in this regard.
• Lack of confidence: It has been almost three decades since the 73rd and 74th constitutional amendments
paved the way for at least one-third seats to be reserved for women at the local level, thus creating a large
pool of women with political experience.
• Abuse and violence: Women often face hostility, apathy and even abuse from their own parties. In a 2014
study by UN Women, more than half respondents (58 per cent) from India said that they faced violence and
abuse from members of their own parties.

GOVERNMENT INITIATIVES
• The Women's Reservation Bill 2008: It proposes to amend the Constitution of India to reserve 1/3rd of
all seats in the Lower house of Parliament of India, the Lok Sabha, and in all state legislative assemblies for
women.
• Reservation for Women in Panchayati Raj Institutions: Clause (3) of Article 243D of the Constitution
ensures participation of women in Panchayati Raj Institutions by mandating not less than 1/3rd reservation
for women out of total number of seats to be filled by direct election and number of offices of chairpersons
of Panchayats.
WAY FORWARD
• It is the need of the hour in a country like India to have equal participation of all the sections of society
in mainstream political activity therefore necessary steps should be taken to promote it.
• Creating awareness about their rights and privileges as mentioned in the Constitution can only be
ensured once women are appropriately educated.
• Municipal and panchayat polls should give rise to leaders who have experience at the ground level. Such
leaders, after some experience, should be able to run for state and eventually the central legislative seats.
• Promoting Inner party democracy, where in a democratic political party the various positions like
president, vice-president, secretary, treasurer etc are filled by the election process.
• Capacity building of prospective women leaders by imparting leadership training to the female members
of political parties.
WOMEN AND INDIAN ECONOMY

• Despite making significant contributions to global economies through various activities, women remain
among the world’s most economically disadvantaged groups.
• They are often disproportionately discriminated against in the labour market, contending with low skilled
and informal jobs.
• They remain outside the ambit of financial inclusion, resulting in poor access to formal banking systems
and credit.
• They are also curtailed by the social and cultural barriers that force them to bear the brunt of unpaid
work, preventing them from investing in their own wellbeing, and inhibiting their pursuit of economic
opportunities.
DATA/FACTS
• Periodic Labour Force Survey 2018-19: women’s participation in the workforce fell to its lowest points
since Independence in 2017-18.
• Global Gender Gap Index for 2020: India has been ranked 112th among 153 countries in the annual
Global Gender Gap Index for 2020, published by the World Economic Forum (WEF).
• McKinsey study: Indian women contributed just 17% of national GDP, which is less than half the global
average of 37%.
• IMF’s study has shown that raising women's participation in the workforce to the level of men can boost
the Indian economy by 27%.
FEMALE PARTICIPATION IN THE LABOUR MARKET

• Female labour force participation is a driver of growth and therefore, participation rates indicate the
potential for a country to grow more rapidly.
• The participation of women in the labour force varies considerably across developing countries and
emerging economies, far more than in the case of men.
• This variation is driven by a wide variety of economic and social factors including economic growth,
increasing educational attainment, falling fertility rates and social norms.
• Female labour participation rate in India fell to 16.1% during the July-September 2020 quarter, the
lowest among the major economies.
REASONS FOR LOW LABOUR FORCE PARTICIPATION

• Societal Pressure: Generally there is a fear of women being stigmatized by the community that might see
their work as a marker of low status, i.e. the inability of the husband, the main breadwinner, to provide for
the family.
• Lack of opportunities: In recent times, rural distress has affected women the most as income-generating
opportunities have disappeared. The problem of ‘labour demand constraints’ or the lack of suitable job
opportunities is acute for women in rural India.
• Unpaid work: There is also the problem of much of women’s work not being counted as work.
• Inadequate Social Security Protection: Even for women who are in the workforce, the nature of their
employment is such that most of them are out of the purview of labour laws, including the recently passed
Social Security Code.
• Increased income of men: As men in the family start earning more income, women tend to cut back their
work in the formal economy to concentrate more on household activities.
• Safety issues & Harassment at the workplace: Women are more vulnerable to exploitation and
harassment at work in developing countries like India. They are also unable to effectively fight against
harassment.
• Policy failure: Policy failure and the policy-implementation gap is also a major reason for low labour force
participation.
WAY FORWARD
• Bringing Women in Leadership Role: Subdued gender participation emanates from social-economic
issues, which can be treated by bringing behavioural change. This can be changed if more women are given
leadership positions.
• Child-care subsidies should be provided to free up mothers’ time to enter the labour force which would
have significant implications in increasing female employment.
• Education ecosystem needs to go through a set of system strengthening initiatives, including the
introduction of digital and STEM (science, technology, engineering and mathematics) education in schools.
• Recognizing Invisible Work: There is a need to invest significantly in the care economy and social
protection, and redefine Gross Domestic Product to make work in the home visible and counted.
• Imbibing Gender Equality: There is a need to remove barriers to women’s full inclusion in the economy,
including through access to the labor market, property rights and targeted credit and investments.
• Tax incentive: Using tax policies to incentivize women into the labour market on both the demand and
supply side. By introducing tax incentives for enterprises that have internal complaint mechanisms, gender
friendly transport services and so on.
GENDER WAGE GAP AND GENDER INEQUALITY

• The gender pay gap is a measurable indicator of inequality
between women and men. Global Gender Gap Report 2021
• India has fallen 28 places in the World
• Most governments have legislated to guarantee equality of
Economic Forum’s (WEF) Global
treatment between men and women in remuneration.
Gender Gap Report 2021.
• Gender equality is when women and men enjoy the same
• Gender gap was measured across four
rights and opportunities across all sectors of society,
key pillars such as
including economic participation and decision-making.
1. Economic opportunity,
• Gender inequality is a major factor curbing potential
2. Political empowerment,
candidates from performing where they ought to.
3. Educational attainment and
• Article 39 in The Constitution Of India 1949: that there is 4. Health and survival
equal pay for equal work for both men and women;
• SDG 5: Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls.
REASONS BEHIND GENDER PAY GAP

• Preference for male employees over female employees
• Career breaks of women due to parenthood duties and other socio-cultural factors.
• Lack of flexible work policies or extended leave
• Lack of involvement of women in male dominated sectors for example armed forces.
• The women are mostly deemed fit for “pink collar jobs” only, such as teachers, nurses, receptionist,
babysitter, lecturer etc. which have been stereotyped for women.
WOMEN IN AGRICULTURE
DATA/FACTS
• As per the 10th Agriculture Census (2015-16), the percentage of female operational holdings in the
country has increased from about 13% percent during 2010-11 to around 14% during 2015-16.
• Agriculture sector employs 80% of all economically active women; they comprise 33% of the agricultural
labour force and 48% of self-employed farmers.
• According to NSSO Reports, about 18% of the farm families in India are headed by women.
• According to the Economic Survey 2017-18, a rise in migration of men from rural to urban areas has
resulted in feminization of agriculture.
BENEFITS OF INCREASING WOMEN’S OWNERSHIP

• Bring a sense of security, self-confidence, increases bargaining power and increases public participation.
• Improved living conditions, better nutrition and food sovereignty, improved health and education outcomes.
ISSUES AND CHALLENGES

• Lack of Institutional Credit: Lack of ownership of land does not allow women farmers to approach banks
for institutional loans as banks usually consider land as collateral.
• Lack of Property Rights: Women are generally not given the land rights in their name. Because of this,
women lack bargaining power in the family as against the property holding male members.
• Contract farming: Female farmers are largely excluded from modern contract-farming arrangements
because they lack secure control over land, family labour and other resources required to guarantee delivery
of a reliable flow of produce.
• Innovation in Agriculture: When a new technology is introduced to automate specific manual labour,
women may lose their jobs because they are often responsible for the manual duties and also due to low skill
level.
• Lack of Training: Attempts by the government to impart them training in poultry, apiculture and rural
handicrafts is trivial given their large numbers.
GOVERNMENT INITIATIVES
• Mahila Kisan Sashaktikaran Pariyojana (MKSP): Implemented by the Ministry of Rural Development, it is
a programme exclusively for women farmers. It aims to empower women by enhancing their participation
in agriculture and to create sustainable livelihood opportunities for them.
• ICAR-Central Institute for Women in Agriculture: First of its kind institution in India devoted to gender
related research in agriculture.
• Additional support in existings schemes such as:
o Agri-Clinic & Agri-Business Centre (ACABC)
o Integrated Schemes of Agricultural Marketing (ISAM)
o Sub-Mission of Agricultural Mechanisation (SMAM)
o National Food Security Mission (NFSM)
CHALLENGES FACED BY WOMEN S
DOMESTIC VIOLENCE
• Domestic violence, or intimate partner violence (IPV) as it is sometimes called, is a worldwide problem.
• The act of domestic violence towards women is a human rights violation as well as an illegal act under Indian
law.
• The NFHS-4 suggests that 30% women in India in the age group of 15-49 have experienced physical
violence.
Issues Involved:
• Patriarchal mindset: The major factor behind the violent behaviour of men is the patriarchal attitude which
perceives women as an object and gives her a low status in the society. Violence arises from patriarchal
notions of ownership over women’s bodies, labour, reproductive rights and level of autonomy.

• Lack of awareness: Lack of awareness of their own rights and a general social belief in women’s
subordination perpetuates a low self-image in women and her inferior status. Women are taught that
marriage is the ultimate goal she has to achieve.
Dowry Demand And Dowry Death:

• In the Indian subcontinent, dowry is the payment in cash or some kind of gifts given to a bridegroom's
family along with the bride. The dowry system is thought to put a great financial burden on the bride's
family. There are variations on dowry prevalence based on geography and class.
• States in the north are more likely to participate in the dowry system among all classes, and dowry is
more likely to be in the form of material and movable goods.
• In the south, the bride price system is more prevalent, and is more often in the form of land, or other
inheritance goods. This system is tied to the social structure of marriage, which keeps marriage inside or
close to family relations.
• Dowry has become a social menace in modern India, because due to its practice women are subjected to
many types of atrocity and harassment, the most brutal and inhumane of which is ‘dowry death.’ Dowry
demand and its inadequate satisfaction is one of the most prominent reasons for domestic violence.
Government measures to curb Domestic Violence:

• Criminal offence: In 1983, domestic violence was recognised as a specific criminal offence by the
introduction of section 498-A into the Indian Penal Code. This section deals with cruelty by a husband or his
family towards a married woman.
• Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961: This Act prohibits the giving or taking of dowry. This is to ensure a change in
the culture of dowry in India and associated violence.
• Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005: Protection of Women from Domestic Violence
Act, 2005 ensures the reporting of cases of domestic violence against women to a Protection Officer. The Act
was to make justice available to women who may not always want criminal proceedings and would want to
keep the option of reconciliation alive.
CYBER CRIME AGAINST WOMEN:

• Though crime against women is on a rise in all fields, being a victim of cybercrime could be the most
traumatic experience for a woman. Especially in India where society looks down upon women and the law
doesn’t properly recognize cybercrimes.
• Women get trapped to be a victim of cybercrimes and the online podiums are now the new platform where
a woman’s privacy, dignity and security is more and more being challenged every moment.
• Cyber-criminals use computer technology to access personal information and use internet for
harassment and exploitation purposes which includes stalking, blackmailing, threatening via emails,
photo morphing, cyber pornography etc.
Some major cybercrime against women:

• Cyber stalking: Cyber stalking is on the rise and women are the most likely targets. Cyber stalking is a way
to use the Internet to stalk someone for online harassment and online abuse.
• Defamation: It involves publishing defamatory information about the person on a website or circulating it
among the social and friends circle of victims or organisation which is an easy method to ruin a woman's
reputation by causing her grievous mental agony and pain.
• Picture Morphing: Morphing is editing the original picture by an unauthorised user or fake identity. It was
identified that female's pictures are downloaded by fake users and again re-posted /uploaded on different
websites by creating fake profiles after editing it.
• Trolling: Trolls spread conflict on the Internet, criminal’s start quarrelling or upsetting victims by posting
inflammatory or off-topic messages in an online community with the intention to provoke victims into an
emotional, upsetting response.
• Cyber Pornography: Cyber Pornography is the other threat to the female netizens. This would include
pornographic websites; pornographic magazines produced using computers and the internet.
Government measures to curb cybercrime against women:

• Cyber Crime Cells have been set up in States and UTs for reporting and investigation of Cyber Crime cases.
• Government has set up cyber forensic training and investigation labs in the States of Kerala, Assam,
Mizoram etc. for training of Law Enforcement and Judiciary in these States.
• Programmes on Cyber Crime investigation: Various Law schools are engaged in conducting several
awareness and training programmes on Cyber Laws and Cyber Crimes for judicial officers.
• Training is imparted to Police Officers and Judicial officers in the Training Labs established by the
Government.
• The Scheme for Universalization of Women Helpline has been approved to provide a 24-hour emergency
and non-emergency response to all women affected by violence.
PROSTITUTION
• A large number of women destitute or victims of rape who are disowned by family fall prey to prostitution
forcibly.
• Laws related to prostitution in India:
o Suppression of Immoral Traffic in Woman and Girl Act – 1956
o Prevention of Immoral Traffic Act – 1956
o Immoral Traffic Prevention act – 1956
Steps that should be taken in order to fight with prostitution:

• Normal education should be made available to those victims who are still within the school going age,
while non-formal education should be made accessible to adults
• The Central and State Governments in partnership with NGOs should provide gender sensitive market
driven vocational training to all those rescued victims who are not interested in education.
• Rehabilitation and reintegration of rescued victims should be done.
• Awareness generation and legal literacy on economic rights, particularly for women and adolescent girls
should be taken up.
FEMALE FOETICIDE
• Female foeticide refers to ‘aborting the female in the mother’s womb’; whereas female infanticide is
‘killing the girl child after her birth’.
• The low status of women goes on with the practice of infanticide, foeticide, sex-selective abortion which has
become common due to the amniocentesis technology, and mal-nourishment among girl children.
• Data on sex ratio at birth (SRB) culled from the Civil Registration System, show an alarming fall over the
years. From 903 girls for every 1,000 boys in 2007, it dropped to 877 in 2016.
• The Economic Survey of 2017-2018 to identify 63 million ‘Missing girls’ in India until 2014.
Reasons behind female foeticide:

• Gender discrimination: The bias against females in India is grounded in cultural, economic and religious
roots. Sons are expected to work in the fields, provide greater income and look after parents in old age. In
this way, sons are looked upon as a type of insurance.
• Socio-ritual factors: Females are vulnerable to brutalities of the male in the forms of physical, mental and
sexual assaults and traumas in the patriarchal societal structure of India.
• Dowry system: The evil practice of dowry is widely prevalent in India. As a result, daughters are considered
to be an economic liability.
• Technological factors: The presence of low-cost technologies like ultrasound, have led to sex-based
abortion of female fetuses, and an increasingly smaller percentage of girls born each year.
Government measures:
• The Pre-conception and Pre-natal Diagnostic Techniques (Prohibition of Sex Selection) Act, 1994: It
was enacted to stop female foeticides and arrest the declining sex ratio in India which was amended in 2003,
to improve the regulation of the technology used in sex selection.
• Beti Bachao, Beti Padhao campaign: The objectives of this initiative are to prevent of gender biased sex
selective elimination, and to ensure survival and protection of the girl child.
SEXUAL HARASSMENT AT THE WORKPLACE

• Sexual Harassment at the workplace is one of the issues faced by women in the modern world. It not only
violates their right to equality, life, and liberty but also discourages their participation in economic
activities.
• The Sexual Harassment of Women and Workplace (Prevention, Prohibition and Redressal) Act in
2013: This Act lays down the procedures for a complaint and inquiry and the action to be taken. It mandates
that every employer constitute an Internal Complaints Committee (ICC) at each office or branch with 10 or
more employees. It lays down the procedures and defines various aspects of sexual harassment.
Government initiatives:
• SHe-Box: The Ministry of Women and Child Development has linked SHe-Box, the online portal to report
complaints of Sexual Harassment at Workplace, to all the Central Ministries, Departments and 653 districts
across 33 States/Union Territories.
• Nirbhaya Fund: A dedicated non-lapsable corpus fund for implementation of initiatives aimed at enhancing
the safety and security of women in the country.
• Swadhar Greh: This scheme aims to provide basic necessities to marginalised women and girls who are
living in difficult circumstances without any economic or social support. Under this scheme women are
provided with emotional support and counselling.
• Sakhi One Stop Centre (OSC): To facilitate access to an integrated range of services including police,
medical, legal, psychological support and temporary shelter to women affected by violence.
• Women Helpline Scheme: To provide 24-hour emergency and non-emergency response to women affected
by violence including sexual offences and harassment both in public and private sphere, including e family,
community, workplace, etc.
• UJJAWALA: For the prevention of trafficking and providing support for rescue, rehabilitation, reintegration
and repatriation of women and child victims of trafficking for commercial sexual exploitation in India.
CONSTITUTIONAL PROVISIONS FOR WOMEN

• In the light of historical experiences and in consonance with the democratic ideals, our founding fathers
incorporated various provisions for gender equality across the constitution they are.
• The Fundamental Rights, Fundamental Duties and Directive Principles together work towards shaping
policies and putting safeguards not just for women empowerment in India but also protection.
FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS
Article 14 The State shall not deny to any person equality before the law or the equal protection of the
laws within the territory of India
Article 15 The State not to discriminate against any citizen on grounds only of religion, race, caste, sex,
(1) place of birth or any of them
Article 15(3) The State to make any special provision in favour of women and children.
Article 16(2) No citizen on grounds only of religion, race, caste, sex, descent, place of birth, residence or any
of them, be ineligible for, or discriminated in respect of employment or office under the State.
DIRECTIVE PRINCIPLES OF STATE POLICY
Article 39 (a) The State to direct its policy towards securing for men and women equally the right to an
adequate means of livelihood
Article 39 Equal pay for equal work for both men and women
(d)
Article 42 The State to make provision for securing just and humane conditions of work and for
maternity relief
CONSTITUTIONAL LAWS FOR WOMEN RELATED TO PANCHAYATS & MUNICIPALITY
Article Not less than one third of the total number of seats to be filled by direct election in every
243D (3) Panchayat shall be reserved for women.
Article One-third of the total number of offices of chairpersons in the Panchayats at each level shall
243D (4) be reserved for women.
Article One-third of the total number of seats to be filled by direct election in every Municipality shall
243T (3) be reserved for women.
Article Offices of chairpersons in the Municipalities shall be reserved for women in such manner as
243T (4) the State Legislature may provide.
LEGAL PROVISIONS TO SAFEGUARD WOMEN

• To uphold the Constitutional mandate, the State has enacted various legislative measures intended to ensure
equal rights, to counter social discrimination and various forms of violence and atrocities and to provide
support services especially to working women.
• It provides for payment of equal remuneration to both men and women

Equal Remuneration Act, workers for the same work or work of a similar nature. It also prevents
1976 discrimination on the ground of sex, against women in recruitment and
service conditions.
Amendment to Criminal • It made domestic violence as an offence; rape has also been made a
Act 1983 punishable offence.
Special Marriage Act 1954 • It has been amended to fix the minimum age of marriage at 21 years for males
& 18 years for females.
Hindu Succession Act • Equal share to daughter from property of father, while a widow has the right
1956 to inherit husband’s property. An amendment in this Act in 2005 enabled
daughters to have equal share in ancestral properties.
• It prohibits the giving or taking of dowry at or before or any time after the
marriage from women. Court is empowered to act in his own knowledge or
Dowry Prohibition Act on a complaint by any recognized welfare organization on dowry murder.
1961 • Indian Evidence Act has also been amended to shift the burden of proof to
husband & his family where the bride dies within 7 years of marriage.
Domestic Violence Act • It seeks to determine domestic violence in all forms against women & make it
2005 a punishable offence.
Pre-conception and Pre- • The Act prohibits sex selection before or after conception and prevents the
natal Diagnostic misuse of prenatal diagnostic techniques for sex determination leading to
Techniques (Prohibition female foeticide.
of Sex Selection) Act,
1994
Maternity Benefit Act, • It regulates the employment of women in certain establishments for certain
1961 (Amended in 2017) periods before and after child-birth and provides for maternity and certain
other benefits.
• Legalize abortion in case if foetus is suffering from physical or mental
Medical Termination of abnormality, in case of rape & unwanted pregnancy within 12 weeks of
Pregnancy Act 1971 gestation period, and between12th to 20th week if the pregnancy is harmful
for the mother or the child born would be severely deformed.
• Suppression of Immoral Trafficking in women and girls Act (SITA) 1956 was
Immoral Traffic amended in 1986 & renamed ITPA. It was enacted to prohibit or abolish
Prevention Act (ITPA), traffic in women and girls for purposes of prostitution. It was amended to
1986 cover both the sexes & provided enhanced penalties for offenses involving
minors.
Indecent Representation • The Act prohibits indecent representation of women through advertisements
of Women (Prohibition) or in publications, writings, paintings, and figures or in any other manner and
Act, 1986 for matters connected therewith.
• In the backdrop of Delhi 2012 gang rape, this Act was passed amending the
CrPC.
Criminal Law • The new law has provisions for increased sentence for rape convicts,
(Amendment) Act 2013 including life-term and death sentence, besides providing for stringent
punishment for offences such as acid attacks, stalking and voyeurism.
• Through the revised Bill, the government has amended various sections of the
Indian Penal Code, the Code of Criminal Procedure, the Indian Evidence Act
and the Protection of Children from Sexual Offences Act.
Sexual Harassment of • The Act provides protection to women from sexual harassment at all
Women at Workplace workplaces both in public and private sector, whether organised or
unorganized.

(Prevention, Prohibition
and Redressal) Act, 2013
NATIONAL POLICY FOR WOMEN EMPOWERMENT, 2001

• To create an environment through positive economic and social policies for full development of women
to enable them to realize their full potential.
• The de-jure and de-facto enjoyment of all human rights and fundamental freedom by women on equal
basis with men in all spheres – political, economic, social, cultural and civil.
• Equal access to participation and decision making of women in the social, political and economic life of
the nation.
• Equal access to women to health care, quality education at all levels, career and vocational guidance,
employment, equal remuneration, occupational health and safety, social security and public office etc.
• To strengthen legal systems which aimed at elimination of all forms of discrimination against women.
• To change societal attitudes and community practices by active participation and involvement of both
men and women
• Mainstreaming a gender perspective in the development process.
• To eliminate discrimination and all forms of violence against women and the girl child.
• To build and strengthen partnerships with civil society, particularly women’s organizations.
DRAFT NATIONAL POLICY FOR WOMEN, 2016

• The broad objective of the policy is to formulate a new policy that can guide the transformative shift required
for making gender rights a reality, addressing women’s issues in all its facets, capturing emerging challenges
and ultimately positioning women as equal partners of sustained development progress that India is
experiencing presently.
• Focus on recognizing women’s reproductive rights

• Shift of family planning focus also to males
Health including • Address health issues in a life cycle continuum such as psychological and general
food security and well-being
nutrition • Address health care challenges related to nutrition/ hygiene of adolescents
• Expansion of health insurance schemes
• Improve access to pre-primary education
Education • Improve enrolment and retention of adolescent girls
• Implement innovative transportation models for better schooling outcomes
• Engender macro-economic policies and trade agreements,
• Generate gender-disaggregated land ownership database,
Economy • Skill development and training for women, entrepreneurial development, review of
labour laws and policies
• Equal employment opportunities with appropriate benefits related to maternity
and child care services, address technological needs of women
Governance and • Increasing women’s participation in the political arena, administration, civil
Decision Making services and corporate boardrooms
• Address all forms of violence against women through a life cycle approach
Violence against • Improve Child Sex Ratio (CSR)
Women • Prevention of trafficking at source, transit and destination areas for effective
monitoring of the networks.
• Gender perspective in housing and infrastructure
• Ensure safe drinking water and sanitation
Enabling • Gender parity in the mass media & sports
Environment • Efforts towards strengthening social security and support services for all women
especially the vulnerable, marginalized, migrant and single women.
• Address gender concerns during distress migration and displacement in times of
Environment and natural calamities due to climate change and environmental degradation
Climate Change
• Promotion of environmentally friendly, renewable, non–conventional energy, green

energy sources for women in rural households.
KEY SUPREME COURT JUDGEMENTS FOR WOMEN:
VISHAKHA GUIDELINES, 1997:

• Sexual harassment includes such unwelcome sexually determined behaviour as physical contact and
advances; a demand or request for sexual favors; sexually colored remarks; showing pornography; any other
unwelcome physical, verbal or non- verbal conduct of sexual nature.
• Sexual harassment as defined at the work place should be notified, published and circulated.
• Where such conduct amounts to a specific offence under law, the employer should initiate appropriate action
by complaining with the appropriate authority.
• Victims of sexual harassment should have the option to seek transfer of the perpetrator or their own transfer.
• An appropriate mechanism should be created for redressal of the complaint.
HADIYA CASE
• The Supreme Court has observed that choice of a partner is a person’s fundamental right, and it can be a
same-sex partner. The observation came on the first day of hearing by a Constitution Bench of petitions
challenging the constitutionality of Section 377 of the Indian Penal Code.
• Section 377 criminalises private consensual sex between adults.
Key Observations:
• The right to sexual orientation was meaningless without the right to choose a partner.
• The observations were drawn from the March 2018 judgment in the Hadiya case, which held that influencing
an adult’s choice of partner would be a violation of the fundamental right to privacy.
• It is to be further tested whether Section 377 stood in conformity with Articles 21 (right to life), 19 (right to
liberty) and 14 (right to equality) of the Constitution.
JUDGEMENT ON SECTION 497 OF THE INDIAN PENAL CODE

• The Supreme Court had struck down Section 497 of the Indian Penal Code, which criminalized adultery.
• It also declared Section 198 of the Criminal Procedure Code as unconstitutional, which deals with the
procedure for filing a complaint about the offence of adultery.
• It said that the 158-year-old law was unconstitutional and is violative of Article 21 (Right to life and
personal liberty) and Article 14 (Right to equality).
• There is no data to back claims that abolition of adultery as a crime would result in “chaos in sexual
morality” or an increase of divorce.
• Any provision of law affecting individual dignity and equality of women invites the wrath of the Constitution.
It’s time to say that a husband is not the master of a wife. Legal sovereignty of one sex over other sex is wrong.
• Section 497 is based on the Doctrine of Coverture. This doctrine, not recognised by the Constitution, holds
that a woman loses her identity and legal right with marriage, is violative of her fundamental rights.
SABARIMALA CASE
• The Supreme Court in Indian Young Lawyers’ Association v/s State of Kerala Case declared Rule 3(b) of the
Kerala Hindu Places of Public Worship (Authorization of Entry) Act of 1965, which authorizes restriction on
women “of menstruating age”, as ultra vires the Constitution.
• Supreme Court set aside a Kerala High Court judgment of 1991 that upheld the prohibition, pointing that the
celibate nature of the deity was “a vital reason for imposing this restriction on young women”.
Faith vs Right case:

• Every citizen has equal rights in religious matters, we can’t discriminate against them on the basis of caste,
race, gender etc, according to Article 15 of the constitution.
• Assures protection to every religious denomination to manage its own affairs.
• Can’t not stop women due to their biological cycle

APPROACH FOR WOMEN DEVELOPMENT : FIVE YEAR PLANNING AND WOMEN DEVELOPMENT
• Women’s movement has been widely influenced by these broad socio-economic and political processes of
this period. The most important of these pertain to the constitutional provisions and social legislation for
women and planned economic development.
• It mainly contemplated welfare measures for women.

• The Central Social Welfare Board (CSWB) was established to address the problems
of women and implement welfare measures. CSWB undertook a number of welfare
Five Year Plan measures through the voluntary sector.
(1951-56) • The programmes for women were implemented through the National Extension
Service Programmes through Community Development Blocks.
• Women were organised into Mahila Mandals as an approach to community
development.
• Continued to lay emphasis on welfare aspect
Second Five- • Recognised women as workers- Focussed on protection against injuries at work,
Year Plan maternity benefits and crèches for their children.
(1956-61) • Suggested immediate implementation of the principal of equal pay for equal work
• Also suggested provision for training to enable women to compete for higher jobs
Third Five Year • Recognised the greater importance of education for women.
Plan (1961-66) • Maternal and child welfare programmes were proclaimed.
• Emphasis on women education continued
Fourth Five • The outlay on family planning was stepped up to reduce the birth rate through
Year Plan education.
(1969-74) • Supplementary feeding for children, nursing and expectant mothers were also
introduced.
• This plan coincided with the International Women’s Decade and the submission of
a Report of the Committee on the Status of Women in India.
• In 1976, Women’s welfare and Development Bureau was set up under the Ministry
Fifth Five Year of Social Welfare
Plan • This plan emphasized on the training of women who were in need of income and
(1974-79) protection.
• The primary objective of the health programmes was to provide minimum public
health facilities integrated with family planning and nutrition for vulnerable groups,
children, pregnant and lactating mothers.
• From the Sixth Plan onwards, a marked shift took place “from the Welfare to a
Development approach”.
• It marked a landmark in the history of women’s development by including a separate
chapter and adopting a multi-disciplinary approach with the three-pronged thrust
on health, education and employment.
Sixth Five Year • It reviewed the status and situation of women in general and came to the conclusion
Plan (1980-85) that in spite of legal and constitutional guarantees, women had lagged behind men in all
sectors.
• For the first time, it clearly spelt out that economic independence would accelerate
improvement in the status of women and suggested the setting up of cells at the
district level for increasing women’s participation through self-employment.
• Emphasized need for increasing enrollment of the girls at the elementary level,
thus encouraging the promotion of education for women in backward areas.
• The main objectives of the programmes in the 7th Plan were to raise women’s
economic and social status in order to bring them into the mainstream of national
Seventh Five development.
Year Plan • The focus on generation of both skilled and unskilled employment through proper
(1985-1990) education and vocational training continued
• The plan emphasized on “Beneficiary Oriented Schemes” (BOS) in various
development sectors which extended direct benefits to women.
• The plan also recognised the need for organisation of women workers and
unionization.
• In 1985, the Department of Women and Child Development was set up as part of the
Ministry of Human Resource Development.
• There was a shift in approach- from ‘development’ to ‘empowerment’ of women.
Eighth Five • This plan attempted to ensure that the benefits of development from different sectors
Year Plan did not bypass women. Special programmes were implemented to complement the
(1992-1997) general development programmes.
• Women were enabled to function as equal partners and participants in the
developmental process with reservation in the membership of local bodies.
• The main objective was to create an environment where women could –freely
Ninth Five Year exercise their rights both, within and outside home, as equal partners along with
Plan (1997- men.
2002) • Plan also stressed the importance of the “Gender Development Index” to monitor the
impact and implementation in raising the status of women from time to time.
• The year 2001 was observed as the year of “Women Empowerment”
• The Tenth Plan aimed at empowering women through translating the National
Tenth Five Policy for Empowerment of Women (2001).
Year Plan • The plan emphasized on Women Component Plan (WCP) and gender budgeting.
(2002-2007) • Various measures were taken to eradicate atrocities against women and girls
• Setting up of women’s police station, family court, Mahila court, legal aid centre etc.
• Conducting awareness programmes of women’s rights, legal literacy etc.
Eleventh Five- • The 11th Plan aimed at gender empowerment and equity
Year Plan • The Plan also envisaged the incorporation of Gender Budgeting beyond traditional
(2007- 2012) areas like health, education to so called ’Gender Neutral’ sectors like Transport, Power,
Telecommunications, Defence, etc.
• The plan focuses on inclusiveness of women-inclusiveness issues are an integral part
Twelfth Five towards achieving faster but sustainable growth
Year Plan • The overall framework of the Plan takes steps to advance substantive equality by
(2012-2017) addressing the causes and consequences of social, economic and political exclusion on
all women especially vulnerable groups like Dalit, disabled, single women etc.
Towards Equality Report- A Major Landmark:

• The Committee on Status of Women in India (1974-75) published the Towards Equality Report.
• The report highlighted the discriminatory socio-cultural practices, political and economic processes.
• After this report, there was a significant change in the government’s policies for women. Women were
viewed as critical groups for development.
• This was reflected in the 6th Five Year Plan.
CURRENT DEVELOPMENTS: WOMENS
1. MENSTRUAL LEAVE
• In News: Recently, Indian unicorn Zomato have announced paid and mandatory menstrual or period leave
for its women employees.
• Menstruation is a natural, normal biological process experienced by half of humanity, yet it is not given its
due importance due to unnecessary embarrassment, shame, illiteracy and poverty.
• Menstrual leave raises a number of questions regarding women’s health, workforce participation and gender
equity at work
Data/Facts:
• According to UNICEF, 71 percent of young women in India remain unaware of menstruation until their
first cycle.
• Bihar is the only state in India which has been providing two days of special leave every month to its
female employees since 1992.
• Countries like Japan, South Korea, Indonesia and Taiwan provide menstrual leave to their female employees
every month.
Importance:
• Age-old taboo: This policy of zomato will be instrumental in tackling an age-old taboo in India by generating
awareness and open discussions on the issue.
• Normalization of the issue: This will provide freedom to the women to tell people on internal groups, or
emails that they are on period leave i.e. normalization of the issue and across the board acceptance for the
issue.
• Recognition in the unorganized sector: The more debate and conversation on the issue at national level
could lead to recognition of menstrual leave in the unorganized sector.
Menstruation Benefit Bill, 2017

• The Bill seeks to provide women working in the public and private sectors two days of paid
menstrual leave every month as well as better facilities for rest at the workplace during
menstruation.
• The benefits would also be extended to female students of Class VIII and above in government
recognized schools.
• It caters to girls and women across sector/industry/profession/job roles and not just for women engaged
in white collar work.
Issues and Challenges:

• Justify lower salaries and hiring bias: Additional costs associated with extra paid leaves might discourage
companies from hiring women employees and also impact their salaries.
• Discriminatory towards men: Several people criticized Zomato a year back when they announced their
period leaves policy. They found it to be discriminatory towards men, and inequality seemed like a factor
there.
• Gendering of the workplace: Women have had to fight twice as hard to get to the same place as men. Period
leave may be viewed as the gendering of the workplace, against women to offer equal opportunities and
assignments.
• Reinforcing the prevalent stereotyping: The policy risks reinforcing the stereotypes of labeling women as
‘needing extra protection and extra time off’, which in turn might reinforce biases in hiring, promotion and
compensation.
• Violation of privacy: Asking women to inform their employers they’re on their periods forces women to let
go of their menstrual privacy. This can be construed as a shade of benevolent patriarchy.
Way Forward:
• As a society, it is our job to make sure that we overcome the aforesaid challenges and make room for one’s
biological needs while not lowering the bar for the quality of our work.
• The menstrual leave policy could be structured in such a way that overcomes these challenges.
• During this period employers can be encouraged to work-from-home that allow employees to work
remotely for a fixed number of days in a month.
• Apart from these two options, provision of comfortable spaces within the office premises can be explored.
2. HINDU WOMEN’S INHERITANCE RIGHTS

• In News: Recently the Supreme Court (SC) expanded on a Hindu woman’s right to be a joint legal heir and
inherit ancestral property on terms equal to male heirs.
Supreme Court Ruling:

• The SC ruled that a Hindu woman’s right to be a joint heir to the ancestral property is by birth and does
not depend on whether her father was alive or not when the law was enacted in 2005.
• The Hindu Succession (Amendment) Act, 2005 gave Hindu women the right to be coparceners or joint
legal heirs in the same way a male heir does.

Hindu Succession Act, 1956:

• The Mitakshara school of Hindu law codified as the Hindu Succession Act, 1956 governed succession and
inheritance of property but only recognised males as legal heirs.
• It applied to everyone who is not a Muslim, Christian, Parsi or Jew by religion. Buddhists, Sikhs, Jains and
followers of Arya Samaj, Brahmo Samaj, are also considered Hindus for this law.
• In a Hindu Undivided Family, several legal heirs through generations can exist jointly. Traditionally, only
male descendants of a common ancestor along with their mothers, wives and unmarried daughters are
considered a joint Hindu family. The legal heirs hold the family property jointly.
Hindu Succession (Amendment) Act, 2005:

• The 1956 Act was amended in September 2005 and women were recognised as coparceners for property
partitions arising from 2005.
• Section 6 of the Act was amended to make a daughter of a coparcener also a coparcener by birth “in her
own right in the same manner as the son”.
• It also gave the daughter the same rights and liabilities “in the coparcenary property as she would have
had if she had been a son”.
• The law applies to ancestral property and to intestate succession in personal property, where succession
happens as per law and not through a will.
Significance of the Judgement:

• Daughters cannot be deprived of their right of equality conferred upon them by Section 6.
• It also directed High Courts to dispose of cases involving this issue within six months since they would
have been pending for years.
• A step towards women emancipation: It is a major push for women who lack economic resources and are
often marginalised by male members of the family. The fact that a law and not just a will decides women’s
property rights is significant.
• The partition deeds that have already taken place in the same manner will not be affected; the
judgement has a retroactive effect.
Way Forward:
• Change cannot occur if it exists only on papers, people on their part need to broaden their mindsets and
accept that coparcenary is a daughter’s birth right and if they are giving it to her then it is no charity work.
• The coparcenary right of a daughter shall not be denied just because she will have her husband’s property
after marriage.
• The law should not mean to increase the number of litigations but to provide the daughters their
rights in a more graceful and easy manner; the decision should be welcomed with open arms.
• The daughters instead of being so magnanimous and letting it go, should just stand up for their rights and
claim it.
3. UNPAID WORK
• In News: Recently the election manifestos of few parties had promised various forms of payment to
homemakers, thus putting the spotlight on the unpaid domestic work done by women.
• According to the OECD, it refers to all unpaid services provided within a household for its members,
including care of persons, housework and voluntary community work.
• These activities are considered work because theoretically one could pay a third person to perform
them. Women carry a disproportionately higher burden of unpaid domestic services as well as unpaid care
of children, the old, and the disabled for their respective households.
• Women do this job not necessarily because they like it or are efficient in it, but because it is imposed on them
by patriarchal norms, which are the roots of all-pervasive gender inequalities.
Data/Facts:
• According to the International Labour Organization, women perform 76.2 percent of total hours of
unpaid care work. This is three times more than similar work performed by men.
• McKinsey estimates that women do 75% of the world’s total unpaid care work.
• The economic contribution of women is 17% of India’s GDP, less than half the global average.
• India ranks 140th among 156 countries in the World Economic Forum’s Global Gender Gap Report 2021.
Need to Recognise Unpaid Work:

• Linkage with Economy: The household produces goods and services for its members, and if GDP is a
measure of the total production and consumption of the economy, it has to incorporate this work by accepting
the household as a sector of the economy.
• Restricting Opportunities: The invisible labor that a woman puts into household work is a 24-hour job
without remuneration, promotions, or retirement benefits. Further, it restricts opportunities for women in
the economy and in life.
• Subsidizes Private Sector: At the macro level, unpaid work subsidizes the private sector by providing it a
generation of workers (human capital) and takes care of the wear and tear of labor who are family members.
• Subsidizes Government: Similarly, unpaid work also subsidizes the government by taking care of the old,
sick, and disabled. The state would have spent huge amounts in the absence of unpaid work.
Issues and Challenges:

• Implementation Issue: The Economic Survey 2019 recognizes this unpaid work is a positive development.
However, its implementation may create problems such as the affordability of the government and
calculation of the amounts.
• Endorsing Norm of Women’s Work: Paying monetary benefits carries with it the possible danger of
formally endorsing the social norm that domestic and care work is ‘women’s work’, for which they are being
paid.
• Master-Servant Relationship: The term salary, wage, or compensation is indeed problematic as it indicates
an employer-employee relationship, i.e., a relationship of subordination with the employer having
disciplinary control over the employee.
Way Forward:
• Policies should address the rising need for care and tackle the huge disparity between women’s and
men’s care responsibilities.
• More data will make more unpaid care work visible and help frame targeted policies and enable better
monitoring of the impact of policies and investments.
• Reduce unpaid care work by investment in physical infrastructure like clean water and sanitation,
energy and public transport, and in social infrastructure such as care and health services and education.
• Redistribution of care work between men and women, and between families and the state will encourage
positive social norms and economic development.
Conclusion:
• Recognition of its importance and the need to understand its nature and role has been increasing. One
reflection of this has been the inclusion in the Sustainable Development Goals of a target to recognize and
value unpaid care and domestic work under Goal 5 on Gender Equality. In setting this target, the 2030 Agenda
aims at tackling persistent gender inequalities in paid and unpaid work, as a necessary foundation for
inclusive growth and development.
4. CRIMES AGAINST WOMEN AND IMPACT OF COVID-19

• In News: Recently, a report was published highlighting that during the first four phases of the COVID-19-
related lockdown, Indian women filed more domestic violence complaints than recorded in a similar period
in the last 10 years.
• Stresses on families, particularly those living under quarantines and lockdowns, are increasing the
incidence of domestic violence.
• UN Women has referred to the rise in violence against women during the Covid-19 pandemic and
accompanying lockdowns as the “Shadow Pandemic”.
• In 2020, between March 25 and May 31, 1,477 complaints of domestic violence were made by women - NCW.
Possible Reasons:
• Anxiety and insecurity: Most of the individuals are facing the problem of anxiety and insecurity over their
future prospects.
• Lack of privacy: Women are not able to reach out because of restrictions on movement as well as a lack of
privacy within homes
• Lack of counselors: Most women, suffering domestic violence, are increasingly finding themselves isolated
and without necessary support such as counseling.
Way Forward:
• Prioritise Mental Health: Employers should start paying attention to not just the economic health of the
employees but also their mental health and give some leverage to the employees, specifically the women
employees who are more burdened with domestic work as the maids are on leave.
• The Health ministries of both the center and state governments should also look into the issue of the
psychological health of the population in these trying times and formulate policies to ensure access to online
counselling.
• Media has a big role to play here in starting a conversation about mental health which is a taboo subject to
date in India.
• Train more people to look into the issue of dealing with anxiety and stress. Identify training institutes
to train volunteers who can assist women and children in distress under lockdown.

3.POPULATION AND ASSOCIATED ISSUES

TABLE OF CONTENT
• Introduction and History of population in India o Evolution of India’s Population Policies
• Facts and figures • National Population Policy, 2000
• Population : Size, Density and Distribution o Important features of the policies
• Factors influencing the distribution of • Few of the Five Year Plans policies associated
population with population
• Factors that affect population growth • Determinants of population change
• Demographic trends in India o Fertility
o Important points of the report o Mortality
o Challenges o Migration
o Suggestions • Consequences of Population Growth
• India’s Demographic Dividend • Way Forward
o Facts and Figures • Conclusion
o Demographic Dividend in India • Population Control Theories
o Advantages with Demographic Dividend • World Population Report 2021: UNFPA
o Challenges with Demographic Dividend o Important points
o Way Forward o Related Supreme Courts (SC) Judgement
o Conclusion o Way Forward
• Post 1950 : Population Policies in India
PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTION
1. Discuss the changes in the trends of labour migration within and outside India in the last four 2015
decades.
INTRODUCTION AND HISTORY OF POPULATION IN INDIA

• India’s population, by numbers, may overtake the population of China by 2027 (as per the projections
made by UN’s Population Division), to make India the most populous nation of the world.
• Ancient times :
o The earliest literature 'Rig-Veda' reveals that some kind of population count was maintained during 800-
600 BC in India.
o The celebrated 'Arthashastra' by 'Kautilya' written in the 3rd Century BC prescribed the collection of
population statistics as a measure of state policy for taxation. It contained a detailed description of
methods of conducting population, economic and agricultural censuses.
• Medieval times : During the regime of the Mughal king Akbar, the administrative report 'Ain-e-Akbari'
included comprehensive data pertaining to population, industry, wealth and many other characteristics.
• Modern time : A systematic and modern population census, in its present form, was conducted non
synchronously between 1865 and 1872 in different parts of the country. This effort culminating in 1872 has
been popularly labelled as the first population census of India However, the first synchronous census in
India was held in 1881. Since then, censuses have been undertaken uninterruptedly once every ten year.
FACTS AND FIGURES

• India is the second most populous country with over 1.35 billion people.
• Approximately 17.85% of the world's population are Indians, which means 1 in every 6 people on Earth live
in India.
• India’s population is expected to grow by 25%, with reference to 2011, to 1.52 billion by 2036.
• SDG 3 (3.7) : By 2030, ensure universal access to sexual and reproductive healthcare services, including for
family planning, information and education, and the integration of reproductive health into national
strategies and programmes.

POPULATION : SIZE, DENSITY AND DISTRIBUTION

The term ‘Population Distribution’ refers to the manner in which people are spaced over the
earth’s surface and the term ’population density’ refers to the number of people living in each
unit of area (such as a square mile).
• Total population : India has a total population of 121 crores (or 1.21 billion) according to
Census, 2011.
• Current population : India’s population currently stands at 1.37 billion (2019, United
Nations Population Division), which accounts for approx. 17% of the world’s population.
• Distribution : These 1.37 billion people are unevenly distributed over our country’s vast area of 3.28 million
square km, which accounts for 2.4 per cent of the world’s area.
• India’s population density : India's population density therefore stands at 382 persons per square km.
• NOTE : In terms of increase, the population densities of the regions of Central India, Northern India and
Eastern India grew at a higher pace than the Western, North Eastern and Southern region.
FACTORS INFLUENCING THE DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION

• Demographic Factors:
o Migration has a deep influence on population distribution: The push factors, or negative
circumstances, at the place of origin tend to motivate people to leave their native places to newer areas.
Better opportunities in distant lands also encourage migration.
o Natural increase : It is the net outcome of fertility and mortality in a region. If in a region, the fertility
level is high, the population of that place tends to increase. In such situations, mortality brings stability
because of deaths.
• Geographical Factors:
o Availability of water : Resides in those areas where freshwater can be easily available, used for drinking,
bathing and cooking, for cattle, crops, industries and navigation. For example : The Nile, Amazon, and
Ganges river systems supported rich civilizations on their banks.
o Landforms : Prefer living on flat plains and gentle slopes as these areas are favourable for the crops
production and to build roads and industries, for example, Ganga plains. Whereas mountainous and hilly
regions are less populated due to lack of transport, agricultural and industrial development.
o Climate : Areas with very heavy rainfall or extreme and harsh climates have low populations, for example
Mediterranean regions.
o Soils: Fertile soils are important for agricultural and allied activities. E.g. Northern plains of India.
Mountainous regions, where soil erosion is a problem, such as the Terai region of Uttarakhand, or the
sandy soils of the desert of Rajasthan, cannot support dense populations.
o Location of a place: Proximity to major towns and cities as it favours concentration of population.
Generally, staying within the city limits increases living costs. The city’s periphery or nearby towns
provide affordable housing facilities.
o Natural disasters : Natural disasters discourage population concentration. Frequent storms,
earthquakes, floods, wildfires discourage formation of settlements as people migrate to safer places.
• Political Factors:
o War and political conflicts : They take a great toll on human lives. Death rates are high, and people are
forced to move out in search of safety. Mortality rates peak and out-migration dominates.
o Political unrest and discrimination : They are detrimental to population growth. Clashes between
different political parties or people with different religious beliefs have often resulted in a reduction of
population in the affected area.
o Policies encouraging migration : They have often led to population growth in the destination region.
International labour movements take place where rules governing cross-border migration are lenient.
• Socio-Economic Factors:
o Minerals: Areas with mineral deposits attract industries and therefore generate employment. The higher
population densities in the Chota Nagpur Plateau of Jharkhand and in the adjoining areas of Orissa are
largely due to the availability of minerals.
o Urbanization: Cities offer better employment opportunities, educational and medical facilities, better
means of transport and communication and good civic amenities which attract more population.

o Transport: The growth of the population is directly proportional to the development of transport
facilities. For example : The northern plain of India has a dense network of transport routes and is a
densely populated region.
o Industrialization: Industrial belts provide job opportunities and attract large numbers of people.
Example : the Kobe-Osaka region of Japan.
o Economic activity : It is an indicator of employment opportunities. People in the rural areas are largely
dependent on agriculture for their livelihood. If the land fails to support the rural population, or with
more opportunities available in urban areas, they may choose to migrate to cities.
o Social Organization of communities : In new areas encourages the movement of people and settling in
newer lands. Man is a social animal and it becomes essential for him to form a community, creating a
familiar environment where he stays.
FACTORS THAT AFFECTS POPULATION GROWTH

• Economic development : Countries who are in the early
stages of economic development tend to have higher rates of
population growth. In agriculturally based societies, children
are seen as potential income earners.
• Historical factors/war : In the post-war period, western
countries saw a ‘boom’ in population, as couples reunited at
the end of the Second World War began having families.
• Education : In developed countries, education is usually
compulsory until the age of 16. As education becomes
compulsory, children are no longer economic assets – but
economic costs.
• Quality of children : In developed countries with high rates of return from education, parents have an
incentive to have a lower number of children and spend more on their education, to give their children not
just standard education but a relatively better education than others.
• Welfare payments/State pensions : A generous state pension scheme means couples don’t need to have
children to provide effective retirement support when they are old. Family sizes in developing countries are
higher because children are viewed as ‘insurance’ to look after them in old age.
• Social and cultural factors : In China (before one family policy) there were strong social attachments to
having large families. In the developed world, smaller families are the norm.
• Availability of family planning : Increased availability of contraception can enable women to limit family
size closer to the desired level. In the developing world, the availability of contraception is more limited, and
this can lead to unplanned pregnancies and more rapid population growth.
• Female Labour Market Participation : In developing economies, female education and social mobility are
often lower. In societies where women gain a better education, there is a greater desire to put work over
starting a family and hence reduction in birth rates.
• Death rates : In the nineteenth and early twentieth century, there was a rapid improvement in medical
treatments which helped to deal with many fatal diseases. Death rates fell and life expectancy increased.
• Immigration levels : Some countries' biggest drivers of population growth come from net migration. For
instance : In the UK from 2000 to 2013, around 50% of net population growth came from net international
migration.
DEMOGRAPHIC TRENDS IN INDIA

• According to a recent analysis by the Lancet, India’s population is forecasted to peak around 1.6 billion in
2048 from 1.38 billion in 2017. It will be followed by a 32% decline to around 1.09 billion in 2100.
IMPORTANT POINTS OF THE REPORT

• Global Burden of Disease Study 2017 : It is a comprehensive regional and global assessment of mortality
and disability from major diseases, injuries and risk factors.
• Hampered Economic Growth : The study has predicted dramatic declines in working-age populations in
countries such as India and China, which will hamper economic growth and lead to shifts in global powers.

• India Specific Data : • TFR indicates the average number of

o Population : India in 2100 will be the world’s most children expected to be born to a
populous country. woman during her reproductive
o Working population : The number of working-age adults span of 15-49 years.
aged 20-64 in India is projected to fall from around 762 • Replacement Level Fertility is the
million in 2017 to around 578 million in 2100. However, number of children needed to
India has been forecasted to have the largest working-age replace the parents, after accounting
population in the world by 2100. for fatalities, skewed sex ratio, infant
o Comparison of India and China : India is also expected to mortality, etc. The population starts
surpass China’s workforce population in the mid-2020s, falling below this level.
where the working-age population is estimated to decline
from 950 million in 2017 to 357 million in 2100.
o India’s GDP estimation : From 2017 to 2100, India is projected to rise up the rankings of countries with
the largest total GDP globally from 7th to 3rd, in terms of nominal GDP.
o Total Fertility Rate : The country’s TFR declined to below 2.1 in 2019 (data taken from the Global
Burden of Disease Study 2017) and is projected to have a continued steep fertility decline until about
2040, reaching a TFR of 1.29 in 2100.
o India and immigration : India is also forecasted to have the second-largest net immigration in 2100,
with an estimated half a million more people immigrating to India in 2100 than emigrating out.
• Global Data :
o World population : The world population is forecasted to peak at around 9.7 billion people in 2064 and
fall to 8.8 billion by the century’s end, with 23 countries seeing populations shrink by more than 50%,
including Japan, Thailand, Italy and Spain.
o Global TFR : By 2100, a total of 183 out of 195 countries will have TFR below the replacement level of
2.1 births per woman. The global TFR is predicted to steadily decline from 2.37 in 2017 to 1.66 in 2100,
well below the minimum rate of 2.1.
o Huge shifts in the global age structure : With an estimated 2.37 billion individuals over 65 years
globally in 2100 compared with the 703 million in 2019.
CHALLENGES
• The new population forecasts : They are in contrast with projects of “continuing” global growth by the
United Nations Population Division (UNPD).
• Economic growth issue : They highlight huge challenges to the economic growth of a shrinking workforce,
the high burden on health and social support systems of an ageing population.
o As countries move toward prioritising development, fertility reduction is inevitable.
o At the same time, improved survival at all ages, especially at the older ages, would lead to the rapid ageing
of the population.
SUGGESTIONS
• Liberal migration policies : They could be adopted as a temporary solution for economic growth in the
context of declining working population. Migrants contribute significantly to labour-market flexibility,
innovation and technological progress, boost the working-age population and bring new skills contributing
to the human capital development of receiving countries.
• Investment in technology : It is more important to look for possibilities of investing in technological
advancements that can compensate for human shortages.
• The effect of fertility decline : On women’s reproductive health rights has to be accompanied by greater
economic independence which would allow women to negotiate with the system on their own terms and for
better support services as well.
INDIA’S DEMOGRAPHIC DIVIDEND

• Demographic dividend refers to the growth in an economy that is the result of a change in the age structure
of a country’s population. The change in age structure is typically brought on by a decline in fertility and
mortality rates.
• India has 62.5% of its population in the age group of 15-59 years which is ever increasing and will be at
the peak around 2036 when it will reach approximately 65%.
• These population parameters indicate an availability of demographic dividend in India, which started in
2005-06 and will last till 2055-56.
• According to the Economic Survey 2018-19, India’s Demographic Dividend will peak around 2041, when
the share of working-age, i.e. 20-59 years, population is expected to hit 59%.
FACTS AND FIGURES
Total population Around 1.38 billion

Around 1.22 billion (as per census 2011)
World rank in population 2
Percentage of the world population 17.71%
Population density 464 per sq. km
Growth rate 0.99%
Median age: Total Total: 28.1 years
Male: 27.5 years
Female: 28.9 years
Infant mortality rate 26.6 deaths per 1000 live births
Under – 5 mortality rate 32.9 deaths per 1000 live births
Total: 70.42 years
Life expectancy at birth Male: 69.2 years
Female: 71.8 years
Rural population Around 65%
Urban population Around 35%
DEMOGRAPHIC DIVIDEND IN INDIA
NSSO Periodic Labour Force Survey 2017-18 : India’s labour force participation rate for the age-group 15-
59 years is around 53%, that is, around half of the working age population is jobless.
• India has one of the youngest populations : In an aging world. By 2020, the median age in India will be just
28, compared to 37 in China and the US, 45 in Western Europe, and 49 in Japan.
• Bulge in working age population : Since 2018, India’s working-age population (people between 15 and 64
years of age) has grown larger than the dependent population — children aged 14 or below as well as people
above 65 years of age. This bulge in the working-age population is going to last till 2055, or 37 years from its
beginning.
• Reason for the bulge : This transition happens largely because of a decrease in the total fertility rate (TFR,
which is the number of births per woman) after the increase in life expectancy gets stabilised.
• UNFPA report : A study on demographic dividend in India by United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA)
throws up two interesting facts.
o The window of demographic dividend opportunity in India is available for five decades from 2005-06
to 2055-56, longer than any other country in the world.
o This demographic dividend window is available at different times in different states because of
differential behaviour of the population parameters.
ADVANTAGES WITH DEMOGRAPHIC DIVIDEND:

• Better economic growth : Brought about by increased economic activities due to higher working age
population and lower dependent population. It will be channelized in following ways :
o Increased Labour Force : That enhances the productivity of the economy.
o Increased fiscal space : Created by the demographic dividend to divert resources from spending on
children to investing in physical and human infrastructure.
o Rise in women’s workforce : That naturally accompanies a decline in fertility, and which can be a new
source of growth.
o Increase in savings rate : As the working age also happens to be the prime period for saving.
o A massive shift towards a middle-class society : That is, the rise of the aspirational class.

• Demographic dividend history : It has historically contributed up to 15 % of the overall growth in

advanced economies. Japan was among the first major economies to experience rapid growth because of
changing population structure. The country’s demographic-dividend phase lasted from 1964 to 2004.
• Rapid industrialisation and urbanisation : Because of a higher number of employment seeking population
that would force higher economic activities.
• Rise in workforce : With more than 65% of the working age population, India will rise as an economic
superpower, supplying more than half of Asia’s potential workforce over the coming decades.
• Effective policy making : Fine-tuning the planning and implementation of schemes and programmes by
factoring in population dynamics is likely to yield greater socio-economic impact and larger benefits for
people.
CHALLENGES WITH DEMOGRAPHIC DIVIDEND:

• Asymmetric demography : The growth in the working-age ratio is likely to be concentrated in some of
India’s poorest states and the demographic dividend will be fully realized only if India is able to create gainful
employment opportunities for this working-age population.
• Lack of skills : Most of the new jobs that will be created in the future will be highly skilled and lack of skill in
the Indian workforce is a major challenge. India may not be able to take advantage of the opportunities, due
to a low human capital base and lack of skills.
• Low human development parameters : India ranks 131 out of 189 countries in UNDP’s Human
Development Index, which is alarming. Therefore, health and education parameters need to be improved
substantially to make the Indian workforce efficient and skilled.
• Informal nature of the economy : In India, it is another hurdle in reaping the benefits of demographic
transition in India.
• Jobless growth : There is mounting concern that future growth could turn out to be jobless due to de-
industrialization, de-globalization, the fourth industrial revolution and technological progress.
WAY FORWARD:
• Building human capital : Investing in people through healthcare, quality education, jobs and skills helps
build human capital, which is key to supporting economic growth, ending extreme poverty, and creating a
more inclusive society.
o Skill development : To increase employability of the young population. India’s labour force needs to be
empowered with the right skills for the modern economy.
o Education : Enhancing educational levels by properly investing in primary, secondary and higher
education. India, which has almost 41% of population below the age of 20 years, can reap the
demographic dividend only if with a better education system. Also, academic-industry collaboration is
necessary to synchronise modern industry demands and learning levels in academics.
o Health : Improvement in healthcare infrastructure would ensure a higher number of productive days for
the young labour force, thus increasing the productivity of the economy.
• Job Creation : The nation needs to create ten million jobs per year to absorb the addition of young people
into the workforce. Promoting businesses’ interests and entrepreneurship would help in job creation to
provide employment to the large labour force. India’s improved ranking in the World Bank’s Ease of Doing
Business Index is a good sign.
• Urbanisation : The large young and working population in the years to come will migrate to urban areas
within their own and other States, leading to rapid and large-scale increase in urban population.
CONCLUSION:
• India is on the right side of demographic transition that provides a golden opportunity for its rapid socio-
economic development, if policymakers align the developmental policies with this demographic shift.
POST 1950: EVOLUTION OF POPULATION POLICIES IN INDIA

• Radha Kamal Mukherjee Committee (1940) : In 1940, the Indian National Congress appointed a
Committee headed by a social scientist Radha Kamal Mukherjee to suggest solutions to arrest the population
which has started increasing rapidly after 1921.

• Bhore Committee : This committee was set up in 1943 and submitted its report in 1946. The Health Survey
and Development committee under Sir Joseph
Bhore recommended ‘deliberate limitation of
family’ as a measure to control the population
growth.
• State-sponsored family planning programme :
India became one of the first developing countries
to come up with a state-sponsored family planning
programme in the 1950s.
• Population policy committee in 1952 : The
policies framed in the early fifties were largely
arbitrary and so not successful.
• Central Family Planning Board : In 1956, a Central Family Planning Board was set up and its focus was on
sterilisation.
• National Population Policy in 1976 : Government of India announced the first National Population Policy.
• During the Emergency period (1975-77) : Coercive measures were used to reduce the population growth.
There were mass forced sterilisations. This, however, backfired as it discredited the entire family planning
programme of the government.
• Family welfare programme in 1977 : After the Emergency ended, the new government discarded the use
of force in family planning and the family planning programme was renamed as the family welfare
programme.
• The National Health Policy, 1983 : It emphasised ‘securing the small family norm through voluntary efforts
and moving towards the goal of population stabilization’.
• A Committee on Population was appointed in 1991 : submitted its report in 1993 in which it
recommended the formulation of a National Population Policy to take a ‘a long-term holistic view of
development, population growth, and environmental protection’ and to ‘suggest policies and guidelines for
formulation of programmes’ and ‘a monitoring mechanism with short- medium- and long-term perspectives
and goals’. Accordingly, an Expert Group headed by Dr. MS Swaminathan was set up to create the draft
national population policy. The National Population Policy finally came into force in 2000.
NATIONAL POPULATION POLICY, 2000

The National Population Policy (NPP), 2000 is the central government’s second population policy. The NPP
states its immediate objective as addressing the unmet needs for contraception, healthcare infrastructure, and
health personnel, and providing integrated service delivery for basic reproductive and child healthcare.
• The medium-term objective : Of the NPP 2000 was to reduce the Total Fertility Rate (TFR) to replacement
levels by 2010.
• The long-term objective : Was “ to achieve a stable population by 2045, at a level consistent with the
requirements of sustainable economic growth, social development, and environmental protection.”
IMPORTANT FEATURES OF THE POLICIES

• Vision of the government : The NPP reinforces the vision of the government to encourage voluntary and
informed choices and citizens’ agreeability in order to achieve maximum benefits from reproductive health
services.
• Making school education free and compulsory : Up to the age of 14 years and also reducing the dropout
rates of both boys and girls.
• Decreasing the Infant Mortality Rate (IMR) : To under 30 per 1000 live births in the country (to be
achieved by 2010 as prescribed when the NPP was brought out).
• Reducing the Maternal Mortality Rate (MMR) : To under 100 per 1 lakh live births (to be achieved by 2010
as prescribed when the NPP was brought out).
• Achieving universal immunization : For all children against vaccine preventable diseases.
• Encouraging delayed marriage : For girls (preferably before 18 years and above 20 years).
• Attaining 100% registration : Of pregnancies, births, deaths and marriages.
• Making available universal access to information/counselling, and services for fertility regulation and
contraception with a huge range of choices.

• Containing the spread of STDs : Containing Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), boosting better
coordination between the management of reproductive tract infections (RTI) and sexually transmitted
infections (STI) and the National AIDS Control Organisation (NACO).
FEW OF THE FIVE YEAR PLANS POLICIES ASSOCIATED WITH POPULATION

• First Five Year Plan : India is the first country in the world to begin a population control program in 1952.
It emphasized the use of natural devices for family planning.
• Second Five Year Plan : Work was done in the direction of education and research and the clinical approach
was encouraged.
• Third Five Year Plan : In 1965, the sterilization technique for both men and women was adopted under this
plan. The technique of copper- T was also adopted. An independent department called the Family Planning
Department was set up.
• Fourth Five-Year Plan : All kinds of birth control methods (conventional and modern) were encouraged.
• Fifth Five Year Plan : Under this plan, the National Population Policy was announced on 16 April 1976. In
this policy, the minimum age for marriage determined by the Sharda Act, 1929 was increased. It increased
the age for boys from 18 to 21 years and for girls from 14 to 18 years. Under this Plan, forced sterilization
was permitted which was later on given up.
• Sixth, Seventh, and Eighth Plans : Efforts were made to control the population by determining long-term
demographic aims.
DETERMINANTS OF POPULATION CHANGE

Three major factors that determine the change in population of any country viz. Fertility, Mortality and Migration.
1. FERTILITY
• General Fertility Rate : It is the number of live births per 1000 women, aged 15-49 years (childbearing age
group), in a given period Age-Specific Fertility Rate The number of live births occurring during a given year
or reference period per 1000 women of reproductive age classified in that age group.
• Total Fertility Rate : The total fertility rate refers to the total number of live births that a woman would have
if she lived through the reproductive age group and had the average number of babies in each segment of this
age group as determined by the age-specific fertility rates for that area.
• Determinants of High Fertility : Religious Ideologies, Early marriage and early child-bearing, Preference
for sons ingrained in Indian culture, Lack of the right of self-determination with reference to reproduction,
Economic, social, cultural as well as the religious value of children in the Indian society, Absence of adoption
of methods of conception control. Implications of High Fertility.
• Reason for the decrease in TFR: Higher education, increased mobility, late marriage, financially
independent women and overall prosperity is all contributing to a falling TFR. Example : Bihar, with the
highest TFR of 3.2, had the maximum percentage of illiterate women at 26.8%, while Kerala, where the
literacy rate among women is 99.3%, had among the lowest fertility rates.
WAY FORWARD:
• Health and education parameters : It needs to be improved substantially to make the Indian workforce
efficient and skilled.
• Enhance, support and coordinate private sector initiatives : For skill development through appropriate
Public-Private Partnership (PPP) models; strive for significant operational and financial involvement from
the private sector
• Focus on underprivileged sections : Of society and backward regions of the country thereby enabling a
move out of poverty
• New technology : It could be exploited to accelerate the pace of building human capital, including massive
open online courses and virtual classrooms
• Promote human capital : Policymakers should have a greater incentive to redouble their efforts to promote
human capital so that it can contribute to economic growth and job creation.
2. MORTALITY

• Crude Death Rate : It is the ratio of the total registered deaths occurring in a specified calendar year to the
total mid-year population of that year, multiplied by 1000.
• The expectation of Life at Birth : An Indian born in 1950 could expect to live for 37 years, whereas today
India’s life expectancy at birth nearly doubled to 68 years, by 2050, it is projected to increase to 76 years.
• Infant Mortality Rate (IMR) : Infants are defined in demography as all those children in the first year of life
who have not yet reached age one. It is the number of deaths of children under one year of age per 1000 live
births.
• Recent trends in IMR : As per the latest government data released in 2019, India has reduced its infant
mortality rate (IMR) by 42% over 11 years-from 57 per 1,000 live births in 2006 to 33 in 2017. In 2017,
India’s rural areas had an IMR of 37 and urban areas 23, revealing the difference in healthcare quality. United
Nations has recently set SDG and Targets. The target for India is to attain a Under 5 Mortality Rate of 25/1000
live births by 2030.
• Maternal Mortality Rate (MMR): Maternal death is the death of a woman while pregnant or within 42 days
of termination of pregnancy, irrespective of the duration and site of the pregnancy, from any cause related to
or aggravated by the pregnancy or its management but not from accidental or incidental causes.
3. MIGRATION
• Migration is a form of geographical mobility or spatial mobility between one geographical unit and
another, generally involving a change in residence from the place of origin or place of departure to the place
of destination or place of arrival, for a considerable period of time.
FACTS AND FIGURES:

• The Economic Survey of India 2017 : It estimates that the magnitude of inter-state migration in India was
close to 9 million annually between 2011 and 2016
• 2011 Census, the number of internal migrants rose to 453.6 million. Indian Census 2011 has recorded that
more than 5 million persons have migrated to India from other countries.
• International Migrant Stock 2019 report : Released by the Population Division of the United Nations
Department of Economic and Social Affairs; India with 5 million international migrants has emerged as the
top source of international migrants, constituting 6.4% of world’s total migrant population.
• Article 19 : The Constitution of India gives the right to all citizens “to move freely throughout the territory
of India and to reside and settle in any part of the territory of India”.
• Internal migration : In India, internal migration (fuelled by an increasing rate of urbanization and rural-
urban wage difference) is far greater than an external migration.
• India’s urban population : It is expected to grow from 410 million in 2014 to 814 million by 2050.
• Migrants and the SDGs: The SDGs’ central reference to migration is made in target 10.7, to facilitate orderly,
safe, regular and responsible migration and mobility of people, including through the implementation of
planned and well-managed migration policy.
CAUSES OF MIGRATION:
• Urbanization : Rural-urban migration is a major characteristic of urban transition in countries. The rates of
urbanization influence rural-urban wage differences.
• Marriage : Marriage is an important social factor for migration. As observed by Census 2001, in case of intra-
state migrant’s majority of the migration is from one rural area to another, due to marriage in case of females.
• Employment : People seasonally migrate for employment in different areas and different industries. Such
migration is of both rural-rural and rural-urban streams.
• Education : Due to lack of educational facilities in rural areas, people migrate to the urban areas for better
academic opportunities. In the 2011 census, about 1.77% people migrated for education.
• Lack of security : Political disturbances and interethnic conflicts is another reason for internal migration.
• Environmental and disaster induced factors : There are migrants who are forced to move from rural to
urban areas as a result of an environmental disaster that might have destroyed their homes and farms.
POSITIVE IMPACT OF MIGRATION:

• Labour Demand and Supply : Migration fills gaps in demand for and supply of labor, efficiently allocates
skilled labor, unskilled labor, and cheap labor.

• Economic Remittances : Economic wellbeing of migrants provides insurance against risks to households in
the areas of origin, increases consumer expenditure and investment in health, education and assets
formation.
• Skill Development : Migration enhances the knowledge and skills of migrants through exposure and
interaction with the outside world.
• Quality of Life : Migration enhances chances of employment and economic prosperity which in turn
improves quality of life. The migrants also send extra income and remittance back home, thereby positively
impacting their native place.
• Social Remittances : Migration helps to improve the social life of migrants, as they learn about new cultures,
customs, and languages which helps to improve brotherhood among people and ensures greater equality and
tolerance.
• Food and Nutrition Security : According to the 2018 State of Food and Agriculture report by Food and
Agriculture Organization (FAO), outmigration often leads to improved food and nutrition security for
migrants.
• Demographic Advantage : As a result of outmigration, the population density of the place of origin is
reduced and the birth rate decreases.
• Climate Change Adaptive Mechanism : Migration has also emerged as a possible adaptive mechanism in
the context of climate change and the occurrence of extreme weather events like floods, droughts, and
cyclones.
NEGATIVE IMPACT OF MIGRATION:

• Demographic Profile : Emigration in large numbers can alter demographic profiles of communities, as most
of the young men move out, leaving only the women and elderly to work on the land.
• Political Exclusion : Migrant workers are deprived of many opportunities to exercise their political rights
like the right to vote.
• Population Explosion : The Influx of workers in the place of destination increases competition.
• Brain Drain : Source state suffers from the loss of human capital.
• Increased Slum : Mass Migration results in an increase in slum areas, compromising quality of infrastructure
and life at the destination, which further translates into many other problems such as unhygienic conditions,
crime, pollution, etc.
CHALLENGES FACED BY MIGRANT WORKERS:

• Employment in informal economy : Migrants dominate the urban informal economy which is marked by
high poverty and vulnerabilities. In an unorganized and chaotic labour market, migrant workers regularly
face conflicts and disputes at worksites.
• Issue of Identification documents : Proving their identity is one of the core issues faced by poor migrant
labourers at destination areas.
• Housing : Lack of affordable housing in Indian cities force migrants to live in slums. Many seasonal migrants
are not even able to afford rents in slums, forcing them to live at their workplaces (such as construction sites
and hotel dining rooms), shop pavements, or in open areas in the city.
• Financial Access : Migrant workers have limited access to formal financial services and remain unbanked
• Access to healthcare : Migrant workers have poor access to health services, which results in very poor
occupational health.
• Education of children : UNESCO’s 2019 Global Education Monitoring Report (GEM Report) shows that
children left behind by migrating parents and seasonal migrants face fewer educational opportunities overall.
According to the report, 80% of migrant children across seven Indian cities did not have access to education
near worksites.
• Political exclusion : Migrant workers are deprived of many opportunities to exercise their political rights.
A 2011 study pointed out that 22% of seasonal migrant workers in India did not possess voter IDs or have
their names in the voter list.
• Psychological and Emotional Stress : Any person migrating to a new country faces multiple challenges,
from cultural adaptation and language barriers to homesickness and loneliness.
• Employment challenges : Foreign labor migrants often face unacceptable treatment from their employers.
For instance, some labor migrants are paid below their contract wage and may be forced to work long hours
and denied regular time off.
• Health Hazards : The poor and harsh living conditions coupled with difficult and risky working conditions,
lack of information, and lack of medical health support also leads to several health problems of the migrants.
STEPS TAKEN:
• Inter-State Migrant Workmen (Regulation of Employment and Conditions of Service) Act of 1979 : It
seeks to address the unjust working conditions of migrant workers, including the necessity of gaining
employment through middlemen contractors or agents who promise a monthly settlement of wages but do
not pay when the time comes.
• Enhancing livelihood opportunities for rural population : Examples: Deendayal Antyodaya Yojana-
National Rural Livelihoods Mission (DAY-NRLM), Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee
Act, Attracting and Retaining of Youth in Agriculture (ARYA).
• Infrastructure development in rural areas :
o RURBAN Mission : It seeks to stimulate local economic development, enhance basic services, and create
well planned Rurban clusters (cluster villages). One of the main objectives is to reduce the rural-urban
divide-viz: economic, technological and those related to facilities and service
o PURA (Providing Urban Amenities to Rural Areas) : It seeks to tackle the problem of migration of
people from rural to urban areas for employment.
o SMART VILLAGES : It is a concept adopted by national, state and local governments in India, as an
initiative focused on holistic rural development. The Eco Needs Foundation has initiated the concept of
“Smart Village”.
COVID-19 CRISIS AND INTERNAL MIGRANTS:

• World Bank report : According to the World bank report ‘COVID-19 Crisis Through a Migration Lens’,
nationwide lockdown in India due to COVID-19 has impacted :
o Nearly 40 million internal migrants. Around 60,000 moved
from urban centers to rural areas of origin in the span of a
few days.
o The magnitude of internal migration is about two-and-a-
half times that of international migration.
o Internal migrants have faced issues in health services, food,
cash transfer and other social programmes.
o They are vulnerable to the loss of employment and
wages during an economic crisis.
o Lockdowns in labour camps and dormitories would
increase the risk of contagion among migrant workers.
CONSEQUENCES OF POPULATION GROWTH

• Severe pressure on the forests : Due to both the rate of resource use and the nature of use. The per capita
forest biomass in the country is only about 6 tons as against the global average of 82 tons.
• Adverse effect on habitat : Conversion of habitat to some other land use such as agriculture, urban
development, forestry operation. Some 70-80 % of freshwater marshes and lakes in the Gangetic floodplains
have been lost in the last 50 years.
• Tropical deforestation and destruction of mangroves : For commercial needs and fuel wood. The
country’s mangrove areas have reduced from 700,000 ha to 453,000 ha in the last 50 years.
• Effect of increase in agricultural areas : High use of chemical fertilizers pesticides and weedicides; water
stagnation, soil erosion, soil salinity and low productivity.
• High level of biomass burning : Causing large-scale indoor pollution.
• Encroachment on habitat : For rail and road construction thereby fragmenting the habitat.
• Increase in commercial activities : Such as mining and unsustainable resource extraction.
• Degradation of coastal and other aquatic ecosystems : From domestic sewage, pesticides, fertilizers and
industrial effluents.
• Overfishing : In water bodies and introduction of weeds and exotic species.
• Diversion of water : For domestic, industrial and agricultural uses leading to increased river pollution and
decrease in self-cleaning properties of rivers.

• Increasing water requirement : Leading to tapping deeper aquifers which have high content of arsenic or
fluoride resulting in health problems.
WAY FORWARD
• Making agriculture remunerative (actualizing the dream of doubling the income of farmers by 2022):
And keeping food prices stable is crucial to ensure nutrition for all.
• Implementing a ‘universal basic income’ : As a social safety valve will help in providing employment
opportunities to a large number of unemployed youth.
• Managing forest and water resources : For future generations and willful implementation of sustainable
development goals must assume center stage in policy-making.
• Women empowerment : The poor, populous northern States must make concerted advances in women’s
literacy, health, and participation in the workforce, emulating the achievements of the southern States.
• General progress : Progress in poverty reduction, greater equality, better nutrition, universal education,
and health care, needs state support and strong civil society institutions.
• Rising life expectancy : The growing population of older adults opens up prospects for employment in many
new services catering to them.
• Effective and efficient implementation of schemes : Like AMRUT, SMART cities, Piped water for all, Make
India and Sustainable development goals framework will certainly help in augmenting the social
infrastructure and will help India in reaping the benefits of its demographic dividend.
CONCLUSION
• The Government of India, politicians, policymakers and Civil societies should initiate a bold population policy
and initiatives so that the economic growth of the country can keep pace with the demands of a growing
population.
POPULATION CONTROL THEORIES

1. Malthusian Theory : Malthus in his work, Principle of Population (1798) had predicted that the world’s
population would grow at a faster rate than the rate of food production.
• According to him, the population tends to grow exponentially (geometric growth), he argued, but food
supply grew in a slower arithmetic ratio.
• However, Malthus was ultimately proved wrong as breakthroughs in agricultural technology made
countries, such as India, net food surplus.
2. Big-Push Theory : Harvard economist Harvey Leibenstein has demonstrated how population growth tends
to erode incomes.
• The main economic argument behind this theory was that if per capita income is low, then people are too
poor to save.
• Since investment is taken to be equal to savings, low savings would mean the economy doesn’t grow.
WORLD POPULATION REPORT 2021: UNFPA

• Recently, the United Nations Population Fund’s (UNFPA) flagship State of World Population Report 2021
titled ‘My Body is My Own’ was launched. This is the first time a United Nations report has focused on
bodily autonomy, defined as the power and agency to make choices about your body without fear of violence
or having someone else decide for you.
IMPORTANT POINTS
• Violation of Bodily Autonomy :
o The principle of bodily integrity sums up the right of each human being, including children, to
autonomy and self-determination over their own body. It considers an unconsented physical intrusion
as a human rights violation.
o While the principle has traditionally been raised in connection with practices such as torture, inhumane
treatment and forced disappearance, bodily integrity has the potential to apply to wide range of human
rights violations, which also affect children’s civil rights.
o Some Examples : Child marriage, Female genital mutilation, Lack of contraceptive choices leading to
unplanned pregnancy, etc.

• Global Scenario :
o Right to Make Decisions Regarding Own Body : Nearly half the women from 57 developing countries
do not have the right to make decisions regarding their bodies, including using contraception, seeking
healthcare or even on their sexuality. Only 75% of countries legally ensure full and equal access to
contraception.
o Effect of Covid : Women around the world are denied the fundamental right of bodily autonomy with the
Covid-19 pandemic further exacerbating this situation.
• Indian Scenario : In India, according to National Family Health Survey (NFHS)-4 (2015-2016) –
• 12% of currently married women (15-49 years of age) independently make decisions
Healthcare about their own healthcare.
• 63% decide in consultation with their spouse.
• For 23% it is the spouse that mainly takes decisions about healthcare.
• 8% of currently married women (15-49 years) take decisions on the use of
contraception independently.
Contraceptives • 83% decide jointly with their spouse. Information provided to women about use of
contraception is also limited.
• 47% of women using a contraceptive were informed about the side effects of the
method.
• 54% of women were provided information about other contraceptives.
• Some Women Related Data from NFHS-5 :

o Contraception : Overall Contraceptive Prevalence Rate (CPR) has increased substantially in most
States/UTs and it is the highest in HP and WB (74%).
o Domestic Violence : It has generally declined in most of the states and UTs. However, it has witnessed
an increase in five states, namely Sikkim, Maharashtra, Himachal Pradesh, Assam and Karnataka.
o Decision making related to health, major household purchases and visiting relatives : Bihar has
reported the maximum increase from 75.2% in NFHS-4 (2015-2016) to 86.5% in NFHS-5 (2019-2020).
Almost 99% of women in Nagaland participate in household decision-making, followed by Mizoram at
98.8%. On the other hand, Ladakh and Sikkim reported the biggest decrease in women’s participation in
decision-making, with a 7-5% drop among married women.
Related Supreme Courts (SC) Judgement

• Justice K S Puttaswamy v Union of India 2017 : The SC held that reproductive rights include a woman’s
entitlement to carry a pregnancy to its full term, to give birth, and to subsequently raise children; and that
these rights form part of a woman’s right to privacy, dignity, and bodily integrity. The judgement gave
required impetus to resolve the potential constitutional challenges to abortion and surrogacy.
WAY FORWARD
• Real, sustained progress largely depends on uprooting gender inequality and all forms of discrimination, and
transforming the social and economic structures that maintain them.
• In this, men must become allies. Many more must commit to stepping away from patterns of privilege and
dominance that profoundly undercut bodily autonomy, and move towards ways of living that are more fair
and harmonious, benefiting all.

4.POVERTY AND DEVELOPMENT ISSUES

TABLE OF CONTENT
• Introduction • Global Multidimensional Poverty Index 2020
• Facts and figures • COVID-19 and Poverty
• Constitutional Provisions For Poverty • Report of Pew Research Center
• Urban poverty o Highlights of the report
o Reasons for shifting of poverty from rural to • Poverty and women in India
urban India • Feminization of poverty
o Way forward • Inequality
• Poverty In rural India o Dimensions of Inequality in India
o Causes of rural poverty o Economic Inequality
o Way Forward o Consequences of Inequalities
• Causes of Poverty o Measures to Deal with Inequalities
• Poverty as a social problem • Poverty alleviation schemes
• Consequences of poverty o Conclusion
• Multidimensional Poverty
2. COVID-19 pandemic accelerated class inequalities and poverty in India. Comment. 2020
3. How have digital initiatives in India contributed to the functioning of the education system in the 2020
country? Elaborate your answer.
4. ‘Despite implementation of various programmes for eradication of poverty by the government in 2018
India, poverty is still existing.’ Explain by giving reasons.
5. Mention core strategies for the transformation of aspirational districts in India and explain the 2018
nature of convergence, collaboration and competition for its success.
6. “An essential condition to eradicate poverty is to liberate the poor from deprivation.” Substantiate 2016
this statement with suitable examples.
7. Critically examine whether growing population is the cause of poverty or poverty is the main cause 2015
of population increase in India.
INTRODUCTION
• Poverty : According to the United Nations (UN), Poverty entails more than the lack of
income and productive resources to ensure sustainable livelihoods. Its manifestations
include hunger and malnutrition, limited access to education and other basic services,
social discrimination and exclusion, as well as the lack of participation in decision-making.
• Development : It means “improvement in a country's economic and social conditions”. It
refers to improvements in the way of managing an area’s natural and human resources in
order to create wealth and improve people’s lives.
FACTS AND FIGURES

• In 2015, around 10 percent of the world population were living in extreme poverty (World Bank defines
“extreme poverty” as living on $1.25 or less a day) and struggling to fulfil the most basic needs like health,
education, and access to water and sanitation.
• The global extreme poverty rate fell to 9.2 percent in 2017, from 10.1 percent in 2015. That is
equivalent to 689 million people living on less than $1.90 a day.
• In India, 21.9% of the population lived below the national poverty line in 2011. In 2018, almost 8% of the
world’s workers and their families lived on less than US$1.90 per person per day (International poverty line).
CONSTITUTIONAL PROVISION S FOR POVERTY

• Article 16: There shall be equality of opportunity for all citizens in matters relating to
employment or appointment to any office under the State.
Fundamental • Article 17: Abolition of Untouchability - Article 17 seeks to establish a new social order
Rights of equal socio-economic profile.
• Article 21: Protection of Life and Personal Liberty - Article 21 is loaded with Poverty
Jurisprudence. It includes, right to basic needs of the poor, their welfare and development.
Article 24: Prohibition of employment of children in factories, etc.
• Art. 39: The state shall direct its policy towards securing adequate mean of livelihood to
man and woman;
DPSPs • Art. 39 (a): Promotion of justice, equal opportunities, and free legal aid;
• Art. 41: Security of work, to education, and to public assistance in several cases;
• Art. 42: Security of just and humane conditions of work;
• Art. 45: Free and compulsory education to every child till the age of 14 years, etc.
SDG • SDG 1, one of the 17 SDGs established by the United Nations in 2015, calls for "no
poverty". The official wording is: "to end poverty in all its forms, everywhere".
URBAN POVERTY
• Urban poverty in India : It is over 25%, some 81 million people live in urban areas on incomes that are
below the poverty line. Although rural poverty remains higher than urban poverty, the gap is closing, i.e.
locus of poverty is shifting to urban areas.
• Current situation : Today, one in every six of India’s urban households live in slums, a number forecast to
rise exponentially over the coming years.
• The Rangarajan committee (2012) : It estimated that the number of poor was 19% higher in rural areas
and a whopping 41% more in urban areas than those of the previous estimates.
• Number of poor : The data suggest that the rate of urban poverty has been coming down. However, the
absolute numbers of urban poor remain extremely large, at more than 76 million.
REASONS FOR SHIFTING OF POVERTY FROM RURAL TO URBAN INDIA

• Push-Pull factors : In India, the causes of urban poverty can be linked to the lack of infrastructure in rural
areas (push factor), forcing inhabitants of these regions to seek out work in India’s mega-cities (pull factor).
Lack of skills : Most of the poor are not able to participate in the emerging employment opportunities in
different sectors of the urban economy as they do not have the necessary knowledge and skills to do so.
• Indebtedness : Unemployment or underemployment and the casual and intermittent nature of work in
urban areas lead to indebtedness, that in turn, reinforces poverty.
• Inflation : A steep rise in the price of food grains and other essential goods further intensifies the hardship
and deprivation of lower-income groups.
• Unequal distribution : The unequal distribution of income and assets has also led to the persistence of
poverty in urban India.
• Unsatisfactory growth : The overall growth of agriculture and industry have not been impressive. The gap
between poor and rich has actually widened.
• Asymmetrical development : The green revolution exacerbated the disparities regionally and between
large and small farmers. There was unwillingness and inability to redistribute land. The benefits of economic
growth have largely not trickled down to the poor.
WAY FORWARD
• Improving life in urban areas : In order to control large-scale migrations from rural to urban areas, the
current state of rural infrastructure must be addressed.
• Increasing investment : The government should increase its investment on urban poor in their education,
skill building and health infrastructure.
• Employment opportunities : India should promote small and medium scale industries in urban areas, as
well as promoting other income-generating opportunities. The urban poor should be provided skill building
training and given opportunities for employment.

• Better urban planning & slum rehabilitation : More efforts are needed towards rehabilitating and
upgrading slums with access to clean water, electricity, better jobs (via skills training), and the right to live
in their homes.
POVERTY IN RURAL INDIA

• National Development Plan : As per the Eleventh National Development Plan of India more than 300 million
people in India are poor. With great efforts, India has managed to reduce the number of poor from 55% in
1973 to about 27% (326 million poor) in 2004.
• Recent estimates : According to the recent estimates (2011-12), 216.5 million people in rural areas are poor.
Still close to one third of the total population in India lives below the poverty line and the majority of poor
lives in villages and rural India.
• India's poorest state : That is Chhattisgarh where 40% of the population lives below the poverty line.
• Poorest population states : 61% of poor population of India live in seven states i.e. Chhattisgarh, Bihar,
Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh.
• Scheduled castes and tribes : They are the worst sufferers of rural poverty.
CAUSES OF RURAL POVERTY

• Agriculture factor : In India, agriculture is largely reliant on monsoon which is unpredictable and can also
get erratic. This often leads to insignificant yield or excess yield of a crop (which cannot be properly
consumed).
• Shortage of irrigation facilities : And recurring droughts add to the woes of farmers and they are hard
pressed for money throughout the year.
• Credit issue : Many take loans which they struggle to repay. Sometimes, the situation gets so bad that many
farmers end up committing suicide.
• The effects of abject rural poverty : They are such that many rural areas are devoid of even basic facilities
like sanitation, infrastructure, communication, and education.
• Unwillingness : To work, lack of education, alcohol and substance abuse, getting involved in anti-social
activities, all lead to poverty in different ways.
• Population growth : Another very crucial reason for widespread poverty is extreme population growth in
rural areas and among poor families. Big families find it difficult to sustain economically and have to live off
limited means.
WAY FORWARD:
• Accelerating rural poverty reduction : Rural India is not predominantly agricultural and shares many of
the economic conditions of smaller urban areas. Capitalizing on the growing connectivity between rural and
urban areas, and between the agriculture, industry and services sectors, has been effective in the past.
• Creating more and better jobs : Future efforts will need to address job creation in more productive sectors,
which has until now been lukewarm and has yielded few salaried jobs that offer stability and security.
• Focusing on women and Scheduled Tribes : Scheduled Tribes started with the highest poverty rates of all
of India’s social groups, and have progressed more slowly than the rest.
• Improving human development outcomes for the poor : Better health, sanitation and education will not
only help raise the productivity of millions, they will also empower the people to meet their aspirations, and
provide the country with new drivers of economic growth.
CAUSES OF POVERTY
• Inadequate access to clean water and nutritious food : Currently, more than 2 billion people don’t have
access to clean water at home, while over 800 million suffer from hunger.
• Little or no access to livelihoods or jobs : Without a job or a way to make money, people will face poverty.
• Conflict : Large scale, protracted violence that we see in places like Syria can grind society to a halt, destroy
infrastructure, and cause people to flee, forcing families to sell or leave behind all their assets leading them
towards poverty.
• Inequality : There are many different types of inequality in the world, from economic to social inequalities
like gender, caste systems, or tribal affiliations.

• Poor education : Most of the extremely poor don’t have an education. UNESCO estimates that 171 million
people could be lifted out of extreme poverty if they left
school with basic reading skills.
• Climate change : The World Bank estimates that climate
change has the power to push more than 100 million
people into poverty over the next ten years.
• Lack of infrastructure : A lack of infrastructure; from
roads, bridges, and wells to cables for light, cell phones,
and internet, can isolate communities living in rural
areas. Living “off the grid” means the inability to go to
school, work, or market to buy and sell goods.
• Lack of reserves : People living in poverty don’t have the
means to weather the storms of life. So when there is a drought, or conflict, or illness, there is little money
saved or assets on hand to help.
POVERTY AS A SOCIAL PROBLEM

• Family Problems : Families that are poor have more stress because of their poverty, and the ordinary
stresses of family life become even more intense in poor families.
• Health, Illness, and Medical Care : The poor are also more likely to have many kinds of health problems,
including infant mortality, earlier adulthood mortality, and mental illness, and they are also more likely to
receive inadequate medical care.
• Education : Lack of education to poor children in turn restricts them and their own children to poverty, once
again helping to ensure a vicious cycle of continuing poverty across generations.
• Housing and Homelessness : Many poor families spend more than half their income on rent, and they tend
to live in poor neighbourhoods that lack job opportunities, good schools, and other features of modern life
that wealthier people take for granted.
• Crime and Victimization : Poor (and near poor) people account for the bulk of our street crime (homicide,
robbery, burglary, etc.), and they also account for the bulk of victims of street crime.
CONSEQUENCES OF POVERTY
• Violence and crime rate : The occurrence of violence and crime is geographically coincident. Due to
unemployment and marginalization, poor people often indulge in wrong practices such as prostitution, theft,
and criminal activities such as chain snatching, etc.
• Homelessness : Poor people are usually homeless. They sleep on the roadsides at night. This makes the
entire scenario very unsafe for women and children.
• Stress : Due to lack of money, poor people suffer from a lot of stress which leads to a duction in the
productivity of individuals, thereby making poor people poorer.
• Child labor : Poverty forces poor people to send their children to work instead of sending them to schools.
This is because the families fail to bear the burden of their child/ children. Among the poor families, children
start earning at an average age of 5 years only.
• Terrorism : Youngsters from poor families are usually targeted and involved in terrorist activities. These
people are offered a huge amount of money instead of which they are assigned with a destructive task of
terrorism.
• Effect on economy : Poverty is directly proportional to the success of the economy. The number of people
living in poverty is reflective of how powerful the economy is.
• High IMR : High infant mortality rate due to inadequate money for medical facilities.
• Child Marriage : As minors are banned to marry, still it is practiced in many Indian regions. Young girls, who
are still children, become mothers too early and any die at birth.
• Malnutrition : India is on top when it comes to malnutrition; more than 200 million people lack to get
sufficient food, including 61 million children.
MULTIDIMENSIONAL POVERTY
• Definition : Poverty is often defined by one-dimensional measures – usually based on income. But no single
indicator can capture the multiple dimensions of poverty.

• Multidimensional poverty includes : It encompasses the various deprivations experienced by poor people
in their daily lives – such as poor health, lack of education, inadequate living standards, disempowerment,
poor quality of work, the threat of violence, and living in areas that are environmentally hazardous, among
others.
• A multidimensional measure of poverty can incorporate a range of indicators that capture the complexity
of this phenomena in order to inform policies aimed at reducing poverty and deprivation in a country.
GLOBAL MULTIDIMENSIONAL POVERTY INDEX 2020

• It is released by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and the Oxford Poverty & Human
Development Initiative (OPHI).
• MPI is based on the idea that poverty is not unidimensional rather it is multidimensional. The index
shows the proportion of poor people and the average number of deprivations each poor person experiences
at the same time.
• Sustainable Development Goals : The index emphasises on measuring and monitoring progress under the
goals to reach ‘zero poverty by 2030-Goal 1 of the SDGs’.
• MPI significance : It recognizes poverty from different dimensions compared to the conventional
methodology that measures poverty only from the income or monetary terms. MPI uses three dimensions
and ten indicators which are :
o Education : Years of schooling and child enrollment (1/6 weightage each, total 2/6);
o Health : Child mortality and nutrition (1/6 weightage each, total 2/6);
o Standard of living : Electricity, flooring, drinking water, sanitation, cooking fuel and assets (1/18
weightage each, total 2/6).
• Multidimensional poor : A person is multidimensionally poor if she/he is deprived in one third or more
(means 33% or more) of the weighted indicators (out of the ten indicators). Those who are deprived in one
half or more of the weighted indicators are considered living in extreme multidimensional poverty.
• MPI and SDG : Since the adoption of the 2030 Agenda, UNDP has closely aligned the MPI with the SDGs as
MPI is one of the preeminent tools to understand the many forms of poverty experienced by those left behind.
• Global Scenario:
o 1.3 billion people are still living in multidimensional poverty. More than 80% are deprived in at least
five of the ten indicators used to measure health, education and living standards in the global MPI.
o The burden of multidimensional poverty disproportionately falls on children - half of
multidimensionally poor people are children under age 18.
o About 84.3% of multidimensionally poor people live in Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia.
• Indian Scenario : India lifted as many as 270 million people out of multidimensional poverty between 2005-
06 and 2015-16.
• Neighbourhood Scenario : In China, 70 million people left multidimensional poverty between 2010 and
2014, while in Bangladesh, the numbers declined by 19 million between 2014 and 2019.
• Impact of Covid-19 : Covid-19 is having a profound impact on the development landscape. The study finds
that on average, poverty levels will be set back 3 to 10 years due to Covid-19.
COVID-19 AND POVERTY

• World Bank : Many people who had barely escaped extreme poverty could be forced back into it by the
convergence of COVID-19, conflict, and climate change
• Estimation : It is estimated that 88 million to 115 million people will be pushed into extreme poverty,
bringing the total to between 703 and 729 million
• Indian cities : They are worst impacted due to COVID-19 pandemic-induced disruptions.
• Urban poor : City dwellers particularly the poor informal sector workers or urban poor have taken the
maximum brunt of the pandemic.
• Covid protocols : Lockdowns, social distancing norms, shutting down of markets, factories and allied
activities have paralyzed the work opportunities for these sections of urban populations.
• Urban unemployment : Which was in stress sharpened further during the initial weeks of pandemic. It
paralysed the urban poor majority of which work in unorganized (informal) sectors of the economy with
irregular salaries, no written job contracts, often get their jobs through job contractors and subcontractors
with no social protection.

POVERTY AND WOMEN IN INDIA

• Oxfam report : The burden of poverty weighs down heavier on girls and women in India than it does on the
opposite sex. According to an Oxfam report, in the workplace, women still receive 34% less wages than
their male counterparts for the same work.
• Schooling of girl child :
o In India, girls belonging to families in the top 20% get nine years of education on average, while girls from
families in the bottom 20% get none at all.
o In addition, more than 23 million girls drop out of school annually because of a lack of toilets in school
and proper menstrual hygiene management facilities.
• Unpaid care work by women : Women in India spend around five hours a day on unpaid care work while
men devote a mere half an hour on average. This disproportionate burden of unpaid care work by women
means they lose out on opportunities to participate in paid labour or are forced to undertake paid labour
leading to their time poverty and loss in well-being.
FEMINIZATION OF POVERTY
• Definition : Poverty affects a greater number of women than men. Feminization of poverty is the
phenomenon in which the total of poor women outnumbers the total population of poor men.
• Women and access : Women are segregated, have very limited access to education (for political, religious
or social reasons) and are sometimes forbidden to work or restricted to tedious ones.
• Women and family : Being the cornerstone of the family, women can have a great impact not only on the
household income, but also on the education of children (including sanitation), and avoiding early child
deaths due to bad habits, sanitation or improper food or water.
• Cause : The feminization of poverty may be caused by changes in Family composition, Family organization,
Inequality in the access to public services or in social protection.
INEQUALITY
• The United Nations describes inequality as “the state of not being equal, especially in status, rights and
opportunities”.
• Inequality can be broadly classified in :
o Economic inequality : Economic inequality is the unequal distribution of income and opportunity
between individuals or different groups in society.
o Social inequality : It occurs when resources in a given society are distributed unevenly based on norms
of a society that creates specific patterns along lines of socially defined categories e.g. religion, kinship,
prestige, race, caste, ethnicity, gender etc. have different access to resources of power, prestige and
wealth depending on the norms of a society.
DIMENSIONS OF INEQUALITY IN INDIA

• Gender : The Global Gender Gap Report, 2018, ranks India at 142 among 149 countries. Women comprise
over 42 per cent of the agricultural labour force in the country, yet they own less than 2 percent of its farm
land according to the India Human Development Survey (IHDS).
• Caste : Caste is a significant factor for determining access to resources like education, income, health valued
by individuals. India’s upper caste households earned nearly 47% more than the national average annual
household income.
• Religion : Religious identities can cause prejudices which may lead to economic exclusion and other forms
of discrimination which can impact jobs and livelihood opportunities.
• Ethnicity : Tribal communities in India have been identified as ethnic groups on the basis of their unique
culture, language, dialect, geographical location, customs etc. The National Family Health Survey 2015-16
(NFHS-4) showed that 45.9% of ST population were in the lowest wealth bracket as compared to 26.6% of
SC population, 18.3% of OBCs, 9.7% of other castes.
ECONOMIC INEQUALITY :
• The 2019 report by Oxfam, titled "Public good or Private Wealth?" showed that India’s top 10% holds
77.4% of the total national wealth, while the top 1% holds 51.53% of the wealth.
• The bottom 60% population holds only 4.8% of the national wealth.

• The Gini coefficient of wealth in India in 2017 is at 0.83, which puts India among the countries with highest
inequality countries.
CONSEQUENCES OF INEQUALITIES :
• Social conflict : Inequalities tend to produce social conflict among the social groups e.g. caste groups like
Jaats, Maratha, Patels are demanding reservations but this demand is opposed by caste groups already
claiming the benefits of reservations.
• Ethnic movements : Inequalities among ethnic groups have led to various ethnic movements demanding
separate states or autonomous regions or even outright secession from India. North East has been rocked by
numerous such ethnic movements e.g. by Nagas for greater Nagalim etc.
• Religious inequality : It tends to generate feelings of exclusion among religious minority groups. This
reduces their participation in the mainstream.
• Poor development indicators : Like IMR, MMR, low per capita income, lower education and learning
outcomes at schools, high rate of population growth can be traced to existing socio-economic inequalities.
• High economic inequality : It is detrimental to public healthcare and education. Upper and Middle classes
do not have vested interest in well-functioning public healthcare and education as they have means to access
private healthcare and education.
MEASURES TO DEAL WITH INEQUALITIES

• Constitutional Provision : Articles 14, 15 and 16 form part of a scheme of the Constitutional Right to
Equality. Article 15 and 16 are incidents of guarantees of Equality, and give effect to Article 14.
• Women Empowerment : For gender equality policies like affirmative action by -
o Reserving seats in legislatures,
o Increasing reservation at local self-government both at urban and village level to 50% in all states,
o Strict implementation of the equal remuneration act,1976 to remove wage gap,
o Making education curriculum gender sensitive,
o Raising awareness about women right,
o Changing social norms through schemes like Beti Bachao Beti Padhao etc.
• Inclusion of Religious Minorities : Religious minority groups need special attention through representation
in government jobs, provision of institutional credit, improvement of their education access, protection of
their human rights by empowering National commission for Minority, strengthening rule of law etc.
• Progressive Taxes : Additional public resources for public services by progressive taxes on wealth more
and by increasing the effective taxation on corporations, more importantly broadening the tax base through
better monitoring of financial transactions.
• Economic Policies : By ensuring universal access to public funded high quality services like Public health
and education, social security benefits, employment guarantee schemes; inequality can be reduced to great
extent.
• Employment Generation : The Labor-intensive manufacturing has the potential to absorb millions of people
who are leaving farming while the service sector tends to benefit the urban middle class.
POVERTY ALLEVIATION SCHEMES

• Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP) : Aimed at providing assistance to the rural poor in
the form of subsidy and bank credit for productive employment opportunities through successive plan
periods.
• Jawahar Rozgar Yojana/Jawahar Gram Samridhi Yojana : The JRY was meant to generate meaningful
employment opportunities for the unemployed and underemployed in rural areas through the creation of
economic infrastructure and community and social assets.
• Rural Housing – Indira Awaas Yojana : The Indira Awaas Yojana programme aims at providing free housing
to BPL families in rural areas and main targets would be the households of SC/STs.
• Food for Work Programme : It aims at enhancing food security through wage employment.
• National Old Age Pension Scheme (NOAPS) : This pension is given by the central government.
• Annapurna Scheme : to provide food to senior citizens who cannot take care of themselves and are not
under the National Old Age Pension Scheme (NOAPS), and who have no one to take care of them in their
village.

• Sampoorna Gramin Rozgar Yojana (SGRY) : objective of the scheme continues to be the generation of wage
employment, creation of durable economic infrastructure in rural areas and provision of food and nutrition
security for the poor.
• MGNREGA (2005) : The Act provides 100 days assured employment every year to every rural household.
One-third of the proposed jobs would be reserved for women.
• National Rural Livelihood Mission - Aajeevika (2011) : It evolves out the need to diversify the needs of
the rural poor and provide them jobs with regular income on a monthly basis. SHGs are formed at the village
level to help the needy.
• National Urban Livelihood Mission : The NULM focuses on organizing urban poor in SHGs, creating
opportunities for skill development leading to market-based employment and helping them to set up self-
employment ventures by ensuring easy access to credit.
• Pradhan Mantri Kaushal Vikas Yojana : It will focus on fresh entrants to the labour market, especially
labour market and class X and XII dropouts.
• Pradhan Mantri Jan Dhan Yojana : It aimed at direct benefit transfer of subsidy, pension, insurance etc. and
attained the target of opening 1.5 crore bank accounts. The scheme particularly targets the unbanked poor.
CONCLUSION
• Despite rapid growth and development, an unacceptably high proportion of our population continues to
suffer from severe and multidimensional deprivation. Thus, a more comprehensive and inclusive approach
is required to eradicate poverty in India.

5.URBANISATION: PROBLEMS AND REMEDIES

TABLE OF CONTENT
• Urbanization: Definition • Administrative Reforms Commission (ARC): 6th
• Data Of Urbanisation In India: Census 2011 report on urbanisation
• Characteristics Of Indian Urbanization • urbanisation: NITI Aayog
• perspectives in Process Of Urbanization • Government Initiative on Urbanisation
• Contributions Of The British To The Indian • Remedies to urban problems
Urban developments • Way forward
• Urbanisation: Trends in India o Governance
• Factors Driving Urbanisation in india o Funding and finance
• Problems of Urban Areas In India o Capacity Building
• Social effects of urbanization ON Indian society o Urban poverty, housing and slum
• Impact Of Urbanisation On The Rural Areas rehabilitation
• Slums in urban centres o Urban Transport
• Urbanization and twelfth five-year plan o Water supply and sanitation
• Conclusion
1. Account for the huge flooding of million cities in India including the smart ones like Hyderabad 2020
and Pune. Suggest lasting remedial measures.
2. How is efficient and affordable urban mass transport key to the rapid economic development of 2019
India?
3. “The ideal solution to depleting ground water resources in India is a water harvesting system.” 2018
How can it be made effective in urban areas?
4. The growth of cities as I.T. hubs have opened up new avenues of employment but have also 2017
created new problems. Substantiate this statement with examples.
5. With a brief background of quality of urban life in India, introduce the objectives and strategy of 2016
the ‘Smart City Programme’.
6. Major cities of India are becoming more vulnerable to flood conditions. Discuss. 2016
7. Mumbai, Delhi and Kolkata are the three megacities of the country but the air pollution is a much 2015
more serious problem in Delhi as compared to the other two. Why is this so?
8. Smart cities in India cannot sustain without smart villages. Discuss this statement in the backdrop 2015
of rural urban integration.
9. Discussion of the various social problems which originated out of the speedy process of 2013
urbanization in India.
URBANIZATION: DEFINITION
• Process of Becoming Urban: It is the process of becoming urban, moving to cities,
changing from agriculture to other pursuits common to cities, such as trade,
manufacturing, industry and management, and corresponding changes of behaviour
patterns.
• Process of expansion: It is the process of expansion in the entire system of
interrelationships by which the population maintains itself in the habitat.
• A Population shift: Urbanization refers to the population shift from rural to urban
residency, the gradual increase in the proportion of people living in urban areas.
DATA OF URBANISATION IN INDIA: CENSUS 2011

• Total Urban Population: 37.7 crores
• Rural areas: 83.3 crore
• Level of Urbanization/ Percentage of Urban Population: 31.1%
• Rate of growth of urban population: 2.76% per annum during 2001-2011.
• Most Urbanized state: Goa (62%), Mizoram, Tamil Nadu. Delhi (97.5%) most urbanized among the UTs
• Least Urbanized state: Himachal Pradesh (10%) followed by Bihar, Assam and Odisha.
Ease of Living Index (EoLI) 2020

• The Housing and Urban Affairs Ministry has released the final rankings of EoLI 2020. The EoLI is an
assessment tool that evaluates the quality of life and the impact of various initiatives for urban
development. It provides a comprehensive understanding of participating cities across India based on
quality of life, economic-ability of a city, and its sustainability and resilience.
• Million+ category: Bengaluru emerged as the top performer followed by Pune, Ahmedabad, Chennai,
Surat, Navi Mumbai, Coimbatore, Vadodara, Indore, and Greater Mumbai.
• In the Less than Million category: Shimla was ranked the highest in ease of living, followed by
Bhubaneshwar, Silvassa, Kakinada, Salem, Vellore, Gandhinagar, Gurugram, Davangere, and
Tiruchirappalli.
CHARACTERISTICS OF INDIAN URBANIZATION

• Tertiary sector lead growth: Indian towns are growing more on the basis of tertiary rather than the
secondary sector.
• Main sector for growth: The growth in the communication sector, transport, services and construction were
the main factors for the growth of Indian cities.
• Contradicting growth: It has been found in the developed countries that it is the manufacturing sector which
led to the growth of cities and further urbanisation in Nation.
• Southern India: They are more urbanized than that of Northern and Eastern India. This is because of the
historical, socio-cultural and educational resource factors widely available.
• Globalisation impact: With the introduction of globalization in India, the development of South India was
very high due to high FDI and establishment of various kinds of industries in these states.
PERSPECTIVES IN PROCESS OF URBANIZATION

• A socio-cultural phenomenon: It is a “melting pot” of people with diverse ethnic, linguistic, and religious
backgrounds. E.g. Kolkata city development.
• An economic process: The city is a focal point of productive activities. It exists and grows on the strength of
the economic activities existing within itself. E.g. Mumbai
• A geographical process: It deals with migration or change of location of residence of people and involves
the movement of people from one place to another.
CONTRIBUTIONS OF THE BRITISH TO THE INDIAN URBAN DEVELOPMENTS

• Starting of Urban Administration: In 1687- 88, The East India Company started the first municipal
corporation in India was set up at Madras. In 1726, Municipal Corporation of Bombay and Calcutta was also
set up in.
• Panchayat and Municipalities: In 1882, a resolution was passed and according to which, a panchayat was
to be formed at the village level, district boards, taluka boards, and municipalities also came into existence.
• Local self-government: Lord Ripon's resolution of 1882 provided for the introduction of principles of local
self-government in the municipalities. The resolution is regarded as the Magna Carta of Local self-
government in India. Lord Ripon is known as Father of Local Self Government in India.
• Metropolitan port cities: The formation of three metropolitan port cities of Mumbai (Bombay), Kolkata
(Calcutta), and Chennai (Madras).
• Hill stations: Creation of a chain of hill stations such as Darjeeling, Shimla, Mussoorie, Lansdowne etc. in the
Himalayan region and In South India.
• Civil lines and cantonments: The modification of the urban landscape of the existing cities with the
introduction of civil lines and cantonments.
• Modern education: The Initiation of modern education by establishing some colleges and universities in
major urban centers.
URBANISATION: TRENDS IN INDIA

• Urban Migration: 20% of the total migration is from one urban area to another urban area. As such, urban
migration, rural to urban as well as urban to urban accounts for 40% of the total migration which is one of
the causes of Urbanisation In India.
• Transport and logistics sector: The Government of India has a key focus on the development of The
transport and logistics sector which underlines the importance of interconnecting the different modes of
transportation: road, rail, sea and air.
• Special Economic Zones: Increasing number of Special Economic Zones in the country dotting the landscape
of India.
• Expanding cities: They are now expanding at a good pace due to the support of private companies in various
parts of the country. Developers are building housing projects which will exponentially grow in the years to
come.
• Infrastructure Projects: Projects like The Delhi-Mumbai Corridor is an infrastructure program set to
support the development of various ‘Smart Cities’ and Industry altogether.
• Industrial townships: State and industry are planning to build more houses and employees close to the
factories and manufacturing plants at which they work for less travel time and more productivity.
• Airspace utilisation: India’s expected economic growth opens up expansion prospects for Indian
airports. Domestic and international passengers are inevitably predicted to double in number in the years to
come; in the interim it will help to grow the tertiary sector.
FACTORS DRIVING URBANISATION IN INDIA

• Better facilities: People get better facilities in an urban area like education, sanitation, housing, health care,
recreation, and living standards to lead a good social life in general.
• Social benefits and services: More and more people are prompted to migrate into cities and towns to obtain
a wide variety of social benefits and services which are not presently available in rural areas.
• Urbanization and economic growth: There is a strong relationship between urbanization and economic
growth.
• Erratic nature of Indian Monsoon: Indian agriculture is dependent on the monsoon. Therefore in drought
situations or natural calamities, rural people have to migrate to cities.
• Population movement: The depressed economic conditions of the area, availability of opportunities,
availability of land holdings are the most vital determinants for the population movement.
• Poor implementation of rural development scheme: Most schemes for improving rural conditions are
justified on the grounds that they will reduce migration to cities. Yet, economic growth is strongly linked to
urbanization.
• Lifestyle: Modernization and drastic change in today’s lifestyle of people plays a very important role in the
process of urbanization.
• Availability of Amenities: Nowadays, urban areas are becoming more technology savvy with highly
sophisticated communication, infrastructure, medical facilities, dressing code, enlightenment, liberalization,
and social amenities availability.
• Increasing prosperity: Many localities have become more fruitful and prosperous due to the discovery of
minerals, resource exploitation, or certain agricultural activities; hence cities start emerging. It is a well-
known fact that the increase in productivity leads to economic growth and higher value-added employment
opportunities.
• Growth of towns and cities: The distribution of goods and services and commercial transactions in the
modern era has developed modern marketing institutions and exchange methods that have given rise to the
growth of towns and cities.
PROBLEMS OF URBAN AREAS IN INDIA

• Traffic Problem: Absence of planned management of traffic and transport is a major problem in urban
centres in India. Due to the constant traffic on the road which in turn increases the air pollution and sound
pollution in urban areas.
• Rising cost of House and Land: Overpopulation puts pressure on limited urban land areas and severe in
those urban areas where there is large invasion of jobless or underemployed immigrants.
• Water supply: Intermittent supply creates a situation where people start to store more water which creates
artificial need and throw out water on the day of water supply.

• Creation of large Slums area: Due to the acute shortage of housing in urban areas the less costly urban area
made by substandard quality.
• Overcrowding: In a very congested housing area there are five to
six people living in one room which encourages diseases and
creates conditions for mental illness, alcoholism.
• Drainage systems: Due to the bad financial situation of
Municipalities and densification of population there is a prevalent
problem of bad sewage drainage in Indian cities.
• Bad Sanitation situation: Removing garbage, cleaning drains and
unclogging sewers are the main jobs of municipalities and
municipal corporations in Indian cities which they often fail to
perform.
• Unplanned urbanization: Rapid urbanization of Indian urban
spaces leads to the development of cities without any futuristic urban planning and eventually that becomes
unsuitable for living for most of the people.
• Decreased Group Solidarity: Unplanned urbanization has led to the rise of slums which are socially isolated
from the society and which resulted in the increased incidences of pathological behaviour in individuals.
• Solid waste Management Issues: Due to the Increase in urbanization waste generation, and its unscientific
waste handling are becoming the major cause of health hazards and urban environment degradation..
• Poor road Design: Roads in major cities in India are notorious for being pedestrian-unfriendly, poorly
surfaced, congested, and constantly dug up.
• Problem of Pollution: Our towns and cities have become one of the major sources of pollution. Cities
discharge their 40 to 60 percent of their entire sewage and industrial effluents untreated into the nearby
rivers systems.
• Increasing Rural urban divide: As population started heavily toward the urban areas the government focus
has also shifted from rural to urban areas. Consequently, rural areas started to witness social changes in land
relations, absence of leadership, increasing old age population and absence of social security for them.
• Increase in Urban crime: Urbanization in India is fast and unplanned which leads to imbalance in resource
availability that manifests itself in dearth of space, shelter, food and basic amenities for the rising population.
SOCIAL EFFECTS OF URBANIZATION ON INDIAN SOCIETY
• Family structure: It is changing from the joint family form to the nuclear family form &
small joint family system. ‘Egalitarian family’ system is replacing the traditional ‘Husband-
Family dominated’ family type as the wife is being involved in the decision-making process.
• Attachment to Family: According to I.P. Desai, in spite of strains between the younger and
older generations, the attachment of the children to their families is never weakened.
• Kinship relations: They are weakening and the bonds of community are getting disrupted
all over the urbanized area.
• Internal fusion in society: Fusion of sub-castes and castes is happening in urban areas
because of inter-sub-caste and inter-caste marriages, democratic politics, jobs etc.
Society • Caste panchayats: They are weakening all over India due to the perceived less authority
of Caste panchayats.
• Caste identity: Caste identity tends to diminish with urbanization, education and the
development of an orientation towards individual achievement and modern status
symbols. Rules of commensality, untouchability almost non-existent in urban areas.
• Women’s status: Social and economic status of women has increased
as they started doing blue as well as white collar jobs. Thereby women
in urban areas enjoy independence and greater freedom comparatively.
Women • Education of girls: It is greater in urban areas, but urban women are
and Girls having more vulnerabilities like safety at workplace etc.
• Women Participation in workforce: Many positive developments
took place in the socio-economic lives of women as a result of increasing
urbanization, women have taken to white-collar jobs and entered different professions.

• Decision making: Because of living in a comparatively educated and liberal environment,

urban women enjoy greater freedom of choice in decision making than that of rural
women.
• Workload: The personally and socially enlightened woman is forced to perform dual roles
- social and professional which has led to sustenance in workload of women.
• New opportunities and old securities: Urbanization have not brought about any radical
change in the traditional pattern of arranged marriage with dowry.
IMPACT OF URBANISATION ON THE RURAL AREAS

• Rapid social change: In India, urbanisation along with westernisation and modernisation has furthered the
process of rapid social change both in the rural and in the urban areas.
• Rural to urban migration: One of the important results of urbanisation is the rural to urban migration.
Migration has become a continuous process affecting the social, economic and cultural lives of the villagers
widely.
• Symbol social prestige: Rao (1974) distinguishes three different situations of urban impact in the rural
areas. In the villages from where large numbers of people migrate to the far off cities, urban employment
becomes a symbol of higher social prestige.
• Immigrant workers influx problem: Villages, which are located near the towns, receive influx of immigrant
workers and face the problems of housing, marketing and social ordering.
• Greater accessibility to some pockets: In the process of the growth of metropolitan cities some villages
become the rural-pockets in the city areas. That villagers directly participate in the economic, political, social
and cultural life of the city.
• Diffusion of cultural traits, innovation and ideas: New thoughts, ideologies are diffused from the cities to
the rural areas due to increase in communication via radio, television, newspaper, computer, the Internet
and telephone.
• Non- isolated phenomenon: The urbanism, which emerges in the cities gradually, reaches to the rural areas,
depending on their proximity to the cities. The process of urbanisation has not been an isolated
phenomenon.
• Increased continuity: At present, along with the whole gamut of occupational diversification, spread of
literacy, education, mass communication etc., continuity between rural and urban areas has increased.
• Spillovers effect: Many modern techniques of agricultural development and many of the institutional
frameworks for rural development also generate from the urban centres. The large-scale commercialisation
of agriculture has also been facilitated by the process of urbanisation.
SLUMS IN URBAN CENTRES

• Development of slums: The current process of urbanisation has faced many problems in different parts of
India. The most important of these has been the development of slums, in the urban areas.
• Substantial share of slum population: Slum population accounts for a substantial share of urban
population in all types of cities in India. The percentages of the slum population in Kolkata, Mumbai and
Chennai are 32, 25 and 24 respectively.
• Problems in slum areas: Slums have been the breeding ground of diseases, environmental pollution,
demoralisation, and many social tensions. Crimes, like juvenile delinquency, gambling, have also increased
in number in slum areas.
• Lack of housing: This problem has been acute in cities with over a million population. Related to housing
there have been problems with the planned use of urban land.
• The National Council on Urbanisation: It has also recommended that at least 15 percent of all new
developments should be earmarked for the use of the economically weaker sections of the urban population.
• Problem of Traffic and transportation: Absence of planned and adequate arrangements for traffic and
transport is another important problem in the majority of urban centres in India.
• Access to facilities: The extent of facilities medical, sanitation, drinking water, power-supply have remained
insufficient in a majority of the urban centres in India.
• Over-urbanisation in India: After examining the extent of availability of facilities like housing, transport
and traffic, medical, sanitation, electricity etc. in the urban areas, and the growth of urban population, one
may say that there has been a tendency of over urbanisation in India.

• Growth of sub-urbanisation: The development of modern modes of transport, and increasing demands on
housing have led to the growth of suburbanisation.
• Urban Development Policy of India: It has been formulated to ensure that the urban centres play a positive
role in national and regional development, to promote the rural-urban continuum and to replace the regional
disparities.
URBANIZATION AND TWELFTH FIVE-YEAR PLAN

The 12th five year plan document has called cities as “engines of economic growth” and have also noted
that urbanization is yet to accelerate as surging growth and employment in cities will prove to be a powerful
magnet to attract people to urban areas.
NOTABLE MEASURES SUGGESTED IN THE 12TH PLAN DOCUMENTS:

• Local capacity building: An overhaul in the capabilities and expertise of urban local bodies is needed, which
will be critical to devolution and improvement of service delivery.
• Affordable housing: It is a particularly critical concern for low-income groups in urban areas. This problem
can be solved through a set of policies and incentives that will bridge the gap between price and
affordability.
• Inclusive Cities: The poor and lower income groups of population shall be brought into the mainstream in
cities which will discourage creation of slums in the cities.
• Urban Planning reforms: India needs to make urban planning a central, respected function, investing in
skilled people, rigorous fact base and innovative urban form.
• Devolution of power to urban governing bodies: To enact the 74th Amendment in spirit, it is necessary
for true devolution of power and responsibilities from the states to the local and metropolitan bodies.
• Urban Financing: Financial devolution has to be supported by more reforms in urban financing that will
reduce cities’ dependence on the Centre and the states for developmental funds and unleash internal revenue
sources. India spends only $17 per capita per year on urban infrastructure, whereas the requirement is $100.
ADMINISTRATIVE REFORMS COMMISSION (ARC): 6TH REPORT ON URBANISATION

• Adequate infrastructure: In all towns, advance action for laying down adequate infrastructure should be
taken to avoid insufficiency of services.
• Enhancing Participation: Community participation and co-production of services should be encouraged by
municipal bodies. This should be supplemented by awareness generation.
• Water supply and distribution: Urban local bodies should be given responsibility for water supply and
distribution in their territorial jurisdiction whether based on their own source or collaborative arrangements
with other service providers.
• Sanitation: It is a matter of hygiene and public health, it must be given priority and emphasis in all urban
areas.
• Collection and disposal of garbage: In all towns and cities with a population above one lakh, the possibility
of taking up PPP projects for collection and disposal of garbage may be explored.
• Electricity distribution: Municipal bodies should be encouraged to take responsibility for power
distribution in their area.
• Transport solutions: Urban Transport Authorities, to be called Unified Metropolitan Transport Authorities
in the Metropolitan Corporations. They should be set up in cities with a population over one million within
one year, for coordinated planning and implementation of urban transport solutions with an overriding
priority to public transport.
URBANISATION: NITI AAYOG

• National metro rail policy: There is a need for a national metro rail policy that will ensure that metro
projects are not considered in isolation, but as part of a comprehensive plan of overall public transportation.
• Manpower training: Indian cities also need to overhaul their municipal staffing and introduce appropriate
skills to achieve administrative efficiency.
• Waste to Energy authority: To speed up the process of cleaning up municipal solid waste, NITI Aayog
suggests the creation of an authority may be called Waste to Energy Corporation of India (WECI) and placed
under the Ministry of Urban Development.

• Financial power: Well-run ULBs should have the power to raise financial resources including through
municipal bonds.
• Financial management: Introduction of Standardised, time-bound, audited balance sheets across ULBs
would help improve financial management as well as spur further reforms in this area.
• Traffic Management: Strict enforcement of traffic rules through fines in case of violations can induce
behavioral change and could greatly reduce both the travel time and pollution.
• Vehicle-sharing system: Incentives may be created to encourage vehicle-sharing systems such as Ola and
Uber.
GOVERNMENT INITIATIVE ON URBANISATION

• HRIDAY Mission, 2015: It was aimed at -
o Planning, development and implementation of heritage sensitive infrastructure.
o Service delivery and infrastructure provisioning in historic city core areas.
o Preserve and revitalize heritage wherein tourists can connect directly with the city's unique character.
o Develop and document a heritage asset inventory of cities – natural, cultural, living and built heritage as
a basis for urban planning, growth and service provision & delivery.
• RURBAN Mission, 2016: This mission was targeted at-
o Bridging the rural-urban divide-viz of economic, technological and those related to facilities and services.
o Stimulating local economic development with emphasis on reduction of poverty and unemployment in
rural areas.
o Attracting investment in rural areas.
• PM Awas Yojana, 2015: This yojana was intended to provide housing for all in urban areas by year 2022.
• AMRUT Mission, 2015: The purpose of mission is to-
o To ensure that every household has access to a tap with the assured supply of water and a sewerage
connection.
o To Increase the amenity value of cities by developing greenery and well-maintained open spaces (e.g.
parks).
o To Reduce pollution by switching to public transport or constructing facilities for non-motorized
transport (e.g. walking and cycling).
• National Urban Transport Policy, 2016: The objective of this policy is to ensure safe, affordable, quick,
comfortable, reliable and sustainable access for the growing number of city residents to jobs, education,
recreation and such other needs within our cities.
• National Mission on Sustainable Habitat, 2010: It was aimed at to promote:
o Improvements in energy efficiency in buildings through extension of the Energy Conservation Building
Code (ECBC).
o Better urban planning and modal shift to public transport
o Improved management of solid and liquid waste, e.g. recycling of material and urban waste management.
• National Urban Housing Fund, 2018: The Union Cabinet has approved the creation of Rs 60,000-crore
National Urban Housing Fund to finance the government’s Housing for All programme, which aims to build
12 million affordable housing units in urban areas by 2022.
• Deen Dayal Antyodaya Yojana (DAY), NULM 2011: This scheme is aimed at addressing the livelihood
concerns of the urban poor.
• Industrial Corridors projects: The Government of India is developing various major industrial corridors in
various states as part of developing greenfield industrial cities in India.
• India’s first monorail, 2014: It will be open to the public after eight years since it was first proposed by the
state of Maharashtra. With this, India will join countries like the U.S., Germany, China, Japan, Australia and
Malaysia that run monorails.
REMEDIES TO URBAN PROBLEMS

• Power Utilities: Municipal bodies should be encouraged to take responsibility for power distribution in their
areas. Municipal building bye-laws should incorporate power conservation measures.
• Increase job opportunities: More concentration is needed on the rural areas to provide more job
opportunities for rural people through IRDP, NREP, JRY, and such other programs to hold back people in
rural areas.

• Efficient and Integral City Planning: Lack of proper planning is one of the major causes of urban problems.
Hence, the city administration has to take sufficient care in doing comprehensive planning for the
improvement of the city.
• Urban governance: Better urban planning based on models like Transit-Oriented Development (TOD),
integrated and accountable transport authority, empowered local bodies, scientific waste management, etc.
can help bring down footprints of urban area challenges.
• Limited Environment Pollution: Environmental pollution is becoming a major problem in megacities. The
scientific arrangement is to be made to dispose of solid waste, including the garbage.
• Better Transportation Facility: For urban public transport, a special purpose vehicle (SPV) with
participation of public agencies should be set up.
• Increasing green cover: To Increase it especially in urban areas and it must be an indispensable part of
urban planning. Other initiatives such as afforestation, the greening of highways, etc. must also pick up.
• Amendment of Rent Control Acts: Laws that inhibit the construction of new houses or giving of houses on
rent must be amended. Like Affordable Housing for All Mission the Mission covers the entire canvas of
affordable housing, from the slum dweller living in the most inhumane conditions.
• Public Health Delivery system: Urban populations, largely the poor, are “ghettoized” and “spaced out”
because of the inadequacy in urban public health delivery systems to reach them on account of location, their
place of work such as construction sites is necessary.
Mohalla clinics (Primary Health Centre): An initiative of Delhi State Government is an aspirational model
that provides a basic package of essential health services including medicines, diagnostics, and consultation
free of cost which need to be implemented in other areas.
• Manual scavenging: Extensive surveys should be carried out by the State Governments to identify manual
scavengers and estimate the number of dry latrines in existence within six months.
• Sewerage Management: Sanitation, as a matter of hygiene and public health, must be given due priority and
emphasis in all urban areas. Each municipal body should prepare a time bound programme for providing
sewerage facilities in slum areas.
• Financial empowerment: Local bodies may impose a cess on the property tax or development charges in
order to raise resources for expansion and capacity enhancement of the existing sewerage systems.
• Incentive grants: In order to motivate the local governments to generate additional resources for sewerage
management, matching grants may be provided by the Union and State Governments.
• Societal involvement: Community participation and co-production of services should be encouraged by
municipal bodies. This should be supplemented by awareness generation.
WAY FORWARD
• Set up a municipal services regulator: An independent utility regulator should be set up at the state level
to advise, regulate, monitor and adjudicate on desired levels and pricing of service delivery, equitable access
to all urban citizens.
• Introduce Citizen Charters: Every municipality in the metropolitan area should produce a citizen’s
charter. It should contain comprehensive information on service levels for all urban services, time limits for
approvals relating to regulatory services such as licenses and permits and the relief available to the citizens
in case of non-adherence.
• Use of Information technology: It should also be used for time efficient provisioning of urban services.
• Clarify roles of ULBs and parastatals: It is necessary to create a sustainable and acceptable platform for
ULBs and parastatals to work together. An example of this could be a service level agreement (SLA) led
contractual arrangement between the two.
• Establish State Planning Boards (SPBs): All states must constitute and strengthen State Planning Boards
and mandate them with the preparation of state-wide strategic Spatial Development Plans (SDPs).
• Substantially increase investment in the urban sector: Historically, India has under-invested in urban
areas leading to a poor quality of life for urban citizens. To address this, India needs to significantly step-up
its investments.

• Introduce a Local Bodies Finance List in the Constitution: A Constitutional Amendment to create a ‘Local
Bodies Finance List’ should be made. It should clearly outline the revenue streams for ULBs including tax &
non-tax revenues.
• Encourage pricing of FSI: It is recommended that beyond minimum FSI given as development rights,
additional FSI should be selectively provided and charged for.
• Create a Municipal Cadre: A Municipal Cadre, covering the key areas of modern day urban governance and
capable of meeting the ever increasing complexities in city management should be created.
• Addressing supply side gaps: In capacity building Supply side constraints posed a major hurdle to capacity
creation under plan. For addressing supply side constraints, preference should be accorded to re-orienting
and augmenting such capacities in the existing institutions, both at the national and the state level.
• Facilitate the creation of social/rental housing: The focus on provision of rental/social housing stock for
the migrant population is a critical element in making our cities more inclusive.
• Establish/strengthen a Unified Metropolitan Transport Authority (UMTA): An UMTA’s should be set up
to focus on creating metropolitan level transportation plans which should be integrated with spatial and land
use plans created by MPC/DPC.
• Comprehensive Urban Transport (UT) Act for legislative support: A law should be put in place to provide
the necessary framework for setting–up UMTAs including clear articulation of its responsibilities,
management of safety issues etc.
• Universalisation of access to water and sanitation to urban areas: This involves the universal coverage
of all urban populations for the minimum levels of safe drinking and household-use water along with a clean
toilet, sewerage, storm water drainage and solid waste management.
• 100% metering of water supply: Metering is essential for recovery of reasonable user charges and
conservation. It acts as an incentive for those who wish to conserve water and a disincentive to those who
waste water.
• Ensure 24x7 water supply: Yet another priority is to move towards continuous water supply. Intermittent
supply leads to sucking of external pollution into the system during non-supply hours due to inadequate
pressure, causing health hazards.
• Include groundwater in water supply calculations: While preservation and recharging of groundwater
are increasingly receiving attention of city planners, there is a tendency to exclude this source from urban
water planning which needs to include groundwater in water supply calculations.
CONCLUSION
• Opportunities for entrepreneurship and employment increase when urban concentration takes place, in
contrast to the dispersed and less diverse economic possibilities in rural areas. Thus urbanization, if properly
managed, enables faster inclusion of more people in the growth process. However, to fully harness this
potential of our cities to create wealth for urban poor, it is necessary that a multi-pronged strategy is adopted
which may include skill development, creation of a facilitative environment for self-employment, provision
of institutional credit to urban poor.

6.EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION ON INDIAN SOCIETY

TABLE OF CONTENT
• Introduction o Negative impact of globalization on tribals
• History of globalization o Conclusion
• Factors that are aiding globalization • Effects of globalization On Elderly
• Factors contributing to globalization o Positive Impacts of globalization on elderly
• Challenges due to globalization population
• Conclusion o Negative Impacts of globalization on elderly
• Effects of globalization On Economy population
o Positive effects of globalization on economy o Conclusion
o Negative effects of globalization on economy • Effects of globalization On LGBTQ+
o Conclusion communities
• Effects of globalization On Agriculture o Positive impacts of globalization on LGBTQ+
o Positive effects of globalization on community
agriculture o Negative impact of globalization on LGBTQ+
o Negative effects of globalization on community
agriculture o Way Forward
o Way forward and conclusion o Conclusion
• Effects of globalization On family and • Effects of globalization on differently-abled
marriage community
o Positive aspects of globalization on family o Effects of globalization on disabled
and marriages o United Nation’s commitments for disabled
o Negative aspects of globalization on family people in the World
and marriages o Conclusion
o Conclusion • Government initiatives for Globalization
• Effects of globalization On culture and • Globalization 4.0
tradition o Features of Globalization 4.0
o Globalization and its impact on Indian o Challenges of Globalization 4.0
Culture and tradition o Way Forward
o Revival of Culture o Previous Waves of Globalization
o Homogenization of culture o Conclusion
o Glocalization of culture = Globalization + • Corporate Culture
Localization o Features of a good work culture
o Conclusion o Importance of work culture
• Effects of globalization On Women o Creating good work culture
o Positive impact of globalization on women o Conclusion
o Negative impact of globalization on women • De-globalization
o Conclusion o Indicators of deglobalization
• Effects of globalization On Youth o Reasons for this new trend
o Positive impact of globalization on youth o Principles of De-globalization by Walden
o Negative impact of globalization on youth Bello
o Conclusion o Impact of de-globalisation on India
• Effects of globalization On Tribals o Conclusion
o Positive impact of globalization on tribals
1. Is diversity and pluralism in India under threat due to globalisation? Justify your answer. 2020
2. Customs and traditions suppress reason leading to obscurantism. Do you agree? 2020
3. Are we losing our local identity for the global identity? Discuss. 2019
4. ‘Globalization is generally said to promote cultural homogenization but due to this cultural 2018
specificity appear to be strengthened in the Indian Society. Elucidate.
5. To what extent globalization has influenced the core of cultural diversity in India? Explain. 2016
6. Discuss the positive and negative effects of globalization on women in India. (In 2013, UPSC asked 2015
about Globalization effect on Elderly).
7. Critically examine the effects of globalization on the aged population in India. 2013
INTRODUCTION
Roland Robertson on globalization : " The compression of the world and the intensification of the
consciousness of the world as a whole." (It has been credited as the first ever definition of globalization
according to Wikipedia).
• According to former U.S President Bill Clinton ‘No generation has had the opportunity, as we now have,
to build a global economy that leaves no-one behind. It is a wonderful opportunity, but also a
profound responsibility.’
• Globalization also refers to integration of a nation's economy with the world economy and free flow of capital,
knowledge, humans, industries etc. Modern globalization originated with the end of the Cold War and
disintegration of the Soviet Union in 1991. The driving factors of globalization are democracy and
capitalism.
• Meaning of globalization : According to MEA, `globalisation' means integration of economies and societies
through cross country flows of information, ideas, technologies, goods, services, capital, finance and people.
HISTORY OF GLOBALIZATION
• According to the Ministry of External Affairs (MEA), Globalisation has been a historical process with ebbs
and flows. During the Pre-World War I period of 1870 to 1914, there was rapid integration of the economies
in terms of trade flows, movement of capital and migration of people.
• The inter-war period witnessed the erection of various barriers to restrict free movement of goods and
services.
• Although after 1945 there was a drive to increased integration, studies point out that trade and capital
markets are no more globalised today than they were at the end of the 19th Century.
FACTORS THAT ARE AIDING GLOBALIZATION

• Liberalization, Privatization, and Globalization Reforms in
1991: The 1991 reforms in India have led to greater economic
liberalisation which has in turn increased India’s interaction
with the rest of the world.
• Integration of technology : The integration of technology in
India has transformed jobs which required specialized skills and
lacked decision-making skills to extensively-defined jobs with
higher accountability that require new skills, such as numerical,
analytical, communication and interactive skills.
• Fast movement of people : Improved transport, making global travel easier. For example, there has been a
rapid growth in air-travel, enabling greater movement of people and goods across the globe.
• Growth of World Trade Organization : The formation of WTO in 1994 led to reduction in tariffs and non-
tariff barriers across the world. It also led to the increase in the free trade agreements among various
countries.
• Improved mobility of capital : In the past few decades there has been a general reduction in capital barriers,
making it easier for capital to flow between different economies. This has increased the ability for firms to
receive finance. It has also increased the global interconnectedness of global financial markets.
• Increase of Multinational Companies : Multinational corporations operating in different geographies have
led to a diffusion of best practices. MNCs source resources from around the globe and sell their products in
global markets leading to greater local interaction.
• Growth of global trading blocs : They have reduced national barriers. (example : European Union, NAFTA,
ASEAN, etc.)
• Reduced tariff barriers : Which encourage global trade and often this has occurred through the support of
the WTO.
• Growth of global media : The mass media are seen today as playing a key role in enhancing globalization,
facilitating culture exchange and multiple flows of information and image between countries through
international news broadcasts, television programming, new technologies, film and music.
• Global trade cycle : Economic growth is global in nature. This means countries are increasingly
interconnected. Example : When US banks suffered losses due to the subprime mortgage crisis, it affected all
major banks in other countries who had bought financial derivatives from US banks and mortgage companies.
• Increased mobility of labour : People are more willing to move between different countries in search of
work. Global trade remittances now play a large role in transfers from developed countries to developing
countries.
• Internet : This enables firms to communicate on a global level, this may overcome managerial diseconomies
of scale. The firm may be able to get cheaper supplies by dealing with a wider choice of firms. Consumers are
also able to order more goods online. Example : Dell Computers takes orders online and can meet customer
specifications.
FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO GLOBALIZATION

• Historical factors contributed to globalization : The trade routes were made over the years so that goods
from one kingdom or country moved to another. The well-known silk-route from east to west is an example
of historical factor.
• Economic factors : The cost of goods and values to the end user determine the movement of goods and value
addition. The overall economics of a particular industry or trade is an important factor in globalisation.
• Resources and market factors : The natural resources like minerals, coal, oil, gas, human resources, water,
etc. make an important contribution in globalisation. Near distance to the end user or consumer also is an
important factor in globalisation.
• Production issues factors : Utilisation of built up capacities of production, sluggishness in domestic market
and over production makes a manufacturing company look outward and go global. For example : The
development of overseas markets and manufacturing plants in autos, four wheelers and two wheelers.
• Political factors : The political issues of a country make globalisation channelised as per political bosses.
The regional trade understandings or agreements determine the scope of globalization. Example : Trading in
the European Union and special agreement in the erstwhile Soviet block and SAARC.
• Industrial organisation factors : The technological development in the areas of production, product mix
and firms are helping organisations to expand their operations. The hiring of services and procurement of
sub-assemblies and components have a strong influence in the globalisation process. For example: Apple Inc.
which now has a global presence of manufacturing.
• Technological factors : The stage of technology in a particular field gives rise to import or export of products
or services from or to the country. Today India is exporting computer / software related services to advanced
countries like the UK, USA, etc.
CHALLENGES DUE TO GLOBALIZATION

• Increase in political crisis and global conflicts : Globalization 4.0 (which is driven by technology and the
movement of ideas, people, and goods) could, like preceding waves of globalization, have mixed results e.g.
even though many countries are globally connected but the political crisis and global level conflict have also
increased.
• Increasing inequality : The general complaint about globalization is that it has made the rich richer while
making the poor poorer. For instance : The UN Development Program reports that the richest 20% of the
world's population consume 86% of the world's resources while the remaining 80% consume just 14
percent.
• Interdependence : Interdependence between nations has caused local or global instability. The basic reason
is the local economic fluctuations end up impacting a large number of countries relying on them.
• On national Sovereignty : Some see the rise of nation-states, global firms, and other international
organizations as a threat to sovereignty. Ultimately, this could cause some leaders to become nationalistic.
• Equity Distribution : The pros of globalization can be unfairly skewed toward rich nations or individuals,
creating greater economic inequalities.
• Malpractices of MNCs : MNCs are accused of social injustice, unfair working conditions as well as lack of
concern for the environment, mismanagement of natural resources, and ecological damage.

• Increase in terrorism : Globalization has also let loose the forces of “uncivil society” and accelerated the
transnational flows of terrorism, human and drug trafficking, organized crime, piracy, and pandemic diseases
(For instance, Covid-19).
• Increase in the human trafficking : It is among the darkest sides of globalization, turning human beings
into commodities bought and sold in the international marketplace. Women and children are among the most
exposed to it. For example : In India, development induced displacement ruined the status of tribal women
in most cases leading to tribal trafficking and exploitation.
• Real threats to small scale entrepreneurs : Globalization has alerted the village and small-scale industries
and sounded death-knell to it as they cannot withstand the competition arising from well-organized MNCs
• Growth of self-selected culture : means people choose to form groups with like-minded persons who wish
to have an identity that is untainted by the global culture and its values.
• Adulthood emergence : The timing of transitions to adult roles such as work, marriage and parenthood are
occurring at later stages in most parts of the world as the need for preparing for jobs in an economy that is
highly technological and information based is slowly extending from the late teens to the mid-twenties.
• Local farmer crisis : As with the WTO trading provisions, the agricultural commodities market of poor and
developing countries will be flooded with farm goods from countries at a rate much lower than that of
indigenous farm products leading to a death-blow to many farmers.
• Erroneous notion on employment : Although globalization promotes the idea that technological change
and increase in productivity would lead to more jobs and higher wages, during the last few years, such
technological changes occurring in some developing countries have resulted in more loss of jobs than they
have created leading to a fall in employment growth rates.
• Domination of mighty superpowers : Globalization paves the way for a redistribution of economic power
at the world level leading to domination by economically powerful nations over the poor nations.
• Fail to contribute towards desired gains : The argument that globalization has helped people in developing
most of the countries out of poverty is somehow controversial. Because the opinions differ as to the quantity
and the quality of the jobs being offered by globalization.
• Contribute towards cultural homogeneity : Globalisation promotes people's tastes to converge which may
lead to more cultural homogeneity. Due to this, there is a danger of losing precious cultural practices and
languages. Also, there are threats of cultural invasion of one country over another.
• Development of bicultural identity : A good example of bicultural identity is among the educated youth in
India who despite being integrated into the global fast paced technological world, may continue to have deep
rooted traditional Indian values with respect to their personal lives and choices such as preference for an
arranged marriage, caring for parents in their old age.
• Consumerism : Consumerism has permeated and changed the fabric of contemporary Indian society.
CONCLUSION
• Globalisation is an age-old phenomenon which has been taking place for centuries now. We can experience
it so profoundly these days because of its increased pace. As with other things there have been both positive
and negative impacts. Given its enormous potential for economic gains, it would be a waste to categorically
repudiate the phenomena of Globalisation. Instead, there is a need for better understanding of Globalization’s
effects and the interplay of its economics with other issue areas.
EFFECTS OF GLOBALIZATION ON ECONOMY
POSITIVE EFFECTS OF GLOBALIZATION ON ECONOMY

• Increase in the number of jobs and higher employment : The advent of foreign companies and growth in
the economy has led to job creation and greater number of jobs in the private sector now. Although these
jobs are concentrated more in the services sector. This has led to a rapid growth of the services sector.
• Higher disposable incomes to people : People in cities working in high paying jobs have greater income to
spend on lifestyle goods. There has been an increase in the demand for organic food products, costly cars,
etc. as a result.
• Increase in the Indian growth rate : The growth rate of the GDP of India has been on the increase from 5.6
percent during 1980- 90 to 4 percent shown by the union budget 2016-17.
• Increase in foreign direct investments (FDIs): Increase the inflow of investments from developed
countries to developing countries, which can be used for economic reconstruction.
• New Indian startups dominating global market : Many new companies were formed by Indian
entrepreneurs across different industrial segments in view of liberalized economic policies announced by
the Government. Example : Reliance, Infosys, Think and Learn Private Limited (Byjus), etc.
• More choice to consumers : Globalisation has led to a boom in the consumer products market. We have a
range of choice in selecting a new car unlike the times where there were just a couple of manufacturers.
Electronic goods are being offered by companies from all over the world.
• Removed cultural barriers : The greater and faster flow of information between countries and greater
cultural interaction has helped to overcome cultural barriers.
• Infrastructural growth : Globalization has helped in faster developments in telecommunication, roads,
ports, airports, Insurance, and other major sectors.
NEGATIVE EFFECTS OF GLOBALIZATION ON ECONOMY

• Shrinking Agricultural Sector : Agriculture now contributes only about 15% to GDP. The international
norms imposed by WTO and other multilateral organizations has reduced government support to
agriculture. Coupled with the greater integration of global commodities markets leading to constant
fluctuation in prices.
• Problem of few jobs and higher unemployment : Globalization has generated problems like jobs and social
insecurity which has increased the problem of mental as well as heart disease.
• Process of Capital intensive from labor-intensive : The adopted global technologies and automatic
machinery has resulted in the high rate of unemployment in India which is becoming the biggest challenge
for the Indian Economy and the Government today.
• Increasing Health-Care costs – The greater connectedness of the world has also led to the increasing
susceptibility to diseases. Whether it is the bird-flu virus or Ebola, greater investment in the health-care
system is required to increase its capacity to withstand such epidemics. It has also led to increasing cost of
healthcare for individuals.
• Few Indian startups having global presence : The basic reason is the cut throat competition posed by the
MNCs which have deep pockets.
• Child Labour : Despite prohibition of child labor by the Indian constitution, over 60 to a 115 million children
in India work. While most rural child workers are agricultural laborers, urban children work in
manufacturing, processing, servicing and repairs.
CONCLUSION
• One of the major potential benefits of globalization is to provide opportunities for reducing macroeconomic
volatility on output and consumption via diversification of risk. The overall evidence of the globalization
effect on macroeconomic volatility of output indicates that although direct effects are ambiguous in
theoretical models, financial integration helps in a nation's production base diversification, and leads to an
increase in specialization of production.
EFFECTS OF GLOBALIZATION ON AGRICULTURE

• Agreement on Agriculture of the WTO : The Agreement on Agriculture of the WTO was the first multilateral
agreement, meant to curb unfair practices in agricultural trade and set off the process of reforms in the
agricultural sector.
• Farmer’s suicide (NCRB data) : The suicide rate in the deeply stressed farming sector accounted for 7.4 per
cent of the total suicides in the country, resulting in deaths of 5,957 farmers and 4,324 agricultural labourers,
majority of them commit suicides because of debt and farming related issues.
POSITIVE EFFECTS OF GLOBALIZATION ON AGRICULTURE

• Increase National Income : Receiving the international market for the agricultural goods of India, there is
an increase in farmer’s agricultural product, new technology, new seeds etc. helped to grow the agricultural
product.
• Increase in employment : While exporting agricultural products it is necessary to classify the products, its
standardization and processing, packing etc. The industries depending on agriculture are stored and it makes
an increase in employment.
• Increase in the share in trade : Because of the conditions of WTO all of the countries get the same
opportunities so there is an increase in the export of agricultural products.
• Increase in the export of agricultural goods : The prices of agricultural goods are higher in the
international market than Indian markets. If the developed countries reduce grants, they have to increase
the prices. So there will be an increase in the export in the Indian market and if the prices grow, there will be
profit.
• More cooperation between India and foreign nations : Research collaboration with foreign countries and
institutions has increased. Example : Drip irrigation technology from Israel.
• Helped farmers : Globalization has encouraged the concrete of corporate and contract farming which have
helped farmers.
• Improved the food processed industry : The proliferation of food processing industries has improved
farmers.
NEGATIVE EFFECTS OF GLOBALIZATION ON AGRICULTURE

• Grants distributed on a large scale by the developed countries : Before the reduction in grants by the
WTO, developed countries had already distributed grants on a large scale and hence the situation became
conducive for them.
• Small production field : In India 60% of the population depend on agriculture. The pressure on agriculture
is increasing because of the increasing population. Possession of land is small and so the production cost is
higher which leads to the disguised employment issue.
• Intellectual property right : Intellectual property right causes unfavorable impacts on Indian agriculture.
Multinational companies can easily enter in the field of agriculture which has caused multiple problems for
the marginal farmers.
• Increasing production expenditure and low cost of goods : Farmers are going bankrupt because of
growing production expenditure like costly seeds, etc., and reducing prices of their produce on the other
side.
• Cash crop demand and supply : Cash crop demand increases farmer focus on these crops, but, the demand
and price of these crops may fluctuate. This has caused major implications when farmers deviate from food
crops and causes serious concerns on national food security.
• International market prices : Prices in global markets are able to impact local prices. For example: sugar
industry
• Globalization has resulted in the casualization of labor : Global competition tends to encourage formal
firms to shift formal wage workers to informal employment arrangements without minimum wages, assured
work, or benefits.
WAY FORWARD
• To make growth in basic services : It is necessary to develop the standard and scope of basic services like
domestic roads, harbours, modern means of communication, storages, standard controlling etc. These
facilities would be an inspiration for export.
• Finance and Electricity Supply : The electric supply for Indian agriculture is irregular and insufficient. Also
there is a lack of finance for agriculture. It affects the standard of production and the expenditure of
production. So it is necessary to apply proper policies to avoid these problems.
• Increasing Production and export : An implementation of import duty is not useful for a long time while
facing international competition. Because if India increases import duty, other countries increase their
grants. So we have to increase our production and export.
• Planning of Production : It is not good to increase crops only because we get good prices. But it is necessary
to plan the growing of crops so that the prices of goods produced will not reduce.
EFFECTS OF GLOBALIZATION ON FAMILY AND MARRIAGE
POSITIVE ASPECTS OF GLOBALIZATION ON FAMILY AND MARRIAGES

• New occasions to celebrate : Family involvement in finding a groom/bride is reduced to nominal. Apart
from regular festivals, new occasions like ‘Valentine’s Day’, ‘Mother’s Day’, 'Father's Day’ is Weekend parties,
kitty parties, visiting pubs and discos almost became a very natural thing.
• New job opportunities influencing families : The ever increasing higher education and job opportunities
opened up due to globalisation have largely influenced Indian families particularly in urban metros.

• Change in dining pattern : The pattern of change in family dining is also worth observing. Having dinner
while watching Television or chatting on the computer became a very common thing in most households.
• The proportion of dual-earning couples (DEC) is also substantially growing : It has enormously altered
the traditional and functional role of women, family planning while distressing family dynamics and affecting
children and the elderly at home.
• Increase in love marriages : Due to Globalisation, the concept of love marriages is increasing and elders
have started to accept and appreciate it in the same way. Inter caste and inter-religious marriages have
become more common
• Bride/Groom finding is now not limited to local : Parents are turning to the web to search for brides and
grooms, they prefer NRI for their westernized outlook, lifestyles, and higher disposable income.
• Families send their son or daughter to foreign countries for advanced studies as a mode of
investment: The institution of family is undergoing dramatic change in India. In Southern States like Kerala,
Tamilnadu, Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra, it is a common feature that families send their son or daughter
to foreign countries for advanced studies as a mode of investment.
• Rising trade and rising prosperity in families : Global optimists argue that economic globalisation has
resulted in increasing trade which in turn has resulted in huge economic growth and rising prosperity,
correlated with declining birth rates and family size.
NEGATIVE ASPECTS OF GLOBALIZATION ON FAMILY AND MARRIAGES

• Dominance of nuclear family : The diversity in family forms has given way to the dominance of nuclear
families in globalized India. In the era of economic restructuring the institution of the family is becoming
progressively weak due to globalization and individualism is growing up.
• Globalization leading to breaking of families : Part of globalisation is people displacement following
conflict, which sometimes results in the breaking up of families. U.K. policy has focused (to an extent) on
taking in orphaned refugee children, meaning more ‘global step/ foster families’.
• Large scale migration and urbanization : Globalization has led to large scale migration and urbanization
since it becomes difficult to maintain a joint family system because of the high cost of living.
• Change in the marriage importance : The importance of marriage is decreasing, there has been an increase
in divorce, an increase in live-in relationships, and single parenting is increasing.
• Professionalism in emotions : Marriage used to be considered as bonding of the souls, but today marriage
is becoming professional and contractual. Globalisation = more diversity, choice, uncertainty, resulting in
decline of people committing to long term relationships and more ‘pure relationships’. (Giddens)
• Increasing toxicity in childhood : More exposure to global media events (mass shootings in the USA, natural
disasters, terrorist attacks, war and conflicts) children are more risk conscious – anxious kids, more mental
health issues. (More ‘toxic childhood’)
• Change in the tradition : Other issues like serial monogamy, live-in relationships are viewed against the
culture of India.
CONCLUSION
• Benefeld once pointed out that the most depressing aspect of globalisation theory is that human beings are
on the whole ignored. Globalisation transformed man as materialistic and self-centred. Despite an increase
in material wealth and living standards, life is becoming a daily struggle due to high competition. The
advantage of family and its values as prevailing in India cannot be ignored and globalization needs to
incorporate the basic conditions of human physical and psychological needs as this is the only way forward.
EFFECTS OF GLOBALIZATION ON CULTURE AND TRADITION

India is a bouquet of flowers of varying religion, dialect, tradition, custom, music, art and architecture etc,
Bundled into a single unit of patriotism and unity. When we analyse this rich culture with the globalization point
of view, we can find many punch holes of westernization and mixing of other traits and cultures into our
beautifully woven blanket.
GLOBALIZATION AND ITS IMPACT ON INDIAN CULTURE AND TRADITION

• Family Structure : The key attraction of Indian culture is joint

family culture. The joint families have become a strange surprise
to the Indians especially to those residing in the metropolitan
cities in the small flat culture with the nuclear families blooming
up.
• Marriage Values : Marriages have also lost their values. It is very
much evident from the increasing number of divorce cases and
the extra-marital affairs reported every now and then. The ego
factor into the Indian youth is again a product of globalization.
• Social Values : The interaction in the present generation is
highly diplomatic considering the financial status and wealth. People have lost social values and cheerful
blessings of togetherness.
• Adultery : The friendly approach and the socializing feature is worth appreciating. But the total breakouts
of restrictions have adulterated the Indian mindset, playing up with the physical relationship and also the
increased cases of rape and sexual abuse cases are a result of the perverted mind which again the imported
values very much alien to our mother culture.
• Impact on food : The various cuisines from all over the world have different flavours to add, still the food
ingredients that have inflicted with much popularity are the junk food items which has increased the health
disorders in the country.
• Impact on language : Even the Indians are not very much in favour of promoting their mother tongue. The
way the foreign languages are getting prevalent in India like the French, German and Spanish, right from the
school level, is an example of how much importance we provide to Indian languages in comparison to the
foreign ones.
• Agriculture downfall : India was predominantly an agricultural based country. With the advanced
globalization and cropping up of MNCs, farming has lost its prime value in India. Agricultural science has the
least focus amongst the youngsters who consider farming as a shameful profession and look down upon the
same.
• Increase in unemployment and emerging health crisis : Employments through MNCs have lucrative deals
attracting the bulk of manpower who are working for the other countries as their customer care
representatives. Indians are losing their health and their status and slowly getting to the age of economic
slavery due to these MNCs.
• Unified world culture : Unprecedented interaction and mobility have dented local cultures. Large scale
immigration and a transnational workforce - the product of globalization - is dispersing cultures across the
world, leading to a unified world culture. India is no exception.
• Change in greeting style : There was a time when Indians used to greet each other with “Namaste” or
something similar in regional dialects. But now its “Hi” and “Hello” among a large section of the population.
Most people now like an independent life, a by-product of globalization.
• Vulnerable old community : There are old-age homes and senior communities everywhere, in the major
cities at least.
• Change in the marriage alliances : Traditionally, life partners were searched from local communities,
usually within the same caste. Inter-caste marriages are now common.
• Indian Festivals : We are celebrating many more international events now such as Friendship Day,
Valentine’s Day, Christmas, and even Father’s Day and Mother’s Day. These events hardly had any relevance
in Indian society even a couple of decades back. India is changing and integrating with the world.
• Family Life : Globalization is affecting the marital space too. Work is forcing a married couple to lead
separate lives, away from each other over a long time. For example : for those in Information Technology who
are working overseas, in the UK, US, France, Australia and elsewhere. Hence, a major bottleneck for a good
family life.
REVIVAL OF CULTURE
• Revival of Yoga : In the country as well as at the international level. This can be seen in the popularity of the
‘Art of Living’ course by Ravi Shankar, or the celebration of International Yoga day across the world
• Revival of ayurvedic medicines : There has been a revival of ayurvedic medicines in the country as well as
outside it.

• Religious revivalism : Due to increasing uncertainty by inter-linkage with the outside world, there has been
religious revivalism. This can be manifested in the use of religion to attract voters, or mobilizing people on
the basis of religion.
• Increase demand for local : Increasing demand for local handicraft products in the global market, such as
Chikenkari or bandhani.
• Increasing global tourism : Due to increasing global tourism, locals are making efforts to preserve their
diversity and revive their traditions.
HOMOGENIZATION OF CULTURE
The process of rising global interconnectedness and interdependence has led to standardization and
uniformization of culture across the world.
• Change in family structure and Rise in retirement homes and community culture.
• Homogenization in food and clothing.
• Homogenization in teaching methods like smart classrooms, virtual learning apps.
• Homogenization of English Language. For Example : 196 Indian languages are in danger of extinction,
according to UNESCO’s Atlas of the World’s Languages in Danger of Disappearing (UNESCO 2009).
• Homogenization of Yoga across the world is a contribution from Indian land.
• Homogenization in values and rights like democracy, scientific temper, rationality, human rights, child rights,
banking culture.
GLOCALIZATION OF CULTURE = GLOBALIZATION + LOCALIZATION

• Glocalization campaigns involve culturally friendly media and ad campaigns to encourage the acceptance of
foreign products among a local audience. e.g. : Indian version of Amazon, Yahoo etc
• The translation of bestselling books into local languages.
• The dubbing of movies in local languages For e.g. The Lion King has been dubbed in regional languages like
hindi, tamil, etc
• Indian version of global cuisine for e.g., adding spices and masalas to noodles, pastas, etc.
• Glocalized saree draping is a rising fashion theme. i.e., multiple ways of wearing sarees.
• Phonetics of English language is often based on the speech sounds of local languages.
CONCLUSION
• Indian culture has never been obsolete; instead it has evolved with time. Our culture has the strength to
combine the good traits of foreign entities that have been in contact with us from the past and be able to
ignore all the negative aspects. In India, there is amazing cultural diversity throughout the country and all
corners of India have their own distinct cultures and almost every state has carved out its own cultural niche.
We need to be more cautious with the globalization process for preserving our nation’s pride and maintaining
our cultural prestige.
EFFECTS OF GLOBALIZATION ON WOMEN

The current wave of globalization has greatly improved the lives of women worldwide, particularly the lives of
those women in the developing world. Nevertheless, women remain disadvantaged in many areas of their life.
Various impact of globalization on women are as follows :
POSITIVE IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION ON WOMEN

• Increase in average wages given to women : Globalization has increased the exports of different countries
and wages in export sectors are much higher than other sectors and in many cases women get higher wages
than men in formal industrial sectors.
• Increase in employment opportunities : With globalization, women’s employment opportunities have
increased, and now they are also contributing to family expenses which support the creation of new
resources and raise the level of income of families. Multinational companies offer jobs without
discriminating between men and women.
• Increase in the choices and self-confidence : Along with an increase in family income, with the help of
globalization, social choices of women have increased like social choices and life choices, in addition to giving
them self-confidence and increasing their morale.

• Structural changes in agricultural production : The increase of profitability of cash crops in the
international markets increases the independence of women and hence globalization has brought structural
changes in agricultural production.
• Women equal partners in the contribution of the service sector : At present, the service sector is the
most important sector. Some service sectors like communication & information technology are achieving the
same progress achieved by the industrial sector and women force has benefited equally.
• LPG reforms and women : As India was a restricted economy before 1991. After the launching of
“liberalization”, ”globalization”, ”privatization” policy, many opportunities in the form of new jobs are
available for women.
• On women’s education : Increased access to education and rise in women literacy rate. Decline in child
marriage. Minimal improvement in tertiary education compared to primary and secondary.
• Post globalization health of women : Rise in access to healthcare driven by vaccination, institutional
deliveries. Education combined with policy initiatives led to decline in total fertility rate, maternal mortality
rate and infant mortality rate.
• Women and technology : Rise in consumerism of household appliances and direct effect on women
empowerment.( Less time in household chores means more opportunities for women). Rise of technology
related entrepreneurship (e.g. Networking, e-commerce). Lifestyle changes expose women to non-
communicable diseases like diabetes, cancer etc.
• Women in socio-political system since globalization : Gradual increase in the participation of women in
leadership and decision making roles. Diverse positions were opened up for women. For example, Panchayat
Raj Institution has about 49% of women representation. However, women are underrepresented in many
crucial roles. For example : Women Members of Parliament in 17th Lok Sabha – 14%.
• Feminization of labour force : Rise in labour force participation rate of women in the initial years. Women
benefited from the financial independence and more women entered the public space. Increased household
income confined women to private space post reforms, resulting in defeminisation of the labour force.
• Rural Women and globalization : Diversification of employment in rural areas from agricultural to non-
agricultural sectors. However, domination of women as agricultural labourers and outmigration of men led
to feminization of agriculture. This in turn contributed to ruralisation of poverty and feminization of poverty.
• Urban Women and globalization : Better quality education and a boom in the IT sector, led to their formal
employment.
• Dalit women and globalization : Considerable increase in the literacy rate of Dalit women is witnessed.
Contrarily, UNICEF reported 51% of Dalit children dropout of elementary schools. Decline in caste based
occupations in rural india and rise in class based occupations in urban india.
• Tribal women and globalization : Increased access to healthcare and institutional delivery mechanisms,
education. Increased import of goods led to the decline of their specialized indigenous artefacts and produce.
NEGATIVE IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION ON WOMEN

• Women double responsibilities : Long working hours at work along with attending household chores like
cooking, baby care hinders their performance and comes in the way of success.
• Delay in marriages : Although some women enjoy the freedom of delaying marriage, they soon realize that
this form of independence might actually be a burden because finding a husband later in life is not as easy as
in their youth.
• Exploitation on workplaces : Women are harassed sexually at work places and hence many women resist
to work.
• Globalization and inequalities : Gender differences in endowments, time use patterns, access to productive
inputs and agency have muted positive impacts for some and added to inequalities between men and women.
• Gender differences in education : There is limited women’s access to new employment opportunities. For
example : In agriculture, besides having a positive impact on productivity, education improves farmer’s
capacity to adopt new methods of improving results. But because of lower education levels, female producers
experience more constraints in accessing international markets than males.
• Commodification of women : Globalization has occurred with the persistence of patriarchal mindset of
Indians, this has led to problems for women like commodification of women, use of social media to harass
women, increase in violence against women.
• Consumer culture : As consumers, women are increasingly facing a consumer culture which reduces them
to commodities and as producers, women are exposed to work exploitation and occupational hazards.
• Other impacts : Additionally, prostitution, abuse and dowry related suicides are on the increase because of
globalization.
CONCLUSION
• Globalization offers women great opportunities but equally new and unique challenges. The culture of India
is like that most people thought that if a woman chooses to be a working woman, it will adversely affect their
family and children. But it is not true. Bottlenecks on the empowerment of women in Indian society is
inherent patriarchal mindset and rising crimes against women and hence reducing those with equal
opportunities to women is the way forward.
EFFECTS OF GLOBALIZATION ON YOUTH

The majority of India’s population is young (India is witnessing demographic dividend). The population growth
among youth is one of the most critical factors in the way India responds to globalization. Indian youth are fueling
both positive and negative perceptions given to globalization.
POSITIVE IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION ON YOUTH

• Hybridization of western and Indian values The younger generation is embracing western popular culture
and incorporating it into their Indian identity. There is a subtle and powerful hybridization of western and
Indian values occurring particularly evident among Indian youth.
• Demand for a cosmopolitan society : Present day youth, with its more materialistic ambitions and more
globally informed opinions, are gradually abandoning the austere ways and restricting traditional Indian
markets. Youth demand a more cosmopolitan society that is a full-fledged member of the global economy.
• Globalization has highlighted the importance of skills : The skills of imparting education, training, and
requisite skills to young people for providing them a platform to become successful participants in the labor
force.
• Promoted the idea of global village in youths : It has promoted a cross-fertilization of ideas, cultural
values, and aspirations; thus, it has helped to connect youth not only to the rest of the world but also among
each other.
• More informed youth : With more awareness, youth are being more vocal towards their rights.
Consequently, the government is ensuring more participation of people in policymaking.
• Education and enterprise : The primary ambition of young Indians from the smallest villages to the largest
cities is to ''become rich.'' Young people hope to achieve this goal through enterprise and education.
• Change in the attitude towards religion : Most religious activities are becoming irrelevant to the youth and
they want to see changes in religion. They are not internalizing traditional ideas and asking for a better and
modernised form of religion.
NEGATIVE IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION ON YOUTH

• Change in the clothing style and moving towards western clothing : The traditional Indian dress is
declining, especially among urban youth, in favor of new fashions from the west.
• Disconnect with elders : Youth are not as close to their grandparents as were earlier generations and spend
less time with the older generation resulting in loss of wisdom handed down from generation to generation.
• Health disorders : Lack of physical activity has made youth follow a sedentary lifestyle leading to health
disorders.
• Marginalized section of youths : They are incapable of accessing the opportunities that globalization offers
due to inadequate education, limited skills, poverty or they cannot reach out to basic information and
communication, and the goods and services that have become available with globalization.
• Increased urban migration and unemployment : Economic globalization has led to increased urban
poverty as people move from the rural areas to the cities in search of opportunity. Youth make up the large
majority of urban migrants.
• Consumerist attitude : Consumerism has permeated and changed the traditional beliefs and practices of the
Indian people.
• Status of youth in family : Globalization also is changing family institutions, and the nuclear family is
increasingly the norm.

• Increased cases of depression and suicide : Globalization has led to an increase in uncertainty among
youth. This Uncertainty is because of the breakdown of traditional norms, weakening of social relations like
that of family and marriage, uncertainty in career due to market economy.
CONCLUSION
• According to Marine Le Pen, ‘We are in a world where globalization, which is an ideology, has forgotten
and put aside the people, the people's interests, aspirations, and dreams.’ The evaluation of the effects
of globalization is a mixed bag, both good and bad. Economic globalization has improved study and job
opportunities and provided greater employment opportunities. But it has also made the poor even poorer.
But importantly, there is no going back from globalisation.
EFFECTS OF GLOBALIZATION ON TRIBALS

Tribal people constitute 8.6% of the nation’s total population, over 104 million people according to the
2011 census. The forest occupies a central position in tribal culture and economy. The tribal way of life is very
much dictated by the forest right from birth to death. In Spite of the protection given to the tribal population by
the constitution of India, tribals still remain the most backward ethnic group in India.
POSITIVE IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION ON TRIBALS

• Impact on health : More medicines and drugs for life-threatening drugs.
• Better education and development : Which in turn has provided better lifestyle and this education leading
to better utilization of local resources for the betterment of all
• National integration : Globalisation has helped to remove isolation of tribals from the rest of the country.
They have been introduced to outside practices that have brought some sort of behavioural changes. This has
helped in national integration and unity.
• Legal and constitutional protection : The degrading life of tribals have captured the attention of authorities
due to better communication. This has translated into protection for tribals, their language, and culture.
Giving them exposure to media and other sources of mass communication so that they can raise their voice
against injustice.
NEGATIVE IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION ON TRIBALS

• Resource exploitation : The recent rapid technological advancement and unrivalled economic and political
strength of world capitalism have created favourable conditions for the evasion and extraction of natural
resources from the ecologically fragile territories of tribal people.
• Vested interests : In the name of upgradation of lifestyle of poor indigenous tribal people, the market forces
have created wealth for their interests at the cost of livelihood and security of these tribes in the areas.
• Unemployment : There is a heavy concentration of industrial and mining activities in the central belt.
Despite intense industrial activity in the central Indian tribal belt, the tribal employment in modern
enterprises is negligible. About 40 per cent of the tribals of central India supplement their income by
participating in this distorted and over exploitative capitalist sector.
• Affecting social life : Many more are slowly crushed into oblivion in their homeland or in urban slums. The
globalization has added new dimensions to the vulnerability of India’s downtrodden by exacerbating their
social exclusion, and making large segments of tribal groups also vulnerable and excluded.
• Leading to subnational movements : Inadequate social and economic infrastructure in areas that have
insufficient resources for participation in mainstream development also has been at the root of various “sub-
national movements” such as the Jharkhand, Uttarakhand and Bodoland.
• Tribal women : Tribal forest economy is primarily a women’s economy, and it is women who are most
directly affected by the corporate exploitation of their traditional lands.
• Displacement : Approximately 16 million people were displaced because of construction of over 1500
irrigation projects out of which nearly 40% belong to tribal population
• Ban on Shifting Cultivation : With time the shifting cultivation has been banned and they were restricted to
limited area for living
• Eroding of Socio-Cultural Heritage : Due to development activities, commercial interest and lack of
effective legal protection to tribals they have been displaced from their original homeland to other areas thus
leading to loss of their normal life and their original traditions like related to exotic plants used for medicinal
purposes
• Forced Evictions : For making way for capital-intensive projects as happened in the central belt of India
which is rich in mineral resources and are the point of major emphasis for companies like BALCO, NALCO etc.
• Rise in Pollution : With more development projects in the indigenous tribal areas the release of GHGs and
pollution due to mining etc. leading to more health problems and subsequently more health-related
expenses.
CONCLUSION
• Thus, tribals have benefited less and negatively affected more due to globalisation and modernization. The
impetus is on the government to maintain balance between ancient culture and modern practices and do the
necessary.
EFFECTS OF GLOBALIZATION ON ELDERLY
POSITIVE IMPACTS OF GLOBALIZATION ON ELDERLY POPULATION

• Healthcare : Globalisation has led to induction of advanced medical technologies in India. It decreased costs
and increased accessibility to health care for the elderly. Average life expectancy and health has increased
because of improvement in technology, medical facilities, and living standards.
• Communication : The rapid growth in communication technologies has made the world a small place. Aged
people who could not be lucky to live with their children due to job pressures of the young, can now easily
interact with them.
• Technology : It is now possible for young people residing in foreign lands to send money back home to their
old parents in a fraction of seconds all thanks to technological advancement.
• Economy : On the positive note, the people now have become more economically prosperous because of
better employment opportunities across the world; and due to this they are able to save more for their old
age.
• Better care : Better Institutional Care System
• Promotion of ageless society : Globalization has promoted a society where the aged population is also
looked at from the view of assets because of their experiences and how their experience could contribute
towards increasing the profit. Hence, the aged population, rather than retiring compulsorily, can contribute
too.
NEGATIVE IMPACTS OF GLOBALIZATION ON ELDERLY POPULATION

• Disintegration of joint families : The cumulative implications of it is more and more nuclear families, young
people leaving their aged parents in faraway places in search of employment opportunities and better living
standards has resulted in isolation, rejection and loneliness of aged persons leading to psychological distress;
and the crimes against older people.
• No specific roles : With improved education, rapid technological changes and modernization have rendered
their knowledge obsolete. With this, once they are at the verge of retirement, they are unable to find a clear
role and this realization leads to loss of status, loneliness and worthlessness.
• Cultural shock : What they experience because of globalisation has led them into a trap of anxiety and in a
state of cultural shock.
• Impact on savings : Globalisation has not only led to faster growth but faster inflation also. Elderly
populations find their savings are often eaten away by inflation and hence they are left with minimum or no
money.
• Psychological problems : Like a sense of dependence, insecurity, fear and alienation has increased the risk
of mental disorders and stress factors.
CONCLUSION
• Thus, Globalisation has had a mixed impact on the aged population. When India's demographic dividend
recedes, India would be left with a high amount of dependent population who needs to be cared for.
Government policies and programmes should be crafted with this in consideration along with rejection of
the conventional welfare approach and an integrated approach based on a coherent social development
perspective within the valuation framework of social quality.

EFFECTS OF GLOBALIZATION ON LGBTQ+ COMMUNITIES

Emerging economies like India are experiencing mobilization of third gender and sexual identity politics raising
fundamental questions of citizenship, human rights, cultural identity and tradition. With economic globalization
in the developing world, a Western, hegemonic notion of lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender (LGBT) and
others (+) identity has been exported to traditional societies thereby destroying indigenous sexual cultures and
diversities.
POSITIVE IMPACTS OF GLOBALIZATION ON LGBTQ+ COMMUNITY

• Social acceptance : The globalization has provided various opportunities to queer people to make society
understand their point of view which has ultimately resulted in people acceptance and major reforms. For
example : USA allowed same sex marriage, Supreme Court in India decriminalised consensual same sex
relations by reading down the provisions of Section 377 of the Indian Penal Code.
• Enhancing Safety : Globalization has provided technological advancement in the form of certain applications
aimed at helping LGBTQ+ people stay safe.
• Promoting Inclusivity : Globalization has made the world closer which has embraced all people irrespective
of race, gender, disability, medical or other need. It is about giving equal access and opportunities and getting
rid of discrimination and intolerance (removal of barriers).
• Creating Community : For many LGBTQ+ individuals—especially those who may be living in small or more
rural areas globalization has made it much easier to find other LGBTQ+ people in their community and to
work and promote their voice together as a community.
• Global dating apps : In this globalized world, there are so many opportunities for LGBTQ+ people to find
people like them. For reference Tinder application, which has millions of users in more than 190 countries.
• Creating Compelling Content on various platforms : From television and music streaming services to
podcasts and more, the number of individuals, artists and producers creating content that focuses on LGBTQ+
issues has increased exponentially, content that may have been rejected before globalization.
• Globalisation enhances cultural identity : People are not born as cultural objects, instead they reject or
choose to integrate certain cultural aspects into their lives. In today’s society, relationships between people
within communities are closer than ever.
• Increased job opportunities : Globalization has given space to this community to enhance themselves
through better job opportunities and improving social status.
• Resource utilization and their economic benefit : At a macro level, the cost to a country’s economy can be
counted in the billions. According to a pilot study conducted for the World Bank, discrimination against LGBT
people in globalized India could be costing that country’s economy up to $32 billion a year in lost economic
output.
NEGATIVE IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION ON LGBTQ+ COMMUNITY

• Increased amount of harassment : According to studies carried out in the United States, the United
Kingdom and Thailand, between half and two thirds of LGBT students are regularly bullied at school and up
to a third skip school to escape harassment.
• Jump in the data of homeless in the queer community : Many LGBT youth, bullied at school and rejected
at home, end up homeless and are easily identified in the age of social media which is the result of
globalization.
• The Protection of Civil Rights Act 1955 : In India, this Act is only confined to protection from discrimination
based on untouchability (caste-system) and disability.
WAY FORWARD
• Article 14 : The Indian Constitution requires equal protection of all citizens before the law.
• Article 15 : Prevents the state from discriminating on the ground of sex, religion, race, caste, or place of birth.
In the case of Navtej Johar, the Supreme Court of India expanded the boundaries of word sex and included
the prohibition of discrimination on the ground of sexual orientation.
• Article 19(1)(a) : Provided for freedom of speech and expression, the Supreme Court has given wider
interpretation to the word “expression” and has included sexual orientation in the same.

• Article 21 : Which talks about protection of life and personal liberty, over the years has been interpreted in
a way that now it includes the Right to Privacy, Right to live with Dignity and Right to Autonomy and hence
this article protects the LGBTIQ+ community in various aspects.
CONCLUSION
• In recent years, businesses large and small have taken steps to make the work environment safer and more
inclusive for their LGBT employees. Many have changed the way they do business with a view to better
serving LGBT customers and, in some cases, extracting anti-discrimination commitments from suppliers up
and down their supply chains. Altruism and self-interest both point in the same direction. Tackling
discrimination is the right thing to do, and essential if the human rights of LGBT people are to be properly
protected.
EFFECTS OF GLOBALIZATION ON DIFFERENTLY-ABLED COMMUNITY

• Disability : According to International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF), 2014,
disability is an umbrella term for impairments, activity limitations and participation restrictions.
EFFECTS OF GLOBALIZATION ON DISABLED

• Social Programs : Access to these programs remains riddled with bureaucratic challenges, corruption and
delays with the cumulative effect of denying benefits to those who need them most.
• Disability insurance schemes : It covers only workers in the formal sectors. Public social protection system
for people with disabilities outside of the formal sector is sketchy in most states and offers low coverage and
limited financial protection.
• Education : The Persons with Disabilities Act (PWD Act) of 1995 emphasized free education for disabled
children up to eighteen years of age, the development of teacher training programs specializing in disabilities
to provide trained manpower for special schools and integrated schools for children with disabilities.
• Employment : Privatization has led to mixed outcomes for people with disabilities in the employment
sphere. Privatization has opened newer avenues for employment of people with disabilities in highly-skilled
and service jobs, making them more mobile and competitive in the job market.
• Accessibility : Although the PWD Act promotes accessibility in public buildings, evidence shows accessibility
continues to be largely an unrealized goal in India (World Bank).
• Health And Health Care : Privatization and deregulation have resulted in rising drug prices. The increased
cost of medical care is the second most common cause of rural indebtedness in India (People's Health
Movement - India, 2007). Given that almost 40% of India's population lives in poverty, the health of the poor
and disabled population is threatened.
• Human Rights, Privatization and Disability : With disability still treated as a 'special interest' issue in India
that is, not of interest to the general population the risks of globalization for diabled community are high.
People with disabilities in India still remain a weak political constituency without full citizenship and human
rights.
As there are no separate insurance products for disability from the private insurance sector, the Government
of India has brought out the Pradhan Mantri Suraksha Bima Yojana (PMSBY). This scheme provides an
accidental death and permanent disability cover of Rs. 2,00,000 and Rs. 1,00,000 cover for permanent partial
disability.
UNITED NATION’S COMMITMENTS FOR DISABLED PEOPLE IN THE WORLD

• Covenants : International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (1966); International Covenant on
Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights (1966); and the Convention on Human Rights, also known as the San
Salvador Protocol (1988).
• Conventions : International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (1966); and
Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989);
• Declarations : Declaration of 1981 as the International Year of Disabled Persons: Declaration of 1983 - 1992
UN Decade of Disabled Persons; The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) ; Declaration on the Right
to Development (1986).

CONCLUSION
• The importance of including people with disabilities in the development agenda has been increasingly
recognized. The former president of World Bank, James Wolfensohn stated "… if we are to achieve the
Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) of halving poverty by 2015, dealing with education for all, halving
the rates of birth and child mortality, it is simply impossible to conceive of doing that without the inclusion
of the disabled community".
GOVERNMENT INITIATIVES FOR GLOBALIZATION

1. Make in India : The main objective of the Make in India initiative is to encourage and facilitate foreign
investment into the country. Make in India has been so far the front runner of all the initiatives giving the
world an opportunity to use Indian resources to their best abilities.
2. Digital India : Though the objective of Digital India initiative is to digitize government activities, it also helps
in improving digital literacy.
3. Skill India : Skill India initiative aims to train over 500 million people in different skills and generate a talent
pool that could be unmatched in any part of the world. Skill India concentrates on areas where formal
certification is lacking especially in the unorganized sector.
4. Startup India : Aims to promote entrepreneurship in India. The aim of this initiative is to provide a new
dimension to entrepreneurship by helping to set up a network of startups in the country.
5. Execute India : Though not a directly associated initiative, the plan on setting up multiple IITs and IIMs in
India has raised opportunities in developing specialized skills in technical and management.
6. Incredible India : Though an initiative of the previous government, the “Atithi Devo Bhava” initiative is
promoted as part of Incredible India. The objective of this initiative is to train and provide orientation to all
stakeholders who interact with visitors.
7. Reputed You, Reputed Nation (RYRN) initiative : Its primary objective is to help build Reputed India by
means of creating awareness and providing necessary education and tools to build a better presence, brand
and reputation for an individual or a business.
GLOBALIZATION 4.0
FEATURES OF GLOBALIZATION 4.0

• Turbulence for the service sector : While Globalization 1.0, 2.0 and 3.0 were mainly a concern of people
who made/manufactured products for a living (since globalization focused on things that we made),
Globalization 4.0 is going to hit people in the service sector.
• Close integration with industries : Ever-faster data connection speeds and new artificial intelligence tools
like machine translation, big data are opening up services jobs in rich countries like architecture, accounting,
and web design to competition from practitioners in emerging economies.
• New modes of migration process : Due to faster data connection as well as nature of work which may
involve no physical presence there may be a global tele-migration in which the skilled migrants never have
to leave home.
• Fourth industrial revolution : Building on the foundation given by the Third Industrial Revolution, Fourth
Industrial Revolution (Industry 4.0) is moving from an electronic based industry to a process which is the
combination of human beings and electronics. It includes cyber-physical systems, the Internet of things, big
data analytics, cloud computing, cognitive computing, artificial intelligence, 3-D printing, and autonomous
vehicles etc.
CHALLENGES OF GLOBALIZATION 4.0

• Political crisis and Global level conflict : Globalization 4.0 could, like preceding waves of globalization,
have mixed results e.g. even though countries are globally connected political crisis and global level conflict
have also increased.
• Economic exclusion : Economic opportunities will be uncertain, many may not have the skills needed for
the jobs of the future. If countries and communities are not fully prepared for Globalization 4.0, problems
may exacerbate.
• Income Inequality : Negative effects of globalization have a disproportionate impact on already
marginalized populations. Globalization 4.0 may increase income inequality even if it can create more wealth.

• Human Resource : Countries like India, if they do not step up to meet the skill requirements of globalisation
4.0, may already be staring at demographic disaster, given its huge population and low employment
generation.
• Unintended consequences : Globalization 4.0 in conjunction with Industry 4.0 will produce many
unintended consequences which may not be foreseeable for now and for which world is vastly unprepared
the ethical, legal, environmental concerns are yet to be seen for which no framework has been laid out.
• Infrastructural challenges : Apart from skilling, India also needs to set up required infrastructure and
technology to harness the advantages of globalization 4.0.
• Challenges for Developing countries : The European continent, North America and some Asian countries
have been able to take advantage of the industrial revolution and globalization, while many African, Latin
American and some Asian countries failed to benefit as much. Globalization 4.0 will create additional
challenges for many African and Asian nations which were already excluded from the benefits of earlier
waves of globalization.
WAY FORWARD
• Boosting local and regional economies : We should proactively build resilient local and regional systems
that can participate in the next wave of globalization, making sure regions have the right mix of education,
employment and infrastructure to create and sustain jobs locally.
• Enhancing sustainability and inclusiveness : The need of the hour is to design a blueprint from the ground
up that can capitalize on new opportunities while prioritizing sustainability and inclusiveness more than ever
before.
• Most vulnerable populations : Global and local institutions need to advance both universal and targeted
strategies to improve outcomes for everyone ensuring vulnerable populations are not left out.
• Eliminating effects of climate change : The challenges of Globalization 4.0 will be compounded if resources
that could be put towards strengthening local economies and education are diverted to mitigate climate
change. Thus climate change needs to be dealt with at a global level.
• Promoting innovation in educational institution and education curriculum : By 2022, at least 54% of
employees globally will require re- and up-skilling. New Zealand is implementing a national technology
curriculum to teach students to be digital creators, as well as consumers.
• Engagement with the international community : The task of dealing with challenges of Globalization 4.0
requires two things of the international community, wider engagement, participation and heightened
imagination.
PREVIOUS WAVES OF GLOBALIZATION
• It was pre-World War I globalization, which was launched by a historic drop in trade
Globalization 1.0 costs.
• This globalization came with almost no government support.
• There was no global governance.
• It is the post-World War II phase where trade in goods was combined with
complimentary domestic policies.
Globalization 2.0 • The market was in charge of efficiency while the government was in charge of justice.
• It saw the establishment of institute-based, rule-based international governance,
specifically the UN, IMF, World Bank, GATT/WTO, International Labor Organization
etc.
• It created a new world of manufacturing in which high-tech was combined with low
wages.
Globalization 3.0 • This was achieved through establishment of global supply chains as factories crossed
international borders.
• It was variously called New Globalization, Hyper globalization, Global value chain
evolution
CONCLUSION
• Pessimists will argue that political conditions are standing in the way of a productive global dialogue about
Globalization 4.0 and the new economy. But realists will use the current moment to explore the gaps in the
present system, and to identify the requirements for a future approach and optimists will hold out hope that
future-oriented stakeholders will create a community of shared interest and, ultimately, shared purpose. The
engagement of all stakeholders in sustained dialogue will be crucial, as will the imagination to think
systemically, and beyond one’s own short-term institutional and national considerations.
CORPORATE CULTURE
Work culture is regarded as a set of practices, values and shared beliefs within an organisation and its employees
that arise from what is generally regarded as appropriate ways to think and act. It is the work culture that decides
the way employees interact with each other and how an organisation functions. The work culture is a product of
its history, traditions, values and vision.
FEATURES OF A GOOD WORK CULTURE

• Shared values and priorities : Desirable work culture includes shared institutional values, priorities,
rewards and other practices which foster inclusion, high performance, and commitment, while still allowing
diversity in thought and action. A perfect example of a good workplace culture is ISRO (Indian Space Research
Organisation). It was founded in the 1960s and has since then contributed immensely in the development of
the nation.
• Maintaining a good work culture : A healthy work culture is maintained through attraction-selection-
attrition, new employee onboarding, leadership, and organizational reward systems.
IMPORTANCE OF WORK CULTURE

• Transparency, innovation and discipline : Healthy work culture promotes transparency, innovation and
discipline in an organisation.
• Reduced Conflicts : Good work culture promotes effective communication and helps in reducing conflicts
among individuals/team during work.
• Increases Productivity and Quality : Transparency, responsibility, and unbiased are underpinnings of good
work culture. These will enable individuals and teams to become self-organized which in turn improves
quality and productivity.
• Sustainable Work : Good work culture includes peer respect, recognition of hard work, and freedom to bring
new ideas (innovation). These will help in long term prospects of the organization.
• Effective Communication : Healthy work culture provides a platform for effective communication among
the verticals and horizontals of the organisation which helps in getting work done effectively.
CREATING GOOD WORK CULTURE

• Good leadership team.
• Keeping the organization's objective above oneself.
• The foundation of an organization should be based on basic values like empathy, honesty and integrity.
• Spirit of cooperation as well as competition should be encouraged.
CONCLUSION
• Good work culture can shape the outcomes and the perception in the eyes of the public and it attracts the
best available talent which in turn serves the organization better.
DE-GLOBALIZATION
De-globalization is the process of reducing interdependence and integration between nations around the world.
It is characterized by decline in economic trade and investment between countries, protectionism and unilateral
withdrawal from international organizations and agreements. This decline reflects that economies become less
integrated with the rest of the world economies.
INDICATORS OF DEGLOBALIZATION
Apart from the rise of right wing parties across the globe, which is a political manifestation of de-globalization,
economic indicators show that post 2008 economic slowdown de-globalization is becoming the norm.

• Trade indicators : With global demand weak, and many nations erecting import barriers, trade is slumping.
Measured as a share of global gross domestic product, trade doubled from 30 percent in 1973 to a high of 60
percent in 2008. But it faltered during the crisis and has since dropped to 55 percent.
• Flow of capital : Mainly the bank loans are retreating faster. Frozen by the financial crisis and squeezed
afterward by new regulations, capital flows have since slumped to just under 2 percent of G.D.P. from a peak
of 16 percent in 2007.
• Flow of people is slowing too : Despite the flood of refugees into Europe, net migration from poor to rich
countries decreased to 12 million between 2011 and 2015, down by four million from the previous five years.
REASONS FOR THIS NEW TREND

• Unequal distribution : Of benefits of globalization, rising inequalities, job loss especially in developed
countries.
• Stricter visa regime and relocation of industries : MNCs across the countries and workers from
developing countries benefited the most leading to perception that workers from developing countries have
stolen jobs from developed countries. This led to demands of a stricter visa regime and relocation of
industries.
• Global slowdown : Exacerbated the above mentioned situation and led to increase in demand for
protectionist measures across the globe.
• Rise in terrorism : Rise of ISIS, increased instances of terrorist attacks and emerging security threats across
the globe. Immigration crisis further accentuated the security situation and as it is happening at the time of
economic slowdown thus leading to an anti-immigrant stand.
• Rise of populist leaders : It has globally re-enforces the trend for a de-globalization process.
PRINCIPLES OF DE-GLOBALIZATION BY WALDEN BELLO

Walden Bello, founder of Focus on the Global South, who coined the term “deglobalization” in 2001, has described
globalization as “the accelerated integration of capital, production and markets globally, a process driven by the
logic of corporate profitability.
FEW OF WALDEN VIEWS:

• Production for exports : Production for the domestic market rather than production for export markets
must again become the center of gravity of the economy.
• The principle of subsidiarity : It should be enshrined in economic life by encouraging production of goods
at the level of the community and at the national level if this can be done at reasonable cost in order to
preserve community.
• Trade policies : That is, quotas and tariffs - should be used to protect the local economy from destruction by
corporate-subsidized commodities with artificially low prices.
• Industrial policy : It includes subsidies, tariffs, and trade - should be used to revitalize and strengthen the
manufacturing sector.
• Balance : A healthy balance must be maintained between the country's carrying capacity and the size of its
population.
• Gender equality : A gender lens must be applied in all areas of economic decision making so as to ensure
gender equality.
• Strategic economic decisions : It must not be left to the market or to technocrats. Instead, the scope of
democratic decision-making in the economy should be expanded so that all vital economic issues become
subject to democratic discussion and choice.
• Regional institutions : Centralized global institutions like the IMF and the World Bank should be replaced
with regional institutions built not on free trade and capital mobility but on principles of cooperation.
IMPACT OF DE-GLOBALISATION ON INDIA

• Impact on farmers : A less coordinating world means impact in agricultural exports and Indian farmers.
Indian farmers would face a double whammy of environment change and de-globalisation.
• Impact on technology : These tendencies limit technological advancement of the world as whole and of
developing countries in particular. Limited knowledge sharing, lack of flow of technology to developing
countries limit advancement in science.

• Political impact : It would affect polity leading to instability in the political framework of nations due to rise
in prices and cost of living may lead to civil Uprisings.
• Economic impact : Deglobalisation will lead to reduction in the rate of economic growth of India. It will lead
to protectionism with reduced cooperation among countries that will hurt Indian trade and exports.
Deglobalisation will lead to reduction in competition and rise in general prices of the goods and services.
• Social impact : It will lead to decrease in standards of living as it will impact exports and economic growth
impacting welfare of the poor and their standard of lives. It will lead to rise in conflicts economically and
politically.
• Impact on Environmental conversation : Due to non-cooperation among nations it will impact
environment conservation efforts in India. It will reduce required funding and would jeopardise efforts to
conserve the environment and tackle environmental change.
• Impact on women employment : Deglobalisation would impact women empowerment efforts as it will
impact women movements across the globe. Lack of coordination will reduce opportunities for women
across the world.
• Impact on security : Due to lack of coordination among various nations, security around the world along
with India would impact. It will not only increase economic risks, but would provide an opportunity for
terrorists to carry out violence due to lack of coordination among various law enforcement agencies.
CONCLUSION
• Deglobalisation would hurt India not only economically but socially and politically also. It will impact
economic development in India and would hurt the welfare of Indian people. A coordinated effort is needed
to increase more cohesive global structure.

7.SOCIAL EMPOWERMENT
TABLE OF CONTENT
• Introduction
• Need and significance of social empowerment
• Dimensions of social empowerment
• Socially disadvantaged groups and their problems
1. Scheduled Tribes
2. Women
3. Scheduled Caste
4. Minorities
5. Senior Citizens
6. Differently abled persons
1. Why are the tribals in India referred to as ‘the Scheduled Tribes’? Indicate the major provisions in 2016
the Constitution of India for their upliftment.
2. What are the two major legal initiatives taken by the state since Independence addressing 2017
discrimination against Scheduled Tribes?
INTRODUCTION
Malala Yousafza : “ If people were silent, nothing would change.”
• Social empowerment is the process of enabling people to increase control over their lives, to gain control
over the factors and decisions that shape their lives, to increase their resources and qualities and to build
capacities to gain access, partners, networks, a voice, in order to gain control. A nation can never have a good
growth trajectory without empowering all sections of society equally.
NEED AND SIGNIFICANCE OF SOCIAL EMPOWERMENT

• Reduce the incidence of unemployment : Social empowerment leads one to take the right job and hence
reduce the incidence of unemployment and under-employment.
• Reduction of social violence : Social empowerment leads to a decrease in social violence engineered against
the deprived section of the society. If one is empowered socially, they know the rights they enjoy and the
duties they serve.
• Corruption concern : Social empowerment is also advantageous in case of corruption as people tend to
understand the exploitative class and restrain from giving any bribe which ultimately reduces corruption.
• To reduce poverty and inequality: Social empowerment is one approach to reduce poverty. When people
are empowered, they tend to use the knowledge in the right direction and somehow reduce their poverty
which is so important for national growth also.
• For inclusive development : The main advantage of empowerment is that there will be an overall and
inclusive development of the society. The money that people earn does not only help them and or their family,
but it also helps develop society.
DIMENSIONS OF SOCIAL EMPOWERMENT

• Dimension of legitimacy of Power : The centrality of the notion of empowerment is located in the dynamics
of sharing, distribution and redistribution of power, which has a basis of legitimacy.
• Authority in general is used in the following contexts :
o Regulatory, based on one’s formal position and status in relation to others;
o Expert knowledge, where the expert may possess the power to define ordinary people or to withhold
knowledge from those whose well-being is affected by it; and
o Relationship ability or interpersonal skills, where power comes from interpersonal influence based
on abilities to work with people.
• Dynamics of Power Relations : Ability to exercise power in a given context as having power is not the same
as exercising it.
o Seizing or creating opportunities in the environment, changing structural conditions
o Relations of symmetry, where relatively equal amounts and type of power and authority, are exercised
and are based on reciprocity.
• Principle of Change and Transformation :
o Empowerment is concerned with the transformation of the structure of subordination.
o Emancipation was associated with a view of progress as a movement towards freedom and equality.
SOCIALLY DISADVANTAGED GROUPS AND THEIR PROBLEMS
1. SCHEDULED TRIBES
CONSTITUTIONAL PROVISIONS FOR TRIBALS:
• Article 29 : Protects the interests of the minorities by making a provision that any citizen/section of citizens
having a distinct language, script, or culture have the right to conserve the same.
• Article 46 : Under the DPSP, the state shall promote, with special care, the educational and economic
interests of weaker sections of the people, and in particular, of the scheduled caste and scheduled tribes.
• Article 275 (1) : Provides Grants in-Aids to states (having scheduled tribes) covered under the fifth and six
schedules of the constitution.
• Article 350A : States that the state shall provide adequate facilities for instruction in mother-tongue at the
primary stage of education.
• Article 244 (1) : Defines Scheduled Areas as the areas defined so by the President of India and are mentioned
in the fifth schedule of the Constitution. In India, there are 10 states having scheduled areas.
• Article 244 : The Sixth Schedule of the Constitution deals with the administration of the tribal areas in the
four north-eastern states of Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura and Mizoram as per Article 244.
LEGISLATIVE PROVISIONS FOR TRIBALS:

• The Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006
(FRA): It has a special section regarding the 75 PVGTs and the Act recognises forest and habitat rights of
PVTGs.
• The Provisions of the Panchayats (Extension to the Scheduled Areas) Act, 1996 (PESA) : It extends
Scheduled Areas of India under the purview of the national framework of Panchayat.
• The Andaman and Nicobar (Protection of Aboriginal Tribes) Regulation, 1956 : The Sentinelese and
other aboriginal tribes of the Andaman & Nicobar Islands are protected under this act.
• Foreigners (Restricted Areas) Order, 1963 : The Andaman & Nicobar Islands are a “Restricted Area” in
which foreigners with a restricted area permit (RAP) can stay.
• Andaman and Nicobar Islands (Protection of Aboriginal Tribes) Regulation, 1956 : The habitats of the
PVTGs of Andaman and Nicobar Island have protected Tribal Reserve.
HIGH-LEVEL COMMITTEE (HLC) IN 2013, UNDER CHAIRMANSHIP OF PROF. VIRGINIUS XAXA:

• The Committee was mandated to examine the socio-economic, educational and health status of tribal
communities and recommend appropriate interventional measures to improve the same.
• It submitted its report in May, 2014. Key recommendations of the committee were:
o Increase and strengthen the powers of Gram Sabha for land acquisition;
o Mining rights to cooperatives;
o Acquired but unused land could be used for tribal rehabilitation;
o No to large dams;
o Judicial commission on Naxal offences.
PROBLEM FACED BY TRIBES:

• Forest related issues : The livelihood of the tribal community is based on forest. They enjoyed their
traditional rights of hunting, gathering, shifting
cultivation but the advent of modern government, in the
name of forest protection, stopped the movement of STs
which brought the question of existence.
• Poverty and exploitation : The tribal population are
being exploited because of their innocence and they are
pushed to a spiral of poverty. They have been living in
forests from time immemorial, but after the
government’s restriction, many became bonded
laborers and getting exploited.
• Literacy rate : Literacy among the tribes of the north-
eastern and island regions is relatively higher but
despite that high dropout rate and the infant mortality
rate is also a problem in the north-eastern region.
• Health Issues : PVTGs suffer from many health
problems like anaemia, malaria; gastro-intestinal disorders; micronutrient deficiency and skin diseases due
to poverty, lack of safe drinking water, bad sanitation, lack of health services, superstition and deforestation.
• Agriculture angle : The contributing factors such as dependency on agriculture, natural calamity, crop-
failure, reduced access to land, and lack of employment, etc. are the reasons for poverty in the states like MP
and Chhattisgarh.
• Unemployment : The rates of unemployment are high in the tribals of the island region. STs are confronted
with problems like forced migration, exploitation, displacement due to industrialization led to losing
command over the natural resources, and are unable to cope with the new pattern of work and resources for
living.
• Dependency on MFP : Minor Forest Produce (MFP) is a major source of livelihood for tribals living in forest
areas. Most of the trade-related to the MFPs remained unorganized in nature, which has led to low returns
to the gatherers and high wastages due to limited value addition.
• Inferior technology : The tribes have a low level of technology which is not suitable for modern-day. For
example, they are still practicing shifting cultivation which is problematic for the environment.
• Identity loss : Nowadays, the tribes are coming out of their tribal fold and are increasingly getting
assimilated into the non-tribal population by which they are losing their tribal culture, social institution,
language, etc.
• Vulnerabilities of tribes in Andaman and Nicobar : The fragile tribal communities have been facing
expropriation of their ecosystem by outsiders. The outside influences are impacting their land-use patterns,
use of the sea, and overall biodiversity leading to material and non-material changes.
Report : World Bank in 2011 : In India, 52 percent of the STs belong to the category of Below Poverty Line
(BPL) and 54 percent of them have no access to economic assets such as communication and transport.
PARTICULARLY VULNERABLE TRIBAL GROUP (PVTG) CHARACTERISTICS:

• Pre-agriculture level of technology;
• Mostly homogenous;
• Stagnant or declining population;
• Relatively physically isolated;
• Extremely low literacy;
• Slower rate of change;
• Subsistence level of economy.
GOVERNMENT INITIATIVES:
• Tribal and Harijan Research Institutes : They were set up in MP, Odisha, Bihar, West Bengal, and
Rajasthan. They study the tribal lifestyle, art, and customs for that protection and documentation.
• The Stand Up India scheme : It aims at providing people belonging to the scheduled caste or scheduled
tribe or women of the country a loan between Rs.10 lakhs to Rs.1 crore to promote entrepreneurship among
them.
• Commissioner for the Scheduled Castes and Tribe : To investigate all matters relating to the safeguards
for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes under the Constitution and To report the President on working
of these safeguards.
• Van Dhan Scheme : Under the scheme, 10 Self Help Groups of 30 Tribal gatherers (Van Dhan Vikas Samuh)
will be constituted. Tribal peoples will be given working capital to add value to the products collected from
the jungle.
• Van Dhan Vikas Kendra : It is a multipurpose establishment for providing skill upgradation, capacity
building training, and setting up of primary processing and value addition facilities.
WAY FORWARD
• A region-specific approach : It is required to bring positive change among the tribes. For example, the
unemployment problems of the island region can be resolved by developing the fisheries and tourism
industry at large scale.
• Awareness generation : There is a need for awareness generation is required for tribal communities to avail
of the existing schemes and programs targeted.
• More access to the forest products : Among the forest dwellers should be facilitated in a positive direction.
• Promote sustainable economic activities : Development of cottage industries, plantations crops (e.g.
coconut), fishing, animal husbandry etc. are some viable economic options given the fact that there is not
much scope for agriculture.
• Protect Cultural Heritage : The ANTRI (Andaman and Nicobar Tribal Research and Training Institute) has
been set up with an objective of formulation of policies for tribal integration and protection of PVTGs.
CONCLUSION:
• The various tribes in India are distinct and preservation of their people and culture should be the priority of
the government. Hence, doing the needful for the continuation of tribes is the need of the hour.
2. WOMEN
• Out of the total population in India, women population contributes 48.37% (2011 Census). Women
empowerment became a subject matter all around the world in the past few decades. Many international
organizations and agencies including the United Nations emphasized gender equality as an important issue.
It is said that “empowering women is not alone morally essential, but also economically important for
the country”.
REPORTS
• The National Family Health Survey-4 : It revealed that every third married woman had experienced
physical and/or sexual violence but only 1.5% had sought help from the police.
• International Monetary Fund's research : It has shown that raising women's participation in the
workforce to the level of men can boost the Indian economy by 27%.
ISSUES FACED BY WOMEN:

• Domestic Violence And Dowry Deaths : Women continue to face the most risks from their families. Among
all registered cases of serious crimes against women, the largest share approx. 36% of all cases were under
"cruelty by husband and relatives".
• Pink colorization of jobs : The women are mostly deemed fit for “pink-collar jobs” only, such as teachers,
nurses, receptionists, babysitter, lecturer, etc. which have been stereotyped for women. This denies them
opportunities in other fields.
• Early marriages : Especially of girl children, reduces their opportunities, denying them the chance to get
empowered.
• Girl children denied timely interventions : In nutrition and healthcare, especially in rural areas. Hence
malnutrition and anaemia among Indian girls is one of the highest in the world.

• Education issue : it is denied, and even if allowed in some cases, the girl couldn’t attend classes due to time
constraints as a result of household work.
• Artificial barriers : Women in India face artificial
barriers like stereotypes, media-related issues, and
informal boundaries, which prevent them from advancing
upward in their organization into management-level
positions.
• Lack of political participation of women : The Indian
Parliament currently has 11.8% women representation,
and state assemblies have only 9%. Even though the 73rd
CAA mandates 33% of panchayat seats to be reserved for
women and in spite of that, there is prevalence of
“Sarpanch Pati”.
• Patriarchal society and gender discrimination : A patriarchal society means a male-dominated society,
and gender discrimination is when one sex is given preferential concern over the others.
• Employment grievances : The unequal treatment of women has been a characteristic of provision for
unemployment throughout its existence. Even though women are generally paid less, they are not preferred
in many industries.
• A gap in digital literacy : Digital gender gap in India is huge, as less than a third of India's total interest users
are female i.e. around 29 %.
• Internet access : Globally in developing countries, the number of women using the internet is approx. 12%
less than men.
• Sexual Harassment : It acts as a deterrent to women’s freedom and perpetuates the notion that women are
the weaker sex. The NCRB data highlights that sexual harassment is a risk in all facets of life: in shelter homes,
in the workplace, in the home, on public transport.
SCHEMES FOR WOMEN EMPOWERMENT:

• Beti Bachao Beti Padhao Yojana: It aims to generate awareness and also improve the efficiency of welfare
services for the girl child and to address the declining Child Sex Ratio (CSR).
• Sukanya Samriddhi Yojana: Falling under the ambit of the Beti Bachao Beti Padhao scheme, the Sukanya
Samriddhi Yojana is a government-backed savings scheme for girl children.
• Mahila-E-Haat: online marketing platform that leverages technology to help aspiring women entrepreneurs,
self-help groups, and NGOs to showcase their products and services.
• Mahila Shakti Kendra: to empower rural women with opportunities for skill development, employment,
digital literacy, health and nutrition.
• Working Women Hostel: to ensure availability of safe, convenient accommodation for working families,
along with day-care facilities for their children, wherever possible in urban, semi-urban and rural areas.
• Support to Training and Employment Programme for Women (STEP): set up to provide skills to women
so that they can take up gainful employment.
GOVERNMENT INITIATIVES:
• The National Commission of Women (NCW): started in 1992 to review the constitutional and legal
safeguard of women, recommend remedial measures, facilitate grievance redressal, and advise the
government on policy matters.
• Programs on Cyber Crime investigation : Various Law schools are engaged in conducting several
awareness and training programs on Cyber Laws and Cyber Crimes for judicial officers.
• Training : It is imparted to Police Officers and Judicial officers in the Training Labs established by the
Government.
• Women helpline : The Scheme for Universalisation of Women Helpline has been approved to provide 24-
hour emergency and non-emergency response to all women affected by violence
• National Mission for Empowerment of Women (NMEW) : It aims to achieve holistic empowerment of
women through the convergence of schemes programs of different Ministries Departments of GOI as well as
State Governments.
• National health programs : Such as the National Rural Health Mission (NRHM) and the Family Welfare
Programme have been created to address the maternal health care needs of women across India.

• Pradhan Mantri Matru Vandana Yojna : It is a maternity Benefit Programme being implemented in all the
districts of the country in accordance with the provision of the National Food Security Act, 2013.
• Weekly Iron and Folic Acid Supplementation Programme : To meet the challenge of high prevalence and
incidence of anaemia amongst adolescent girls and boys.
• Project Stree Swabhiman : MeITY announced a project which aims to create a sustainable model for
providing adolescent girls and women access to affordable sanitary products in rural areas.
• Nari Portal : It is a Mission Mode Project under the National E-Governance Plan. It is designed and developed
by the National Informatics Centre (NIC), MeITY.
WAY FORWARD:
• Improving health : Including food security and nutrition Focus on recognizing women’s reproductive rights,
shift of family planning focus also to males, expansion of health insurance schemes and addressing the
intergenerational cycle of under-nutrition.
• Education empowerment : Improve access to pre-primary education, enrolment and retention of
adolescent girls, and address disparities with regard to ICTs.
• Economic equality : Raising visibility, engendering macro-economic policies, generating gender-
disaggregated land ownership database, skill development and equal employment opportunities with
appropriate benefits related to maternity and child care services.
• Governance and decision making : Increasing women’s participation in the political arena, administration,
civil services and corporate boardrooms.
• Enabling environment gender perspective : In housing and infrastructure, gender parity in the mass
media & sports, and support services for all women especially the vulnerable, marginalized, migrant and
single women.
• Environment and climate change impact concerns mitigation : Addressing gender concerns during
distress migration and displacement in times of natural calamities due to climate change and environmental
degradation.
CONCLUSION:
• India has shown a dedicated will to bring changes by pledging to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals
which include ideals of gender justice and women empowerment. Only with constructive planning and
comprehensive changes at various levels in society the new emerging "women power" shall be soon able to
realize its complete potential in India.
3. SCHEDULED CASTE
• Scheduled castes are those castes/races in the country that suffer from extreme social, educational, and
economic backwardness arising out of the age-old practice of untouchability and certain others on account
of lack of infrastructure facilities and geographical isolation, and who need special consideration for
safeguarding their interests and for their accelerated socio-economic development.
CONSTITUTIONAL MECHANISM FOR UPLIFTMENT OF SC:

• Article 17 : Abolishes Untouchability.
• Article 46 : Requires the State ‘to promote with special care the educational and economic interests of the
weaker sections of the people, and, in particular, of the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes, and to
protect them from social injustice and all forms of exploitation.
• Article 335 : Provides that the claims of the members of the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes shall
be taken into consideration, consistently with the maintenance of efficiency of administration, in the making
of appointments to services and posts in connection with the affairs of the Union or of a State.
• Article 15 (4) : Refers to the special provisions for their advancement.
• Article 16 (4A) : Speaks of “reservation in matters of promotion to any class or classes of posts in the services
under the State in favour of SCs/STs, which are not adequately represented in the services under the State’.
• Article 338 : Provides for a National Commission for the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes with duties
to investigate and monitor all matters relating to safeguards provided for them, to inquire into specific
complaints and to participate and advise on the planning process of their socio-economic development etc.
• Article 330 and Article 332 : Respectively provide for reservation of seats in favour of the SC and the ST in
the House of the People and in the legislative assemblies of the States. Under Part IX relating to the
Panchayats and Part IXA of the Constitution relating to the Municipalities, reservation for Scheduled Castes
and Scheduled Tribes in local bodies has been envisaged and provided.
• Article 341 (1) : The President of India, after consultation with the Governor, may specify, “the castes, races,
tribes or parts of groups within castes or races, which shall be deemed to be Scheduled Castes”.
GRIEVANCES OF SCHEDULED CASTE:

• Social grievance: The untouchables were given a very low position in the society. The high-caste Hindus
maintained a social distance from them. They were denied many basic amenities of life which were accorded
to the high-caste Hindus.
• Religious grievance: These pertained to the denial of the right of entering temples which were exclusively
served by the high-caste Brahmins. The untouchables were neither allowed to enter the temples nor served
by the Brahmins. They had no right to worship the Gods and Goddesses in the temple.
• Economic grievance: They had to face many economic hardships and they were not given proper reward
for their service. Traditionally, untouchables were deprived of landed property of their own. They were not
allowed to carry on any business.
• Public Disabilities: Harijans (Scheduled caste) had to face many public indignities because they were denied
the right to use the services of public utilities like wells, public transport as well as educational institutions.
• Educational grievance: Traditionally the untouchables were deprived of getting education. They were not
allowed to use public educational institutions. Even today most of the illiterates are untouchables.
• Human Rights violation: The scheduled caste’s human rights are violated now and then by the majority and
other sections of the society. They were forced to do manual scavenging, working as bonded laborers, etc.,
which violated their basic human rights.
GOVERNMENT INITIATIVES TO ADDRESS THE GRIEVANCES OF SCHEDULED CASTE:

• Pre-Matric Scholarships: The objective of the pre-matric Scheme is to support the parents of SC children
for educating their wards, so that the incidence of drop outs at this stage is minimized.
• Post Matric Scholarship for Scheduled Caste Students (PMS-SC): The Scheme is the single largest
intervention by Government of India for educational empowerment of scheduled caste students.
• National Scheduled Castes Finance and Development Corporation (NSFDC): Set up under the Ministry,
to finance income generating activities of SC beneficiaries living below double the poverty line limits.
• Credit Enhancement Guarantee Scheme for SC: The objective of this Scheme is to provide credit guarantee
facility to Young and start-up entrepreneurs belonging to SC.
• The Protection of Civil Rights Act, 1955: In pursuance of Article 17 of the Constitution of India, the
Untouchability (Offences) Act, 1955 was enacted.
• SC and ST (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989: Financial assistance is provided to the States/ UTs for
implementation of these Acts, by way of relief to atrocity victims, incentive for inter-caste marriages,
awareness generation, setting up of exclusive Special courts, etc.
• Upgradation of Merit of SC Students : The objective of the Scheme is to upgrade the merit of Scheduled
Caste students studying in Class IX to XII by providing them with facilities for education in residential/non-
residential schools.
• Dr. Ambedkar Foundation : The primary objective of setting up of the Foundation is to promote Dr.
Ambedkar’s ideology and philosophy and also to administer some of the schemes which emanated from the
Centenary Celebration Committee’s recommendations.
WAY FORWARD:
• Attitudinal change : Needs to be brought about among the upper caste through the use of local Panchayat
level officials who need to disseminate information regarding the rights, legal provisions and ensure
community places are open to all.
• Police need to be sensitised : To take due notice of violation of dalits rights and act stringently rather than
turning a blind eye.
• Fear of reporting crimes : Dalits fear reporting such crimes fearing backlash in the community they live.
Such barriers need to be dispelled by strengthening and reaching out to them through institutions already in
place namely the Nation commission for SCs etc.
• Integrating social and cultural transformation : With an economic alternative is critical.

• Huge investments required : It will be needed in upskilling and educating dalits and government needs to
create an abundance of new jobs within the formal sector and lowering barriers to job creation.
• Employment generation for women : Increased availability of stable-wage jobs for women is critical to
preventing their socio-economic exploitation. The Women Reservation Bill should be passed as soon as
possible to increase the effective participation of women in the politics of India.
• Bridging the deep-rooted biases through sustained reconditioning : It is only possible by promoting the
idea of gender equality and uprooting the social ideology of male child preferability.
• Bridging implementation gaps : Government or community-based bodies must be set up to monitor the
programs devised for the welfare of the society.
CONCLUSION:
• Stringent laws only have never helped its cause and attitudinal change in perception toward the dalits and
for Dalit toward themselves need to change through active interventions which is well possible within the
existing framework and will power.
4. MINORITIES
• The term “Minority” has not been properly defined anywhere in the Indian Constitution. But minority
status has been conferred on many groups. However, The National Commission for Minorities Act, 1992
in Section 2(c) of the act defines a minority as “a community notified as such by the Central government”.
In India, this applies to Muslim, Christians, Sikhs, Buddhist and Parsis (Zoroastrian), Jain religions.
• Article 1 of the UN Declaration of Human Rights states : “All human beings are born free and equal in
dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a
spirit of brotherhood.”
CONSTITUTIONAL PROVISIONS:
• Article 16(1)&(2): Citizens’ right to equality of opportunity in matters relating to employment or
appointment to any office under the State.
• Article 25(1): People’s freedom of conscience and right to freely profess, practise and propagate religion,
subject to public order, morality and other Fundamental Rights.
• Article 28: People’s freedom as to attendance at religious instruction or religious worship in educational
institutions wholly maintained.
• Article 29: Any group living within the jurisdiction of India is entitled to preserve and promote its own
language, script or literature, and culture.
• Article 30(1): Right of all religious and linguistic minorities to establish and administer educational
institutions of their choice.
• Article30(2): Freedom of minority-managed educational institutions from discrimination in the matter of
receiving aid from the State.
• Article 36: It states that a minority group, whether based on religion or language, shall have the right to
establish and administer educational institutions of their choice.
• Article 51A: To promote harmony and the spirit of common brotherhood amongst all the people of India
transcending religious, linguistic and regional or sectional diversities; to renounce practices derogatory to
the dignity of women; To value and preserve the rich heritage of our composite culture.
PROBLEMS FACED BY MINORITIES IN INDIA:

• Problem of Identity : Because of the differences in socio-cultural practices, history and backgrounds,
minorities have to grapple with the issue of identity. This gives rise to the problem of adjustment with the
majority community.
• Problem of Security : Different identities and their small number relative to the rest of the society develop
feelings of insecurity about their life, assets and well-being. This sense of insecurity may get accentuated at
times when relations between the majority and the minority communities in a society are strained or not
very cordial.
• Problem Relating to Equity : The minority community in a society may remain deprived of the benefit of
opportunities of development as a result of discrimination. Because of the difference in identity, the minority
community develops the perception of the sense of inequity.

• Problem of Communal Tensions and Riots : Communal tensions and riots have been incessantly
increasing since independence. Whenever the communal tensions and riots take place for whatever reason,
minority interests get threatened
• Lack of Representation in Civil Service and Politics : The Constitution provides for equality and equal
opportunities to all its citizens including the religious minorities; the biggest minority community, that is,
Muslims have a feeling among them that they are neglected.
• Reservations concern : The backward classes not having access to proper education have had the privileges
of reservation, which takes a large proportion of seats either in jobs or schools/colleges- this makes people
in general category hostile towards the reserved sections, especially the minorities.
• Employment opportunities : Inability of the government to create better employment opportunities for the
large section of youth has created economic backwardness.
STEPS TAKEN BY GOVERNMENT OF INDIA:

• Prime Minister’s new 15-point program : Prime Minister's new 15 point program for the welfare of
minorities, which is an overarching program covering various initiatives of different ministries.
• Upgrading The Skills And Training In Traditional Arts/ Crafts For Development (USTAAD): The
scheme aims at upgrading skills and training in the preservation of traditional ancestral arts and crafts of
minorities.
• Hamari Darohar : To preserve the rich and diverse heritage of minority communities in India.
• Strengthening of State Waqf Boards : It is to provide support for training and administrative costs of State
Wakf Boards, strengthen the state Wakf boards, etc.
• Nai Roshni : The scheme is envisaged to reach out to women through NGOs who will be provided with
financial support for conducting leadership development training so that women are empowered and
emboldened.
• Khwaja Garib Nawaz Senior Secondary School : Established at Ajmer by Maulana Azad Education
Foundation (MAEF) to give a fillip to minority education.
• Minority Cyber Gram (MCG) : The MCG programme seeks to introduce digital literacy skills in identified
minority clusters in India through designated Digital Fellows towards knowledge empowerment and
entitlement gains of minority focused groups and beneficiaries.
WAY FORWARD:
• The global governance network : They must recognize that effort to promote and protect the rights of
minorities must be multidimensional and engage the entire System.
• Ending discrimination : It is often at the root of identity-related tensions. Such tensions have a potential to
develop into crises that could ultimately lead to conflict, forced displacement and, in the worst cases, to
atrocity crimes, including genocide.
• Integrated efforts : What the communities and civil societies need to look after is the sense of developing
an integrative humanistic framework which allows for affirmative discrimination in favor of minorities at the
same time ending avenues for potential abuse.
CONCLUSION:
• Inter-ethnic tensions, divisions and exclusion that remain unaddressed can easily become a source of
instability and conflict. Dealing efficiently with minority-majority relations is central to achieving a durable
peace. In this regard, the protection of national minorities is not only fundamental to enhance social cohesion
in diverse societies, but also essential to achieve democratic security, sustainable development and peace in
a context of instability.
5. SENIOR CITIZENS
• Census 2011: India has 8 million senior citizens (above 60 years of age). This number is expected to increase
significantly in the upcoming years with a rise in the life expectancy to 65 years from 42 years in 1960.
• Prediction : It is predicted that between the years 2000 and 2050, the population of India will grow by 55%.
However, the population above 60 years and 80 years will grow by 326% and 700% respectively. The
percentage of senior citizens, classified as those above 60 years of age, is expected to go up in India from 8%
in 2015 to 19 % in 2050.

LEGAL BACKINGS:
• Article 41 and Article 46 : They are the constitutional provisions for elderly persons. Although directive
principles are not enforceable under the law, it creates a positive obligation towards the state while making
any law.
• Section 20 of Hindu marriage and adoption act, 1956 : It makes it obligatory provisions to maintain an
aged parents.
• Under Section 125 of Criminal Procedure Code : The elder parents can claim maintenance from their
children.
• The Maintenance and Welfare of Parents and Senior Citizens Act, 2007 : It seeks to make it legal for the
children or heirs to maintain their parents or senior citizens of the family.
• The UN convention : Convention on the Rights of Older Persons is proposed in the United nation.
ISSUES OF SENIOR CITIZENS IN INDIA:

• Digital illiteracy : The inability of older family members to understand the modern digital language of
communication, there is a lack of communication between elderly and younger members.
• Ruralisation of the Elderly : According to the 2011 Census, 71 percent of the elderly live in rural India.
There are more problems such as Income insecurity, lack of adequate access to quality health care and
isolation in rural elderly than the urban elderly.
• Migration and its Impact : Due to the migration of the younger people, the elderly are left living alone or
only with their spouse and they face social isolation, poverty, and distress.
• Erosion of traditional values : Consequently, the traditional values and institutions are in the process of
erosion and adaptation, resulting in the weakening of intergenerational ties that were the hallmark of the
traditional family.
GOVERNMENT INITIATIVES FOR SENIOR CITIZENS:

• The 12th plan includes; Scheme for awareness generation for the Maintenance of Parents and Senior
Citizens Act, 2007; Setting up a helpline for senior citizens; Establishing a National Commission for Senior
Citizens, and Establishing a National Trust for the Aged.
• Social Pensions : The National Social Assistance Programme was launched to provide social assistance to
the poor and the destitute.
• National Policy on Older Persons (NPOP), 1999 : It envisages State support to ensure financial and food
security, health care, shelter and other needs of older persons, protection against abuse and exploitation, and
availability of services to improve the quality of their lives.
• Several schemes for senior citizens: Pradhan Mantri Suraksha Bima Yojana; Atal Pension Yojana; Health
Insurance for Senior Citizens; Varishtha Pension Bima Yojana 2017; Assisted Living Devices to Senior
Citizens below Poverty Line; Senior Citizens Welfare Fund, etc.
WAY FORWARD:
• A comprehensive law : For the social security of senior citizens must be enacted.
• An integrated action plan : It must be evolved, involving various stakeholders and departments of the
government.
• Expansion of old age homes and geriatric healthcare : There should be more old age homes constructed,
to ensure an old age home in every district.
• Increasing the monthly pension : Of elderly to a minimum of Rs 2,000 per month.
• Under Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana : Housing for the aged, particularly the aged poor, must be a priority.
• Assisted living facilities: For indigent elderly, particularly those with age-related issues like dementia,
needs policy focus.
• Tax benefits : More tax benefits, or at least removing tax on deposit interest for seniors.
• Care facilities : Enhancing the geriatric care health infrastructure especially in rural areas.
• Special budget : Allocation of a special budget for elderly population at both levels.
• Entertainment concern : Providing entertainment facilities like libraries and clubs at panchayat level.
• Recognition of their efforts : Appreciations for the contributions of elderlies at village level.
CONCLUSION:

• For the welfare and care for the older persons, we must focus on the protection of already existing social
support systems/traditional social institutions such as family and kinship, neighbourhood bonding,
community bonding and community participation must be revived and kins should show sensitivity towards
elderly citizens.
6. DIFFERENTLY ABLED PERSONS

• Any restriction or lack of ability to perform an activity in a manner or within the range considered normal
for human beings, resulting from impairment is termed as a disability. Disability is an important public health
problem especially in developing countries like India.
• The Right of Persons with Disabilities Act, 2016 defines "Person with disability" as a person with long
term physical, mental, intellectual or sensory impairments which, in interaction with barriers, hinders his
full and effective participation in society equally with others.
Census 2011 : In India, out of the total population of 121 crore, about 2.68 Cr persons are ‘Disabled’ (2.21%
of the total population) : Out of 2.68 crore, 1.5 crore are males and 1.18 crore are females; Majority (69%) of
the disabled population resided in rural areas.
CONSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORKS FOR DISABLED IN INDIA:

• Article 41 of the DPSP: It states that State shall make effective provision for securing right to work, to
education and to public assistance in cases of unemployment, old age, sickness and disablement, within the
limits of its economic capacity and development.
• Seventh Schedule : The subject of ‘relief of the disabled and unemployable’ is specified in the state list of the
Seventh Schedule of the constitution.
PROBLEM FACED BY DISABLED SECTION:

• Health :
o A large number of disabilities are preventable, including those arising from medical issues during birth,
maternal conditions, malnutrition, as well as accidents and injuries.
o However, the health sector especially in rural India has failed to react proactively to disability. Further
there are lack of affordable access to proper health care, aids and appliances.
o Healthcare facilities and poorly trained health-workers in rehabilitation centres is another concern.
• Education:
o The education system is not inclusive. Inclusion of children with mild to moderate disabilities in regular
schools has remained a major challenge.
o There are various issues such as availability of special schools, access to schools, trained teachers, and
availability of educational materials for the disabled.
o Further, reservations for the disabled in higher educational institutions has not been fulfilled in many
instances.
• Employment:
o Even though many disabled adults are capable of productive work, disabled adults have far lower
employment rates than the general population.
o The situation is even worse in the private sector, where much less disabled are employed.
• Accessibility : Physical accessibility in buildings, transportation, access to services etc still remain a major
challenge.
• Discrimination/Social Exclusion :
o Negative attitudes held by the families of the disabled, and often the disabled themselves, hinder disabled
persons from taking an active part in the family, community or workforce.
o People suffering from mental illness or mental retardation face the worst stigma and are subject to severe
social exclusion.
• Inadequate data and statistics : The lack of rigorous and comparable data and statistics further hinders
inclusion of persons with disabilities. The major issues with collection of data and measuring disability are:
o Difficult to define disability
o Coverage: Different purposes require different disability data
o Reluctance in reporting disability as disability is considered to be a stigma in many places/societies

• Poor implementation of policies and schemes : It hinders the inclusion of disabled persons. Though
various acts and schemes have been laid down with an aim to empower the disabled, their enforcement face
many challenges.
PROGRAMMES/INITIATIVES FOR DISABLED IN INDIA:

• Accessible India Campaign: A nation-wide flagship campaign for achieving universal accessibility that will
enable persons with disabilities to gain access for equal opportunity and live independently and participate
fully in all aspects of life in an inclusive society.
• Deen Dayal Disabled Rehabilitation Scheme : Under the scheme financial assistance is provided to NGOs
for providing various services to Persons with Disabilities, like special schools, vocational training centres,
community based rehabilitation, pre-school and early intervention etc.
• Assistance to Disabled Persons for Purchase / fitting of Aids and Appliances (ADIP) : The Scheme aims
at helping the disabled persons by bringing suitable, durable, scientifically-manufactured, modern, standard
aids and appliances within their reach.
• National Fellowship for Students with Disabilities (RGMF) : The scheme aims to increase opportunities
for students with disabilities to pursue higher education.
• Schemes of the National Trust : For the Welfare of Persons with Autism, Cerebral Palsy, Mental Retardation
and Multiple Disabilities.
WAY FORWARD:
• Prevention: Preventive health programs need to be strengthened and all children need to be screened at a
young age. Kerala has already started an early prevention programme.
• Awareness : People with disabilities need to be better integrated into society by overcoming stigma. There
should be awareness campaigns to educate and aware people about different kinds of disability
• Employment : Disabled adults need to be empowered with employable skills. The private sector needs to be
encouraged to employ them.
• Better measurement : The scale of disability in India needs to be better understood by improving the
measurement of disability.
• Education : State-wise strategies on education for children with special needs need to be devised. There
should be proper teacher training to address the needs of differently-abled children and facilitate their
inclusion in regular schools.
• Access: Safety measures like road safety, safety in residential areas, public transport system etc, should be
taken up. Further, it should be made legally binding to make buildings disabled-friendly.
• Policy Interventions: More budgetary allocation for welfare of the disabled. There should be a disability
budgeting on the line of the gender budget.
CONCLUSION:
• Merely using the word ‘Divyang’ or ‘differently-abled’ won’t change the psyche of the masses towards
persons with disabilities. It is critical that the government work with civil society and individuals with
disabilities to craft an India where everyone feels welcome and treated with respect, regardless of their
disabilities.

8.COMMUNALISM
TABLE OF CONTENT
• Introduction and Concept of Communalism o Muzaffarnagar Riots (2013)
• Various Definitions of Communalism o Beef consumption, lynching and ensuing
• Element of Communalism deaths
• Historical Background o Ghar Wapsi programmes
• Ancient Period o Hadiya case 2017
• Medieval Period o Religious fundamentalism among youth
• Pre-Independence period o Delhi Riots 2020
• Post-Independence period • Stages in Indian Communalism
• Post-independence major communal violence • Characteristic of Communalism
outbreaks • Contemporary form of Communalism / Types of
o Partition of India,1947 Communalism
o Nellie Massacre (1983) • Causes of Communalism in India
o Anti-Sikh riots, 1984 • Consequences of Communalism
o Operation Blue Star • Step to check the growth of Communalism
o Issue of Kashmiri Hindu pandits (1989) • Remedial Measures to eradicate communalism
o Babri Masjid incident (1992) • Government measures to Control and eradicate
o Godhra Riots (2002) Communalism in India
o Assam violence (2012) • Way forward
1. 'Communalism arises either due to power struggle or relative deprivation.' Argue by giving suitable 2020
illustrations.
2. Distinguish between religiousness/religiosity and communalism giving one example of how the 2017
former has got transformed into the latter in independent India.
INTRODUCTION AND CONCEPT OF COMMUNALISM
“The antagonism practiced by the members of one community against the people of other
community and religion can be termed as communalism” – Ram Ahuja
• Communalism, in a broad sense, means a strong attachment to one’s own community. In popular
discourse in India, it is understood as an unhealthy attachment to one’s own religion.
• The ideology that rises from the religious pluralism, and is to be considered as a social menace.
• Communalism arises out of a belief system, and assumes great solidarity within a community which is
not always true. We find that there are often intercommunity quarrels.
• There are both positive as well as negative aspects of communalism. It disintegrates social fabric and
disturbs peace and integrity.
VARIOUS DEFINITIONS OF COMMUNALISM
Bipin Chandra, in his book, “Communalism in Modern India”, defines as “Communalism

Bipin Chandra is an ideology based on the belief that Indian society is divided into religious
communities, whose economic, political, social and cultural interests diverge and are
even hostile to each other because of their religious differences.”
Communalism is a belief that is characterised by strong antagonism practiced by the
Ram Ahuja members of one community against the people of another community. In some instances,
this rivalry goes to the extent of harming and insulting members of a particular
community and in extreme cases dishonoring women and even killing persons.
ELEMENT OF COMMUNALISM

Mild Stage It is the belief that people who follow the same religion have common secular interests i.e.
common political, social, and cultural interests.
Moderate In a multi-religious society like India, the secular interests of followers of one religion are
Stage dissimilar and divergent from the interests of the followers of another religion.
Extreme Interests of different religious communities are seen to be mutually incompatible,
Stage antagonistic, and hostile.
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
• Communalism in India has a colonial background wherein the rulers used religious contrasts, existing
among the different communities to their advantage by giving them prominence.
• After Independence, economic modernization of India expanded economic opportunities but not enough
to curb unhealthy competitiveness. Job sharing among the different communities from a smaller pool of
opportunities is causing much heartburn.
• Independence from the colonial power unleashed a horrendous communal holocaust, caused by the
partition of the country into two parts on the eve of Independence in 1947.
ANCIENT PERIOD
• Ancient India was united and no such communal feelings were there. People lived peacefully together;
there was acceptance for each other’s culture and tradition.
• For example, Ashoka followed religious tolerance and focused mainly on Dhamma.
MEDIEVAL PERIOD
• In the Medieval period, there are examples such as- Akbar, who was the epitome of secular practices and
believed in propagating such values by abolishing the Jizya tax and starting of Din-I- ilahi and Ibadat Khana.
• However, barring few sectarian rulers like Aurangzeb, who was least tolerant for other religious practices
and performed practices like- imposing taxes on religious practices of other community, destructing temples,
forced conversions, killing of Sikh guru, etc. were instrumental in deepening and establishing the feeling of
communal differences in India.
• But these incidents were not common, as a huge majority of Indians were rural and were aloof from such
influences and so people coexisted peacefully. Overall, the Hindus and Muslims in those days had common
economic and political interests.
PRE-INDEPENDENCE PERIOD
Communalism in modern India is a 20th century concept. Genesis is in modern politics. In India, communalism
has its roots in 1905 when partition of Bengal on religious lines took place. Further, the British provided for
separate electorates for Muslims and Hindus under Government of India Act, 1909.
• The Shuddhi and Sangathan movements among the Hindus and the Tabligh and
Tanzim religious movement among the Muslims had invoked religious revivalism.
• These movements tried to glorify the past and tried to compare them with their
Religious present state in order to consolidate their own gains. All these paved the way for
Revivalism in Hindu nationalism and Islamic nationalism.
1924 • The British took advantage of this situation and began to lay the foundations for a
two-nation theory. The British instead of trying to maintain communal harmony
used the cultural and religious differences between the Hindus and Muslims to
achieve political gains. The official patronage was much stronger than the appeal of
nascent nationalism.
• The period between 1923 and 1930 witnessed intense communal violence in India.
The violence began with the Moplah Rebellion which intensified hatred among the
Communal Hindus and Muslims in the Malabar region.
Violence • The period also witnessed more communal riots than any other period in history.
(1923-30) Serious communal riots were recorded in Amritsar, Multan (Punjab), Meerut,
Moradabad, Allahabad and Ajmer. The most serious riots happened at Saharanpur
in connection with the Muharram festival.

• Further, the Communal Award by the British in the third-round table conference
further fueled the communal hatred among the religious communities.
• To fuel communalism and appease various communities, the British provided
separate representation for Muslims, Sikhs, the Anglo-Indians, the Indian
Communal Christians, the Europeans, the Landlords, the depressed classes and the commerce
Award, 1932 and industry.
• The Communal Award was vehemently opposed by Gandhiji. The award with the
main aim to appease Muslim and other communities largely resulted in fragmenting
the Indian society and disturbing the communal harmony. It can be said that the
communal consciousness in India was a product of the transformation of
Indian society under the impact of colonialism.
POST-INDEPENDENCE PERIOD
• Colonialism is perceived as a prominent factor for emergence of communalism in India. However,
overthrowing colonial rule proved to be only a necessary condition for fighting communalism, not sufficient.
Because even post-independence, communalism persisted owing to various factors as have been discussed
before. Communalism has been the biggest threat to the secular fabric of our nation.
• The first six years of the eighties once more created an upward incline in the riot-graph. Communal
violence is backed by religious arguments and backing. It feels that those resorting to it are neither true
Hindus nor true Muslims. Religion does not preach enmity.
POST-INDEPENDENCE MAJOR COMMUNAL VIOLENCE OUTBREAKS

PARTITION OF INDIA,1947
• The manifestations of communal killings and disturbances resulted in the Calcutta killings (1946) in which
thousands lost their lives within a span of five days, the butchery of Hindus at Noakhali in Bengal and Muslims
in Bihar, the carnage of partition riots in various parts of India and the assassination of Gandhiji by a Hindu
fanatic. Communalism resulted in the division of India and the creation of Pakistan.
• After partition, millions of the population were forced to move from both sides of the border. Hindus in
Pakistan and Muslims in India were killed in masses, women were raped, and many children lost their
parents. There was hatred everywhere, violence didn’t see anything except bloodshed.
• Later, it turned into the problem of refugees and their rehabilitation became one of the biggest challenges
for independent India.
NELLIE MASSACRE (1983):

• About a thousand Assamese people surrounded the Nellie village with deadly weapons. The minority people
living in the village were attacked resulting in the death of 1800 people officially.
• The conflicts were majorly directed to eject “outsiders” by the “original inhabitants” of Assam to protect
their land, language and ethnicity.
ANTI-SIKH RIOTS, 1984:

• This is one of the bloodsheds in India, where Sikhs in large numbers were massacred by the anti- Sikh mob.
• This massacre took place in response to the assassination of Prime Minister Indira Gandhi by his own Sikh
body Guard in response to her actions authorizing the military operation.
OPERATION BLUE STAR:

• It is a code name given to an Indian Military Operation to remove the separatists who were hidden
inside the Golden Temple at Amritsar on 5th June 1984. The operation was ordered by the then Prime
Minister Indira Gandhi, primarily to take control of the Harmandir Sahib Complex in Amritsar (popularly
known as the Golden Temple).
• The Indian military entered into the premises of the temple to drive out the Sikh extremist religious leader,
Jarnail Singh Bhindranwale and his armed followers.
ISSUE OF KASHMIRI HINDU PANDITS (1989):

• Spread of Islamic fundamentalism and terrorism in the Kashmir valley led to mass killings and large-scale
exodus of Kashmiri pundits during 1989-90. The region continues to be threatened by communal violence.
BABRI MASJID INCIDENT (1992):

• On December 1992, a large crowd of Hindu kar sevaks demolished the 16th century Babri masjid (mosque)
in Ayodhya, Uttar Pradesh claiming the site to be Ram Janmabhoomi (birthplace of Ram).
GODHRA RIOTS (2002):

• The Gujarat riot was caused by a fire incident in a train in which 58 Hindus were killed while they were
returning from Ayodhya.
ASSAM VIOLENCE (2012):

• There were frequent clashes between the Bodos and Bengali speaking Muslims due to increased competition
for livelihood, land and political power.
• In 2012, one such outbreak escalated into a riot in Kokrajhar, when unidentified miscreants killed four Bodo
youths at Joypur.
MUZAFFARNAGAR RIOTS (2013):

• The clashes between the Hindu Jats and Muslim communities in Muzaffarnagar, UP resulted in at least
62 deaths, injured 93 people, and left more than 50,000 displaced.
• The riot has been described as "the worst violence in Uttar Pradesh in recent history", with the army
being deployed in the state for the first time in the last 20 years.
BEEF CONSUMPTION, LYNCHING AND ENSUING DEATHS:

• The issue of beef consumption and transportation has been a contentious issue in India and has triggered
communal outbreaks in various parts of the country.
• Muslims were the target of 51% of violence centred on bovine issues over nearly eight years (2010 to 2017)
and comprised 86% of 28 Indians killed in 63 incidents, according to an IndiaSpend content analysis.
GHAR WAPSI PROGRAMMES:

• It is a series of religious conversion activities, facilitated by Indian Hindu organizations such as the Vishva
Hindu Parishad (VHP) and Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS), to facilitate conversion of non-Hindus to
Hinduism.
• While the organizing groups claimed that people voluntarily came forward to convert to Hinduism, some
participants claimed that they were forced to do so. Also, raising the fear of ‘Love Jihad’ for inter-faith
marriages.
HADIYA CASE 2017:

• A 24-year-old Hindu woman, Akhila, who converted to Islam and took a new name, Hadiya was at the center
of the ‘love jihad’ controversy.
• The Kerala High Court annulled her marriage, sent her to her parents’ home, and observed that “she was a
weak and vulnerable girl capable of being exploited.”
• However, the Supreme Court protected her freedom to choose her religion and freedom of movement and
asked her to return to college to continue her studies.
RELIGIOUS FUNDAMENTALISM AMONG YOUTH:

• It has been deemed as a major challenge among the youth. There is an on-going threat of radicalization
among Kashmiri youth, which can give an impetus to already existing separatist tendencies.
• Further, the youth have fallen prey to fundamentalist tendencies of terrorist groups like ISIS as much Indian
radicalized youth have joined the group.
DELHI RIOTS 2020:

• In the year 2020, Delhi witnessed its first major riot since 1984 between Hindu-Muslim communities. In
a series of bloodshed, property destruction, and rioting in North East Delhi, 53 people were killed.

STAGES IN INDIAN COMMUNALISM

• India is a land of diversity. It is known for lingual, ethnic, cultural and racial diversity. As we have discussed
above, communalism in India is a modern phenomenon, which has become a threat to India’s Unity in
Diversity. We will see the various stages:-
• First stage was rise of nationalist Hindu, Muslim, Sikh, etc. with only first element of
communalism as discussed above. Roots of this were led in the later part of the 19th
century with Hindu revivalist movements like Shuddhi movement of Arya Samaj and
First stage – Cow protection riots of 1892.
Rise of • On the other hand, movements like Faraizi movement started Haji Shariatullah in
nationalist Bengal to bring the Bengali Muslims back on the true path of Islam, was one of the
religious reform movement which had bearing on communalism in 19th century.
• Later people like Syed Ahmed Khan, who despite having a scientific and rational
approach, projected Indian Muslims as a separate community (qaum) having interests
different from others.
• In this stage of Indian communalism, the communal politics was liberal, democratic and
Second Stage- humanist with nationalist values. This stage extended till 1937.
Liberal • In this stage, people belonging to a particular group start believing that their social,
Communalism economic, political and cultural interests are different from that of the other
communities.
• The third stage of communalism had a fascist syndrome. This form of communalism
Third Stage – was extreme and was primarily based on fear and hatred. In this stage, the communal
Extreme elements made use of violence and demanded a separate nation.
Communalism • This stage is characterised by the belief of the people that their interests are not only
different but are also contradictory with other communities. It was practised by
Muslim League and Hindu Mahasabha after 1937.
CHARACTERISTIC OF COMMUNALISM
Quite often communalism is misinterpreted as a synonym for religion or simply for a sense of belonging
to a community. Communalism is exploitation of religion, sometimes open and sometimes subtle.
• Communalism is an extreme community or caste loyalty in the most irrational form. It completely
undermines the interests of other communities or groups.
• Communalism ignores human values and social welfare; It mostly rests on prejudices;
• Communalism acquires a new lease of life through the provisions of constitutional safeguard to the deprived
sections of the population. Communalism is contrary to the spirit of our Constitution.
• Communalism contrasts with the aim of bringing about a casteless society. Hence, it is antidemocratic.
• Communalism adversely affects the outcome of elections.
• It has a broader base which encompasses social, economic and political aspects for its manifestations;
• It causes rivalry and violence among the masses;
• It is used by the higher class people and elites as an instrument for division and exploitation;
• It strikes at the roots of secularism and national integration. Thus, Communalism hinders the process
of national integration.
CONTEMPORARY FORM OF COMMUNALISM/ TYPES OF COMMUNALISM

T.K. Oomen, a famous sociologist, has suggested that there are six dimensions of communalism. These are:
• Assimilationist Communalism: When a larger religious community tries to assimilate the smaller ones such
that the latter's culture gets subdued. For example, the Hindu Code Bill is applicable to Sikh, Buddhists and
Jains as well. Tribals were considered as backward Hindus by GS Ghure (Father of Indian Sociology)
• Welfarist Communalism: Working for the welfare of one’s own community. Example: Establishing hostels,
scholarships, employment opportunities etc.
• Retreatist Communalism: The members of the Baha'i community (Bahaism religion) proscribe/ forbid their
members from participating in political processes as it is based on the ideology of unity of God, religion,
mankind etc.

• Retaliatory Communalism: Communities have relatively hostile interests and often it is manifested in the
form of communal violence
• Separatist Communalism: The demand for autonomy based on religion, however, within the Indian union.
Example- the demand for Punjab state
• Secessionist communalism: Demand for a separate nation based on religion. Example- the demands for
Khalistan, Azad Kashmir.
CAUSES OF COMMUNALISM IN INDIA
• The demand for a separate electorate and the organization of the Muslim League was
the practical manifestations of this line of thought.
• The British policy of divide and rule used religion to divide India by giving separate
Historical electorates for Muslims and later it was given to Sikhs and Anglo Indians.
Cause • Ultimately, the partition of the country provided further antagonistic feelings
towards each other.
• In India, the politics of opportunism is the biggest cause of communalism driven by
the middle/ upper class for secular gains and trusted by the lower sections that identify
with the cause.
• Rise of the communal leaders
• Formation of political parties and organizations on the basis of religion
Political Cause • Orthodoxy and obscurantism
• Organized and militant fundamentalist organizations
• Political interests and communal behaviour to capture political power is the root cause
for communal riots in India.
• Poor Economic Conditions and Economic Disparity
Economic • Competition for scarce economic resources
Cause • Scramble for jobs, clashes of economic interests and personal animosities play an
important part in communal riots.
• Misrepresentation of historical evidence.
• Psychological causes like prejudices against other religions.
• Negative effect of mass media.
Social Cause • A struggle for property has led occasionally to widespread religious conflicts.
• Sexual offences have been a major cause for communal conflict.
• Provocation of communal sentiments like Cow slaughter and religious processions of
one community passing places of worship of the other often incite riots.
• It is often accused of sensationalism and disseminates rumors as "news" which
sometimes resulted in further tension and riots between two rival religious groups.
• Lots of movies have been pictured on the abovementioned communal violence, which
Role of Media can give us understanding about the damages and harm done by these violence-
“Bombay” & “Black Friday” based on 1992 attacks. “Train to Pakistan” based on the
novel of Khuswant singh about partition of India, 1947.
• “Gandhi” is a portrayal of Direct-Action Day and partition of India.
• “Hawayein” based of Sikh riots (1984) and “Machis” about Punjab terrorism.
• Riot is “a violent disturbance of peace by an assembly or body of persons,” a pogrom is
“an organised massacre”. We have had at least two pogroms since Independence. One
Psychological was against the Sikhs in Delhi in the wake of the assassination of Indira Gandhi in 1984.
Cause • The other was in Mumbai in the aftermath of the demolition of the Babri Masjid, in
December 1992 and January 1993.
• Yet, after the trauma of Partition, riots decreased in frequency. The graph began to rise
only after the Jabalpur riots in 1961.
CONSEQUENCES OF COMMUNALISM

• Hinders in economic progress: It hinders economic progress as owing to communalism, a nation does not
make progress in terms of economy, culture and polity. Communalism obstructs economic development,
social progress, cultural assimilation and political tolerance.
• Hindrance social progress and National Unity: Checks the unity of the nation since in communalism
people are guided by the vested and narrow interests of their own community or group; they lose sight of the
broader interest of the nation.
• Functions against the spirit of democracy: Democracy presupposes equality. It crosscuts the barriers of
caste, class or any other forms of inequality. Democracy also promotes universal education to create
awareness against caste or class consciousness. Communalism is fundamentally opposed to democratic
principles.
• Diverted to unproductive activities: The flow of labor from productive activities is diverted to
unproductive activities; there is massive destruction of public properties to spread the ideology.
• Hatred among different religious sections: It causes hatred among different religious sections in society
and disrupts the peaceful social fabric of our society.
• Increase in violence against any particular community: A sudden increase in violence against any
particular community causes mass exodus and stampede which in turn kills any number of people.
• Makes nation non-inclusive: Communal clashes not only create bitterness and a sense of insecurity but
have far-reaching economic and political consequences as well. They retard economic development.
Politically, they weaken the forces of democracy. The minorities are the worst sufferers of communal blazes.
• Mass killing of poor: With mass killings, the real sufferers are the poor, who lose their house, their near and
dear ones, their lives, their livelihood, etc. It violates human rights from all directions. Sometimes children
lose their parents and will become orphans for a lifetime.
STEP TO CHECK THE GROWTH OF COMMUNALISM
• Political communalism should be avoided as directed by the Supreme Court's

directives.
• Identification and mapping of riot prone areas. For Example, the Delhi police used
Political: drones to monitor to maintain vigil during communal festivals.
• Media, movies, and other cultural platforms can be influential in promoting peace and
harmony.
• Social Media should be monitored for violent and repulsive content and taken off
immediately.
• Poverty alleviation measures are thus important for promoting communal harmony.
• Eradicating the problem of unemployment among the youths, illiteracy, and poverty and
Economic: that too with honesty and without any discrimination.
• Reducing the educational and economic backwardness of minorities like Muslims.
This can uplift their socioeconomic status and reduce their deprivation compared to
Hindus.
• Religious leaders and preachers should promote rational and practical things
through religion promoting peace and security.
Social: • Children in schools must be taught through textbooks and pamphlets to maintain
brotherhood and respect for all religions.
• Creating awareness in the society about the ill effects of communism through mass
media.
• A well-developed society must also develop culturally.
• Religious leaders must promote cultural activity within the society so that the
Cultural: community's involvement in communal things decreases which leads to prosperity and
happiness in the society.
• Social Media should be monitored for violent and repulsive content and taken off
immediately by means of culture.
REMEDIAL MEASURES TO ERADICATE COMMUNALISM

• Promotion of Secularism: Promotion of Secularism worldview as secularism gives equal to all religious
groups and seeks to do political justice to the identities of India's various linguistic and cultural groups.
• Promote Healthy Public Opinion: Healthy Public Opinion building by motivating and educating the people.
The internal thought processes of people are to be influenced so that they will not blindly follow the dictates
of the community.
• Education and awareness: Education will play a major role in changing the attitudes and opinions of people
regarding communalism.
• Encouragement of Inter-religious Marriages: Inter-caste marriages would herald a new beginning by
putting an end to the practice of inferiority/superiority because of the closer type of social interaction and
intermixing among different communities and caste groups.
• Removal of socio-economic and politico-cultural: Removal of socio-economic and politico cultural
inequality because Socio-economic and politico-cultural inequality between different caste groups and sub-
caste groups has been the main cause for creating wide social, economic, political and cultural differences.
• Abolition of Communal Parties in our country: The removal of these differences would lead to the placing
of all communities in the same socio-cultural footing.
• Role of media: right and fair reporting of media will also help to eradicate communalism from India.
• Role of Civil Societies: Civil societies are the pillar of our societies and their contribution strengthens the
democratic pillar of our society. It gives a platform to every citizen which helps to solve the communal issues.
In the face of the dangers of communalism, it becomes necessary to reassert the basic principles upon which the
Indian state has been founded. Policy making must continuously strive to strengthen the two pillars of Indian
unity—secularism and democracy.
GOVERNMENT MEASURES TO CONTROL AND ERADICATE COMMUNALISM IN INDIA

• The National Human Rights Commission (NHRC) in India fights for the causes of rights of the victims, but
its recommendations are advisory in nature, which doesn’t give a significant outcome.
• Nanavati-Mehta commission: Nanavati-Mehta commission set up by the Gujarat government in 2002 to
enquire about Gujarat violence.
• Sachar committee: Sachar committee, appointed in 2005, recommended the establishment of an Equal
opportunity commission (EOC) in 2010. EOC was to set up a grievance redressal mechanism for all individual
cases of discriminations- religion, caste, gender & physical ability among others.
• Ranganath Misra Commission: says that 10% should be reserved for Muslims and 5% for other minorities
in central and state government jobs in all cadres and grades.
• Need to define Indian law regarding communal violence: The Indian law defines communal violence as,
“any act or series of acts, whether spontaneous or planned, resulting in injury or harm to the person and or
property, knowingly directed against any person by virtue of his or her membership of any religious or
linguistic minority, in any State in the Union of India, or Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes within the
meaning of clauses (24) and (25) of Article 366 of the Constitution of India”
• Need of clear policy of law related rehabilitation of victims: Though India is under the grip of communal
violence, but till now, other than provisions under IPC and CrPC, there is no firm law to punish the originators
of such violence, no clear policy for relief and rehabilitation of victims. There are no regulations for security
of witnesses, for accountability of public servants, etc.
• Prevention of Communal and Targeted Violence (Access to Justice and Reparations) Bill, 2011: This
lapsed in the parliament. The bill provided for a seven-member National authority for communal harmony,
justice and reparations. It attempted to safeguard the minority sections. This has already been recommended
by the Sachar committee and Ranganath Mishra Commission.
• Requirement of well-trained rapid action force: There specialised battalions of Rapid Action force in
India, which is a wing of CRPF, to deal with riots, riot like situations, crowd control, rescue and relief
operations, and related unrest.
WAY FORWARD
Thus, in order to get rid of the problem of communalism in India, there is a need for collective efforts. All will
have to discharge their duties. If we do so, harmony will definitely prevail. Everybody will prosper. This must be
done; this was the dream of Mahatma Gandhi for a “free India”. There is also need to approach holistically to
tackle this situation:
• Posting of secular-minded district and police officials in riot-prone areas.

• Setting up of special courts to try communal offences.
• Providing immediate relief and adequate financial assistance to victims of communal riots for their
rehabilitation.
• Taking severe action against all those who incite communal tensions or take part in violence.
• Conduct studies and research on the question of avoidance of discrimination against minorities
• The appropriate legal and welfare measures to be undertaken by the union and state governments.

9.REGIONALISM
TABLE OF CONTENT
• Introduction • Regionalism V/S Nationalism
• Concept of Regionalism • Federalism and Regionalism
• Characteristic of Regionalism • Measures to contain Regionalism in India
• Constitutional Provision to Promote National • What is the ‘Son of Soil’ doctrine ?
Unity and Integrity • Regionalism as a Sub-State Movement
• Forms of Regionalism • Demand for separate State
• Types of Regionalism • Is regionalism a threat to national unity and
• Growth of Regionalism at International Level integrity?
• Factors responsible for regionalism in India • Way Forward
• Why Regionalism still persist in India ? • Government Efforts To Promote National
• Manifestation of Regionalism Integrity
• Impact of Regionalism: • Conclusion
o Positive Impact • Reserving quota in jobs for local
o Negative Impact
1. Do you agree that regionalism in India appears to be a consequence of rising cultural assertiveness? 2020
Argue.
2. Discuss whether the formation of new states in recent times is beneficial or not for the economy of 2018
India.
3. What is the basis of regionalism? Is it that unequal distribution of benefits of development on a 2016
regional basis eventually promotes regionalism? Substantiate your answer.
4. Has the formation of linguistic states strengthened the cause of Indian Unity? 2016
5. The growing feeling of regionalism is an essential factor in the generation of demand for a separate 2013
state. Discuss.
INTRODUCTION
• India is a highly diverse pluralist society and a federal state whose social dynamics in the last 65 years
needs to be understood and analysed rationally. In theory or practice regionalism is affinity towards regional
rather than central systems of administration or economic, cultural, or political.
• The 12th five-year targets for “Faster, sustainable and more inclusive growth”, which will be
instrumental for balanced regional growth.
CONCEPT OF REGIONALISM
• Regionalism is emphasis on regional locale and characteristics in art or literature a word, custom, accent,
or other characteristic associated with a specific region consciousness of and loyalty to a distinct region
with a homogeneous population.
• The concept of region varies with the criteria for its demarcation. Earlier, regions were defined as
natural systems created by topographical features. But they were defined in terms of social relationships and
organizational principles.
Regionalism in a • It inspires people to develop an understanding of brotherhood and unity, which seeks
positive sense to protect the interests of a particular region and promote the welfare and
development of the state and its people.
Regionalism in • It indicates excessive attachment to one’s region, which is a significant threat to the
the negative unity and integrity of the country. e.g. khalistan demand, Bodoland demand; greater
sense nagalim.
CHARACTERISTIC OF REGIONALISM
• Regionalism is conditioned by economic, social, political and cultural disparities.
• Regionalism at times is a psychic phenomenon.

• Regionalism is built around as an expression of group identity as well as loyalty to the region.
• Regionalism presupposes the concept of development of one's own region without taking into consideration
the interest of other regions.
• Regionalism prohibits people from other regions from being benefited by a particular region.
CONSTITUTIONAL PROVISION TO PROMOTE NATIONAL UNITY AND INTEGRITY

• Freedom of speech and expression (Art. 19) to express regional priorities and criticize the government if
a region is being neglected.
• Fifth and sixth schedule to preserve tribal identity.
• Article 38 (DPSP) to deal with inequality in income status and opportunity among individuals and regions.
• Schedule 7 (division of power) between center and state to give more regional autonomy through∙ state
• Eighth schedule recognized different regional languages in the constitution of India∙
• Article 79 and 80 provisions of Rajya Sabha as Council of States.
• Article 368 amendment procedure for having ratification by half of the States if an amendment is affecting
federalism.
FORMS OF REGIONALISM
• Separatism is a demand for separate statehood within the Indian Union. This kind of
Separatism sub-regionalism was validated by the State Reorganization Act 1956.
(Demand for • E.g. Demands for the creation of Bodoland in Assam; Gorkhaland for ethnic Gorkha
separate state) (Nepali) people in West Bengal; a Bundelkhand state (covering part of MP and part of
UP for promoting the development of the region)
Demand for • The union territories have been forwarding such demands like the NCT of Delhi. E.g.
Full Most of such demands have already been accepted. In 1971, Himachal Pradesh got the
And status of a full state and thereafter Manipur, Tripura, Mizoram, Arunachal Pradesh
Independent (former NEFA) and Sikkim got full statehoods.
Statehood
• Since the 1960's, with the emergence of regional parties, the demand for state
The Demand autonomy has been gaining more and more strength due to the central political
for interference. E.g. The DMK in Tamil Nadu, Akali Dal in Punjab, Telugu Desam party in
Regional Andhra Pradesh, Assam Gana Parishad in Assam, National conference in J&K and
Autonomy Forward Bloc in West Bengal have been continuously demanding a larger share of
powers for the states.
• Secessionism is a form of regionalism that involves militant and fundamentalist groups
Secessionism advocating a separation from India on the basis of ethnicity or any other factor. E.g.
NSCN (IM), Islamic fundamentalist groups in J&K, ULFA in Assam, Khalistan movement.
Demand for • In some of the states, people belonging to various regions have been demanding
Regional recognition of their regional identities. E.g. in J & K, the Ladakhis are demanding a
Autonomy regional status
within a State
TYPES OF REGIONALISM
• It is an expression of group identity of several states. In this type of regionalism, the

group of states joins hands to take a common stand on the issue of mutual interest
vis-a-vis another group of states or at times against the union.
1. Supra-State • The group identity thus forged is negative in character and based on specific
Regionalism: issues. It is not an instance of a permanent merger of state identities in the collective
identity.
• Northeastern states in India may be said to have possessed the supra-state
regionalism.

• It is coterminous with provincial territories and involves juxtaposing the identities

2. Inter-State of one or more states against another.
Regionalism: • It is also issue-specific. Disputes between Karnataka and Tamil Nadu over the
distribution of Cauvery water may be construed as inter-state regionalism.
• It indicates that wherein a pan of the state strives for self-identity and self-
3. Intra-State development and, therefore, it is taken in a positive sense. In negative terms, it
Regionalism: militates against the collective interest of the state as well as the nation.
• As, for instance, there is often a feeling of coastal region and western region in Odisha,
coastal region and Telangana region in Andhra Pradesh, and so on.
GROWTH OF REGIONALISM AT INTERNATIONAL LEVEL

• In the contemporary world the Post-Cold War expansion of regionalism, across different regions, had a
powerful impact on its status in International Relations and International economy. Early post-war
regionalisms were clustered around three main types:
1. Security Regionalism: Among the countries focusing on security in the region (like NATO, SEATO, and
CENTO).
2. Economic Regionalism: Groups concentrating on economics (EEC, NAFTA, PAFTA).
3. Multidimensional Regionalism: More multipurpose organizations (OAS, OAU or LAS).
FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR REGIONALISM IN INDIA

1. Geographical Factor: The territorial orientation based on geographical boundaries relates to the
inhabitants of a particular region, which are symbolic, at least in the Indian context, because of the linguistic
distribution along geographic boundaries.
2. Historical Factors:
• Ancient Phase of History: During the Ancient phase of history, it was only during the time of Ashoka’s
rule, India became a single political entity. In the other phases, India was largely ruled by regional
kingdoms, For Example, Cholas and Pandyas of South India and Satavahanas of Andhra.
• Medieval Phase of History: During Medieval India, India was ruled by kings who belonged to various
sections of Islam. It was only during Akbar’s rule, India again became united. Even though his rule had a
central government like character, there were numerous governors who ruled the smaller provinces and
had their own autonomy and culture. For Example, The Rajputs.
• British Rule in India: India again became politically united during British rule. The British however, due
to their policy of divide and rule, encouraged the regional differences. They gave autonomy and
concessions to numerous princely states. They fought wars by using one king against another.
• Economic Factors: Uneven economic growth and development in many parts of the country may be
construed as the prime reason for regionalism and separatism. There are also certain areas where the
worth of independence is yet to be realized in terms of socio-economic development.
3. Cultural and Religious Factors:
• Southern India (home of Dravidian cultures), which is itself a region of many regions, is evidently
different from the north, the west, the central and the north-east. Even the east of India is different from
the North-East of India comprising today seven constituent units of Indian federation with the largest
concentration of tribal people.
• Past Traditions: Reverence of historical local leaders by the local people. E.g. Shivaji in Maharashtra,
Maha Rana Pratap in Rajasthan, Lachit Borphukan of Assam.
• Caste system: The caste system attributed differing social status to different sections of the population.
It has also promoted sectarian and sometimes regional aspirations. For Example, The Vanniyars of North
Tamil Nadu are demanding a separate nation based on caste identity.
• Rituals and Festivals: Festivals of both religious and secular nature are celebrated in India. But they are
numerous and vary according to the region. Hinduism is followed by a majority of people in India. Even
within Hinduism, festivals and rituals vary widely based on region. There are numerous tribal festivals
that showcase the tribal way of life.
4. Politico-Administrative Factors: Political parties, especially the regional political parties as well as local
leaders, exploit the regional sentiments, regional deprivation and convert them to solidify their factional
support bases. They give place to the regional problems in their election manifesto and promise for political
and regional development.
6. Ethnic Factors: These ethnic differences formed the base for demands for political autonomy and secession.
For example, the Nagas of Nagaland are demanding a nation based on their ethnic identity. Some demands
have taken the form of violent armed struggle with established governments. All these factors pose a threat
to India’s unity.
7. Scarcity of resources: Due to the scarcity of resources, which is shared by two or more regions, often, the
competition is fuelled by regional aspirations. Example - Cauvery water dispute.
WHY REGIONALISM STILL PERSIST IN INDIA ?

• Low rate of economic growth: The economic growth of India has not been commensurate vis-à-vis its high
population growth. Consequently, not enough opportunities could be created evenly across all regions of the
Indian State, which is still developing.
• Socio-economic and political organisation of states: Relative failure of land reforms in majority of states
and the feudal mentality still persists. Bhoodan and Gramdan movements were not enthusiastically carried
and even land under land Banks were not efficiently distributed.
• Lack of infrastructural facilities in backward states: The level of infrastructural development, such as-
power distribution, irrigation facilities, roads, modern markets for agricultural produce has been backstage.
All these are state list subjects.
• Low level of social expenditure by states: Education, health and sanitation subjects are core for human
resource development. The states which have invested heavily on these subjects, fall under the developed
and advanced states.
• Political and administration failure: This is a source of tension and gives birth to sub-regional movements
for separate states. Many such demands are in pipeline such as- Vidarbha, Saurashtra, Darjeeling and
Bodoland, etc. These failures also weaken the confidence of private players and do not attract investors in
the states.
• “Son of the soil” doctrine: explains a form of regionalism, which has been in discussion since 1950.
According to it, a state specifically belongs to the main linguistic group inhabiting it or that the state
constitutes the exclusive homeland of its main language speakers, who are the sons of the soil or local
residents.
MANIFESTATIONS OF REGIONALISM
• First: In recent times, we have seen anti-migrant sentiments being exhibited in states such as
Maharashtra, Gujarat and Karnataka. Many states have also implemented laws to curb employment
opportunities for people outside the given state. This is yet again a failure of governance. States such as
Sikkim and certain other North-East states and Ladakh have put in place such mechanisms. Larger and
more advanced states such as Karnataka and Maharashtra cannot justify their actions.
• Second: The second manifestation is a visceral hatred towards other communities based on inter-state
disputes or even instigated by political parties. We see this in the form of anti-North Indian sentiments in
Maharashtra and a few South Indian states.
• There are also issues based on interstate disputes between Karnataka-Maharashtra and Karnataka- Tamil
Nadu. Often these disputes are used by the political parties to yet again divert attention from the real
developmental issues and focus on irrelevant issues, thereby upsetting regional harmony.
• Third: The third manifestation can be seen in the form of linguistic issues. India is a diverse country and
doesn’t have a single national language. However, in recent times, political parties and governments have
focused on the imposition of Hindi in non-Hindi states.
IMPACT OF REGIONALISM
POSITIVE IMPACT
• Inter – group solidarity: People belonging to a region may feel the need to come together to protect their
vested interests, setting aside their differences.
• Increasing uncertainty globally: Given the increasing uncertainty in the contemporary globalized world,
regionalism has become a source of identity among people. The accommodation of such identities is healthy
for maintaining the socio-cultural fabric of India.
• Healthy competition among regions: It may induce competition among people of a region. improve the
status of their region. E.g. Competitive federalism in India and ensuing competition among states regarding
resources, setting up of industries, infrastructural facilities, etc.
• National Building process: It can play an important role in nation building if it accommodates the federal
elements. Not always are regional interests pitted against national interest. In fact, it helps in realizing the
salad-bowl theory both in letter and spirit.
• Regional recognition: in terms of statehood or state autonomy gives self-determination to the people of that
particular region and they feel empowered and happy. Internal self-determination of community, whether
linguistic, tribal, religious, regional, or their combinations, has remained the predominant form in which
regionalism in India has sought to express itself, historically as well as in present times.
NEGATIVE IMPACT
• Loyalty to a particular region: It can have adverse impacts on national integration, as loyalty to a particular
region remains stronger than loyalty to the nation. Thus, it can be seen as a threat to the progress and unity
of the nation.
• Exploitation of region and used for political leverage: It breeds contempt amongst local people as regards
people from other regions. Consequently, it accentuates regional/parochial divide and augments identity
politics on these bases. More often than not, it can be exploited and used for political leverage in order to
garner votes.
• Unbalanced Development: Development plans may sometimes be implemented unevenly. This can lead to
unbalanced development and thereby regionalist and secessionist demands. When agitations to satisfy
regional demands occur, the law and order situation is disturbed. It can also result in violence.
REGIONALISM V/S NATIONALISM

• Nationalism is a sense of belonging to one nation, a feeling one shares with all the citizens of the country
regardless of their caste, creed, culture, religion, or region.
• Regionalism puts the regional priority above the national priority. Therefore, it may impair national
development.
• While a nation tries to establish harmony between all its citizens by uniting them through a constitution,
national symbols, and songs, regionalism glorifies the heritage of only one particular region and one culture.
• Regionalism leads to the formation of multiple communities within one nation and restricts the efforts of
national integration.
FEDERALISM AND REGIONALISM

• The role played by Indian federalism in ensuring India's unity, stability and survival as a polity in the face of
persistent regionalism, often verging on separation, rooted in manifold and complex social and cultural
diversity, and mass poverty, illiteracy, extreme regional unevenness in development, and widespread
inequality.
• The need for federalism is in enhanced countries with ethnically distinct regions where the territorial
accommodation of distinct groups of people is of paramount importance.
• For those countries, a combination of shared rule (for general purposes of unity) and (for some kind of self-
rule regional/local purposes of diversity) is a must if unity and integrity are to be maintained. Indian
federalism is seen as a method of accommodation of regionalism in India.
• Federalism is seen here as a political equilibrium, which results from the appropriate balance between
shared rule and self-rule. In the post Second World War period, many post-colonial countries adopted
federalism as a method of governance in multi- ethnic contexts.
• India's rich diversity sometimes looks like an obstacle to unity. But the latest election has proved that a
commitment to resolving differences peacefully and democratically can transform diversity into a source of
strength. India's federal reconciliation of regional identity with autonomy has a democratic aspect.
Democracy rather than ethnicity is thus the legitimacy basis of such political institutions.
• Federalism has been given a strong push by devolving powers at local level to states and their local bodies
through 73rd and 74th Amendment acts. According to Indian judiciary, federalism is the basic structure
of Indian constitution.
• The regions declared under fifth and sixth schedule enjoy certain autonomy which gives them scope to
maintain their own culture and develop according to their own need. This makes the federal structure
stronger. Other than this any policy for such areas is different from the mainland policy as in case of the
provisions of the panchayats (extension to the scheduled areas) act, 1996, popularly known as PESA.

MEASURES TO CONTAIN REGIONALISM IN INDIA

• Doing away with regional imbalance: It has been experienced that the regional imbalance has been the
main cause of disgruntlement among the inhabitants of a particular region for regionalism. If the national
resources are distributed in a balanced manner, the problem of regionalism will be mitigated.
• Economic development of deprived zones: Due to uneven development of different areas of the country,
political issues have been made enmity between different regions increased.
• Restructuring of society: The benefits of increased investment in economic and social activities in this
society often go to those who need them the least and the majority is the deprived section.
• Acculturation: The regional groups of people also maintain their cultural distinctiveness. This delimits the
interaction between different regional and cultural superiority for each group.
• Improve Proper Education: The Indians as a people have great reverence and love for education. Education
may be construed as a very powerful agent for doing away with the separatist tendencies and for flourishing
the sense of nationalistic spirit among the country men.
• Appeal through mass media: If both direct and indirect appeals are made highlighting the concept of
equality of opportunity to every region for their development and the concept of national unity through
various programmes like ‘Mera Bharat Mahan’, people will be motivated to cut across regional boundaries
and come forward for national development.
WHAT IS THE ‘SON OF SOIL’ DOCTRINE ?

• The concept of Sons of the Soil (SoS) is deeply embedded in the human psyche. Sons of the soil is an
elemental concept tying people to their place of birth and confers some benefits, rights, roles and
responsibilities on them, which may not apply to others.
• Sons of Soil Doctrine underlies the view that a state specifically belongs to the main linguistic group
inhabiting it or that the state constitutes the exclusive 'homeland' of its main language speakers who
are the 'sons of the soil' or the 'local residents'.
• All others who live there or are settled there and whose mother tongue is not the state`s main language are
declared 'outsiders'. These outsiders might have lived in the state for a long time, or have migrated there
more recently, but they are not regarded as the 'sons of the soil'.
• It is a difficult concept to grasp, even though this has been explicitly seen in many countries. The problem
with this concept of SoS is that it is beset between two forces, the concept of equality versus the concept
of fairness. Quite a lot of insurgencies, terrorist campaigns, riots, internal disturbances, tensions and wars
have been driven by this issue.
Why the son of the soil ?

• A competition for the job between migrant and local educated middle-class youth always remained.
• The theory of son of the soil works mostly in cities because here, outsiders or migrant peoples also get an
opportunity for education, etc.
• Due to rising aspirations, the significant involvement of people takes place that leads to more competition.
• For the young workforce, the economy’s failure to create enough employment opportunities.
EXAMPLES OF SON OF SOIL DOCTRINE

• Job reservations for locals in the private sector in Andhra Pradesh and Goa. Recently, Karnataka also
demanded same.
• “Mulki rule” provided in article 371(D) of Indian constitution safeguards the rights of local people in
employment and education and was created after agitation in the state of Andhra Pradesh.
• Anti-migrant or implementation of Sons of the Soil doctrine was a movement led by Shiv Sena and MNS
which appealed regional chauvinism.
REGIONALISM AS A SUB-STATE MOVEMENT

• In its positive sense, regionalism implies an idea of searching for the self-identity of the people of that
particular area.

• In other sense, it is instead a separate demand for protecting and preserving the racial, linguistic, and
economic interest of a group of people belonging to a nation. Regionalism is, in fact, a movement of a Sub-
nationality against a prevailing nationality.
• It is important to note that regionalism in India, in its present form, has various connotations like
‘provincialism’, ‘localism’, ‘son of the soil theory’, ‘disintegration of Indian States,’ struggle for separate
statehood or provincial autonomy, struggle for more power, especially economic power, etc. whatever may
be the connotations, the concept of regionalism has now become a separatist movement in different parts of
India in various forms.
• India is now infected with the regional upsurge of different kinds like geographical regionalism, linguistic
regionalism, cultural regionalism, ethnic regionalism, and so on.
DEMAND FOR SEPARATE STATE

1. Demand for Khalishtan:
• It was during the 1980s that the Khalistan movement with its aim to create a Sikh homeland, often called
Khalistan, cropped up in the Punjab region of India and Pakistan. In fact this demand also has the colours
of communalism, as their demand is only for Sikhs.
2. Demand for Dravida Nadu:
• The Justice party and the social reform leader E. V. Ramaswami accused the Brahmins and the North
Indians for dominating the Dravidians and forcing Hindi language and culture.
• The movement was an anti-Brahmin, anti-Aryan, and and- Hindi movement. In the early 1960s, the DMK
and other pro- Tamil organizations arranged for a joint campaign throughout Madras state demanding
for a sovereign and independent ‘Tamil Nadu’.
• Later, DMK proposed that the states of Madras, Andhra Pradesh, Kerala, and Mysore should come
together and secede from the Indian union and form the independent Republic of Dravida Nadu.
There have been many demands, including the creation of Bodoland for the Bodo-speakers in Assam;
Gorkhaland for ethnic Gorkha (Nepali) people in West Bengal; a Bundelkhand state (covering part of Madhya
Pradesh and part of Uttar Pradesh) and Saurashtra (part of Gujrat) for promoting the development of the
region.
IS REGIONALISM A THREAT TO NATIONAL UNITY AND INTEGRITY?

• Regionalism is putting regional interests and ideas above national interests. India being a big nation
with huge diversity, regionalism is inevitable.
• Emergence of regional political parties as a result of secessionist tendencies. This trend is polarising
citizens of the country on regional lines. Example, Telugu Desam Party of Andhra Pradesh, DMK, SHIV SENA
and MNS in Maharashtra and AIADMK of Tamil Nadu.
• Its effect on legislation and executive power is also evident. To maintain a majority in the house, the ruling
party has to form a coalition with regional parties. This is leading to a situation where regional demand
is portrayed as national demand.
• International diplomacy is also affected to a great level due to the weak centre and coalition government.
The previous government was forced to abstain from attending commonwealth heads meeting in Sri Lanka
due to the animosity between Tamil Nadu and Sri Lanka.
• Mass mobilisation for regional causes is taking a violent turn. Non-violent means to achieve the ends are
transformed into violent means. The recent bifurcation of Andhra Pradesh saw violent agitations across the
state which caused huge damage to public property.
• Regionalism reached that stage where it is equivalent to be an internal security threat to the country. It
is causing friction among states. The hostility is being established on grounds of boundary disputes, irrigation
issues, etc. The great dispute on sharing of Cauvery river water between states of Tamil Nadu and Karnataka.
WAY FORWARD
• The Constitution of India under Article-19 gives every citizen a fundamental right to move around and settle
down peacefully in any part of the country.
• The need of the hour is to develop each region of India, through devolution of power to local governments
and empowering people for their participation in decision-making. The governments at the state level
need to find out the alternative resources of energy, source of employment for local people, use of technology
in governance, planning and agriculture development.
• Introducing a system of national education that would help people to overcome regional feelings and
develop an attachment towards the nation can act as a long-term solution to the problem of sub-nationalism.
• While the National Integration Council was set up in 1961, there is a need to utilise its potential more
effectively.
• Schemes like “Ek Bharat-Shreshtha Bharat” have been launched by the GOI to celebrate unity in the diverse
culture of the nation and to strengthen sentiment for National Unity between the citizens of states, which is
a welcomed step.
GOVERNMENT EFFORTS TO PROMOTE NATIONAL INTEGRITY

• North-Eastern Council (NEC) was set up in 1971 to provide a forum for inter-state coordination regional
planning and integrated development of the region to avoid intra-regional disparities.
• The Backward Region Grant Fund (BRGF) is a Programme implemented in 272 identified backward
districts in all states of the country to redress regional imbalances in development.
• Pradhan Mantri Khanij Kshetra Kalyan Yojana (PMKKKY) was launched in September 2015 for the
welfare of tribals and tribal areas and others affected by mining.
• State Reorganisation act of 1956→Zonal councils to promote interest of different geographic zones.
• GOI constituted the Interstate Council under Article 263 after accepting the Justice Sarkaria Commission’s
report on center-state relations. Its vision is to develop the Inter-State Council Secretariat as a vibrant
organization to support Centre-State and Inter-State coordination and cooperation in India.
• New institutional structures like NITI Aayog to ensure federal equilibrium.
CONCLUSION
• Regionalism is one of the significant challenges to federalism in India. Federalism best thrives as a
democratic system when it mitigates the centralization of power sharing between the centre and the states.
The pluralist character of India gives rise to many factors including regionalism.
• People from the far north east sometimes feel themselves at a formidable distance from New Delhi and people
in the southern part of the country with bigger states feel neglected having been within larger states.
• Regionalism or love for one’s region, despite India’s tradition of successful federal rule over the years since
independence, still raises its head in different parts of the country. This could be brought under control
through establishing cooperative federalism.
RESERVING QUOTA IN JOBS FOR LOCAL

• In News: The Andhra Pradesh Assembly recently passed legislation that reserves 75% of industrial jobs in
the state for locals.
WHAT IS ‘LOCALS FIRST’ POLICY ?

• The ‘locals first’ policy implies that jobs that will be created in a state will be first offered to only people who
belong to that state i.e., local people.
• This policy is becoming popular due to unemployment and fear of some locals who believe that their
jobs are being taken away from them and provided to the people not belonging to the state. However, it has
been seen that such laws remain in the statute books and are not enforced.
• The states in support of such a policy provide an argument that it is the state’s responsibility to fulfill
aspirations of its people.
• Besides Andhra Pradesh, there is a law in Maharashtra that if any industry that gets an incentive from the
State Government, then 70% of people at a particular level (basically unskilled workers of that industry) have
to be locals.
• Recently, The State government of Karnataka has reiterated its stance on 80 percent reservation in
jobs for locals (Kannadigas) in private firms.
CHALLENGES OF ‘LOCAL FIRST’ POLICY

• Violates constitutional provisions: The act contradicts fundamental rights i.e. Article 16 of the constitution
which specifically says that no citizen shall, on grounds only of religion, race, caste, sex, descent, place of
birth, residence or any of them, be ineligible for, or discriminated against in respect of, any employment or
office under the State. It would also violate the landmark Indra Sawhney judgment of the Supreme Court
which caps reservation “of any manner” at 50%.
• Impact in National Integrity: This will impact on the ‘Unity in Diversity’ fabric of our nation. This policy can
lead to a situation of locals vs non-locals in an area, thus posing a threat to the integration of the country.
• Economic impact: India as an economy has a comparative advantage over other countries because of its
large pool of labour. Labour from densely populated northern and eastern regions of the country migrate to
other places for work and keep the wages down, however, providing the jobs only to the locals might lead to
economic loss due to high wages.
• Impact on International level: The policy of local quota might get reflected at an international level, where
every country starts giving preference to its citizens for a job. India has protested such moves by countries
like the US.
• Against the spirit of competition: Such a policy is against the spirit of competition as a local person who is
not fully skilled may get the job over the non-local who is fully skilled.
• Impacts freedom of a business: Curbs of any kind ultimately affect business freedom and for a business to
flourish, it must function within well-defined parameters with a very clear set of policies including lesser
sensitivities.
• A short term move to make locals happy: After the short term benefits of the policy are exhausted, the
State Government might need to find other ways to generate more jobs for the locals.
CONCLUSION
• Providing a reservation quota in jobs for locals may be a good step. It may fulfill the dreams of locals to get
job opportunities but for a short period of time. but in the larger context, it weakens the national integrity
of the nation and hence It will give birth to regionalism. So we need to strengthen the ‘Unity in
Diversity’ doctrine.

10.SECULARISM
TABLE OF CONTENT
• Introduction and Concept of Secularism • Indian Secularism Vs. Secularism in West
• Historical Background • Challenges faced by Secularism in India
• Manifestations of Secularism • Way Forward
• Indian Constitution and Secularism • Steps Taken By Government of India to Promote
• Judicial Pronouncements Regarding Secularism Secularism
in India • Conclusion
• Secularism and Secularization • Contemporary Issues
• Various features of Indian Model of secularism 1. Uniform Civil Code (UCC)
• The Indian Model of Secularism 2. Issue of Instant Triple Talaq
• The Western Model of Secularism
12. Has caste lost its relevance in understanding the multicultural Indian Society? Elaborate your 2020
answer with illustrations.
13. “Caste system is assuming new identities and associational forms. Hence, caste system cannot be 2018
eradicated in India.” Comment.
14. How the Indian concept of secularism is different from the western model of secularism? Discuss. 2018
15. The spirit tolerance and love are not only an interesting feature of Indian society from very early 2017
times, but it is also playing an important part at the present. Elaborate.
16. Describe any four cultural elements of diversity in India and rate their relative significance in 2015
building a national identity.
17. Debate the issue of whether and how contemporary movements for assertion of Dalit identity 2015
work towards annihilation of caste.
18. How do the Indian debates on secularism differ from the debates in the West? 2014
INTRODUCTION AND CONCEPT OF SECULARISM
“If I were a dictator, religion and state would be separate. I swear by my religion. I will die for it. But it is my
personal affair. The state has nothing to do with it. The state would look after your secular welfare, health,
communications, foreign relations, currency and so on, but not your or my religion. That is everybody's personal
concern!” - Mahatma Gandhi
• The term “Secular” means being “separate” from religion or having no religious basis. Religion is open
to one and all and is given as a personal choice to an individual without any different treatment to the latter.
• Secularism not connected with religious or spiritual matters. It is a worldly rather than spiritual concept.
Not specifically relating to religion or to a religious body can be called secularism.
• With the 42nd Amendment of the Constitution of India (1976), the Preamble to the Constitution asserted
that India is a “secular” nation. Institutions started to recognize and accept all religions, enforce
parliamentary laws instead of religious laws, and respect pluralism.
• In India, secularism means equal status to all religions. The Secular State is a state which guarantees
individual and corporate freedom of religion, deals with the individual as a citizen irrespective of his religion,
is not constitutionally connected to a particular religion nor does it seek either to promote or interfere with
religion.
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
• Before the arrival of Islam in the 12th century, followed by Mughal and colonials,
Indian religions are known to have co-existed and evolved together for many centuries.
• The development of four Vedas and the various interpretations of the Upanishads
and the Puranas clearly highlight the religious plurality of Hinduism.
• The Ellora cave temples – built next to each other between the 5th and 10th centuries,
Secularism in for example, show coexistence of religions and a spirit of acceptance of different faiths.
Ancient India • Emperor Ashoka – was the first great emperor to announce, as early as the 3rd century
B.C., that the state would not prosecute any religious sect. Ashoka in his 12th Rock Edict
appealed not only for the toleration of all religious sects but also to develop a spirit of
great respect toward them.
• The quest for religious toleration and coexistence of different faiths continued even
after the advent of Jainism, Buddhism and later Islam and Christianity on the Indian
soil.
• In medieval India, the Sufi and Bhakti movements restored the secular character of
Indian society. The torchbearers of these movements were Khwaja Moinuddin Chisti,
Baba Farid, Saint Kabir Das, Guru Nanak Dev, Saint Tukaram, and Mira Bai. They spread
the different facets of secularism like tolerance, a sense of brotherhood, universalism,
harmony, and peace in society.
Secularism in • In medieval India, religious toleration and freedom of worship marked the State
Medieval India under Akbar. He had several Hindus as his ministers, forbade forcible conversions, and
abolished Jizya.
• The most prominent evidence of his tolerance policy was his promulgation of ‘Din-i-
Ilahi’ or the Divine Faith, which had elements of both Hindu and Muslim faith.
• The construction of Ibadat Khana (house of worship) in Fatehpur Sikri was done
to nurture religious harmony by allowing different religious leaders to express their
opinions in the same place.
• Although the British administration provided India with common law, it's “divide and
rule” policy contributed to promoting communal discord between various
communities.
• During British time, separate electorates were provided for Muslims through the
Indian Councils Act of 1909. Separate electorates further extended the principle of
Secularism in communal representation by providing separate electorates for depressed classes
Modern India (scheduled castes), women and labor (workers) through the GOI Act 1935.
• However, the Indian freedom movement was marked by secular tradition and
ethos right from the start.
• The formation of INC in 1885 with secular values united the people from all sects and
took the freedom movement on a constructive and successful Path.
• Nehru gave a detailed report (1928) which called for the abolition of the separate
electorate to found a secular state.
MANIFESTATIONS OF SECULARISM
• The term secularism includes a separation between the state and religion. In fact, the nature and extent
of separation may take different forms, depending upon the specific values it is meant to promote and the
way in which these values are spelt out.
• Thus, it has 3 manifestations:
1. Differentiation: Religion will no longer be all encompassing and its presence will only be restricted to
the cultural domain.
2. Privatisation: Since religion is a matter of faith, it will be confined to the domestic space.
3. Decline in the social significance of Religion: The presence of religion in public space will be
prohibited and hence its social significance will decline.
• Furthermore there can be forms in which Secularism emerges. For instance:
o Soft secularism: Soft secularism argues for a legal separation of Religion & the State. It is tolerant of
religion and religious differences, and favours political accommodation of the religion while rejecting the
state interference that may undermine religious freedom. Seen in the USA. E.g. No school prayer, No
Government funds to religious bodies, etc.

o Hard secularism: Hard secularism militates for complete separation of Religion and the State. It may
even be seen as hostility towards organized religion in general. Seen in France. E.g.: Banning of face
covering niqabs and burqas in France.
o Positive secularism: Positive secularism means mutual and equal recognition of all the religions.
o Negative secularism: Negative secularism connotes non recognition mutual and equal recognition of
any religion.
INDIAN CONSTITUTION AND SECULARISM

• Though the term ‘secular’ was not initially mentioned in the original constitution, the Indian constitution
has always been secular.
• Our preamble says: “WE, THE PEOPLE OF INDIA, having solemnly resolved to constitute India into a
SOVEREIGN, SOCIALIST, SECULAR DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC and to secure to all its citizens”..........'The word
'secular' was not there in our constitution when it actually came in the beginning.
• It was subsequently incorporated into the preamble of the constitution by the 42nd Amendment Act of
1976.
Article 14 The State shall not deny to any person equality before the law or the equal protection of the
laws within the territory of India.
Article 15 Prohibition of discrimination on grounds of religion, race, caste, sex or place of birth;
(1) The State shall not discriminate against any citizen on grounds only of religion, race, caste,
sex, and place of birth or any of them.
Equality of opportunity in matters of public employment; No citizen shall, on grounds
Article 16 only of religion, race, caste, sex, descent, place of birth, residence or any of them, be ineligible
(2) for, or discriminated against in respect of, any employment or office under the State.
Provides for freedom of conscience and the right to profess, practice and propagate the
Article 25 religion of one's choice. The constitution not only guarantees a person's freedom of religion
and conscience, but also ensures freedom for one who has no religion, and it scrupulously
restrains the state from making any discrimination on grounds of religion.
Article 26 Provides freedom to manage religious affairs.
'Freedom as to payment of tax: for promotion of any particular religion. No person shall be
Article 27 compelled to pay any taxes, the proceeds of which are specifically appropriated in payment
of expenses for the promotion or maintenance of any particular religion or religious
denomination.'
Freedom as to attendance at religious instruction or religious worship in certain educational
Article 28 institutions, which states that no religious instruction shall be provided in any educational
institution wholly maintained out of state funds.
It requires the state to 'endeavour to secure for the citizens a uniform civil code'
Article 44 throughout India. It is, however, included in the chapter of Directive Principles of State Policy,
which has no legal enforceability.
Article 51 A Fundamental Duties obliges all the citizens to promote harmony and the spirit of common
brotherhood and to value and preserve the rich heritage of our composite culture.
JUDICIAL PRONOUNCEMENTS REGARDING SECULARISM IN INDIA
• In the Shirur Mutt case, 1954, the ‘Doctrine of essentiality’ was coined by the
Supreme Court. Here the court opined that only the religious practices which
were essential and integral to the religion shall be protected.
The Shirur Mutt case, • This doctrine was also applied in the Ayodhya case, 1994, whereby the court
1954 opined that mosque is not integral to Islam and that the ‘namaz’ can be offered
anywhere. This doctrine was also applied in the recent Sabarimala case,
2018.
• Secularism has been deemed as one of the pillars of “Basic Structure of the
Kesavananda Bharati Indian Constitution”. Supreme Court in the Kesavananda Bharati case (1973)
Case (1973) held that the basic structure of the Constitution cannot be altered by the
Parliament.
• The Supreme Court observed the following, “Notwithstanding the fact that the
words 'Socialist' and 'Secular' were added in the Preamble of the
S. R Bommai vs Union Constitution in 1976 by the 42nd Amendment, the concept of Secularism was
of India case (1994) very much embedded in our constitutional philosophy”.
• Thus, the 42nd CAA only made secularism explicit which was already
implicit in the Constitution.
Stanislaus vs State of • The Supreme Court held that the right to propagate religion (under Article
Madhya Pradesh case 25) does not include right to forcible conversion as it may disturb public
(1977) order.
Ratilal vs State of • It was held that regulations by the state should not interfere with essentials of
Bombay (1954) religion.
St. Stephen’s College vs • The court held that autonomy of a minority institution cannot be taken away as
University of Delhi it will defeat the purpose of the right to establish and administer educational
(1992) institutions by minorities.
SECULARISM AND SECULARIZATION

• There is no definite definition of terms secularization and secularism. They have different meanings
depending on various situations and perspectives. The word secular is derived from the Latin word 'secular',
which means the 'present age or generation'. The word secular came to be associated with the social
process of secularization.
• Secularism implies equality of all religions and religious tolerance. It may be cherished in two perspectives:
• In the state perspective, it means that India does not have an official state religion.
The government must not favour or discriminate against any religion. It must treat all
State religions with equal respect. All citizens, irrespective of their religious beliefs, are equal
perspective in the eyes of law.
• No religious instruction is imparted in government or government-aided schools.
• In the individual perspective, it means sarva dharma sambhava, equal respect for all
Individual religions. Every person has the right to preach, practice and propagate any religion they
perspective choose.
• Every citizen must treat all religions with the same respect as he/she has for his/her
religion. No religion permits individuals to ignore or hate others.
• Social thinkers have used the word secularization to indicate a process whereby the
Sociological religious institutions and religious conceptions and understanding have lost control in
Connotation worldly matters: economy, polity, justice, health, family, and so on. Instead, there
of emerged empirical and rational procedures and conceptions about the world in general.
Secularization
Religious • One aspect of secularization is that religions modify their doctrines and practices in
Connotation response to the changing needs of their members and in response to changes in society.
of • Secularization in religion is usually accompanied by an increase in attention to public
Secularization issues. Secular and profane activities have become as important as the sacred.
• Thus, we find religious institutions getting involved with running modern hospitals and secular educational
institutions or engaging in philanthropic activities. Religion in industrial societies often reflects the
pragmatism of our age, and in doing so, is increasingly moving away from the supernatural.
VARIOUS FEATURES OF INDIAN MODEL OF SECULARISM

• Positive concept: Indian Constitution embodies the positive concept of secularism, i.e. giving equal respect
to all religions or protecting all religions equally.
• Basic feature of Indian constitution: In a landmark judgement in the Bommai case (1994), the Supreme
Court upheld that secularism is a ‘basic feature’ of the Constitution. Hence, a state government pursuing anti-
secular politics is liable to action under Article 356.

• Concurrent power: The 7th schedule of Indian constitution places religious institutions, charities and trusts
into concurrent List.
• Secularism as means of modernization: Our secularism is
not shaped by orthodox, obsolete and narrow beliefs, but it is
the replica of modern values, progressive thoughts and
scientific outlook.
• Equality: The Constitution of India does not uphold any
particular religion as the official religion of the Indian State.
It prevents the State from discriminating against any citizen
on the grounds of religion (Article 15).
• Focus on Harmony: Indian secularism focuses on harmony
among all religions rather than tight separation between
state and religion. It allows the state to prevent conflicts on
the basis of religion through timely interventions which would have been disastrous for the state if not
controlled.
• Secularism as scientific education: Indian education is scientific and predicated on the Western system.
Education here is not a reinforcement of religious maxims
• Room for religious reforms: Indian secularism is broader in a sense that it allows state intervention to help
reform various evils and superstitions. E.g. Many rules in Karnataka allowed the government to curb
superstitions that were against human rights.
• Secularism as a fundamental right: Secularism is constitutionally protected. Religious freedom is more
protected and is subject to be enforced by the judiciary, in case of breach.
• Protect rights over religion: By accepting community-based rights for religious minorities, the state can
protect the rights of Indian citizens. All persons are equally entitled to freedom of conscience and the right
to freely profess, practice and propagate any religion (Article 25).
• Tolerance: By acceptance of all religions rather than tight separation it reflects a tolerant attitude of the state
and its people.
• Secularism as cultural heritage: Indian secularism is embedded in the rich ancient culture of our country.
It respects the traditional customs, beliefs and practices and also protects them at the interest of citizens.
• Liberal: Many religiously sanctioned social practices are oppressive by virtue of their illiberal and non-
egalitarian character and deny a life of dignity and self-respect. Therefore, Indian secularism helps liberal
and egalitarian principles by reforming such practices through state intervention.
THE INDIAN MODEL OF SECULARISM

• Indian philosophy of secularism is related to “Sarva Dharma Sambhava” which means equal respect to all
religions.
• No official religion: India does not recognize any religion as official.
Nor does it owe allegiance to any particular religion. India does not
have an official state religion. However, different personal laws – on
matters such as marriage, divorce, inheritance, alimony varies with an
individual’s religion.
• There is neutrality in religion, India does not intercept the affairs of any
specific religion. It respects all religions on par with one another.
• It assures religious freedom to the members of all religions. Citizens are free to choose and abide by their
religions
• Indian secularism is a “means” to address religious plurality and is not an “end” in itself. It sought to
achieve the peaceful coexistence of different religions.
• Indian secularism equally opposed the oppression of Dalits and women within Hinduism, the
discrimination against women within Indian Islam or Christianity, and the possible threats that a majority
community might pose to the rights of the minority religious communities. This is its first important
difference from mainstream western secularism.
THE WESTERN MODEL OF SECULARISM

• In the West, the word secular implies three things:
o Freedom of religion,
o Equal citizenship to each citizen regardless of his or her religion,

o The separation of religion and state.
• No policy of the state can have an exclusively religious rationale.
No religious classification can be the basis of any public policy.
• As per the western model of secularism, the “State” and the
“religion” have their separate spheres and neither the state nor
the religion shall intervene in each other’s affairs.
• Similarly, the state cannot aid any religious institution. It cannot give financial support to educational
institutions run by religious communities.
• Nor can it hinder the activities of religious communities, as long as they are within the broad limits set
by the law of the land.
• The western concept of secularism requires complete separation of religion and state.
• Finally, this form of mainstream secularism has no place for the idea of state-supported religious
reform. This feature follows directly from its understanding that the separation of state from church/
religion entails a relationship of mutual exclusion.
INDIAN SECULARISM VS. SECULARISM IN WEST
INDIAN SECULARISM WESTERN SECULARISM

•In Indian society, secularism means equal • In western society, secularism refers to the
treatment of all religions and no discrimination complete separation between the state and
between followers of different religions. religion and freedom of religion for all people.
• In India, secularism manifests itself by the • The Western concept of Secularism does not
creation of an environment where every religion believe in an open display of religion except for
is represented and its followers can freely practice places of worship.
the religion.
• However, in India, the law seeks to accommodate • Also, in western society, laws are made in
the multiple religious principles that followers of isolation from religious principles.
different religions adhere to.
• In India, the state provides all religious minorities • As per the western model, the state cannot give
with the right to establish and maintain their own any financial support to educational institutions
educational institutions which may receive run by religious communities.
assistance from the state.
• On the other hand, in Indian secularism, the state • In the western model, the State does not intervene
shall interfere in religion so as to remove evils in in the affairs of religion until the time religion is
it. working within the limits of the law.
• In matters of law in modern India, however, the • A single uniform code of law is used to dispense
applicable code of law is unequal, and India's justice regardless of religious background.
personal laws– on matters such as marriage,
divorce, inheritance, alimony– varies with an
individual's religion.
• Focusing both on interreligious and inter religious • Focus is more on intra religious domination than
denominations because Indian society is not interreligious due to religiously homogeneous
homogenous rather it is multi-religious that has nature of the State.
numerous religious denominations and caste
under each.
• It not only ensures the religious freedom of • It is concerned with liberty and equality among
individuals but also provides for the religious the individuals of the particular religion and often
freedom of minorities. It enables an individual to neglected the equality of other religious
freely pursue his religion and helps the religious minorities
minorities.
• As an implicit control, religious groups could • The role of religious bodies is meagre in politics
persuade their followers and control the ballot
box. They could also influence the government in
power in policy making.
CHALLENGES FACED BY SECULARISM IN INDIA

• Communalism: The growing communalism has greatly
hampered the growth of genuine secularism in India.
Communalism of the community poses a threat to secular
• Forced conversion: Allegations are continuously being
made against the Christian Missionaries for exploiting the
lower status accorded to the Dalits in the four fold Varna
System in order to persuade them for conversion to
Christianity for which they use the baits of good social status
and a dignified life.
• Just Economic Order: The failure of the state to evolve a just
economic order and eliminate poverty also gave a serious
setback to secularism. The common masses suffering from
deprivation and poverty could not develop any faith in the
polity which failed to provide them basic necessities and consequently did not attach much importance to
secular values.
• Limited interpretation of secularism: Due to the limited interpretation of secularism, as being confined to
State policy only, the religious identities and other sub-cultural differences of Indian citizens have continued
to remain strong.
• Perceptions of minorities groups : Apart from education and jobs, prejudice and discrimination are
perceived as operating in the matter of intergroup violence and conflict. There is now ample evidence to
show that at times the administrative machinery of the State does not operate impartially at the time of
communal riots.
• Non-separation of religion from politics: the few events in the past like the demolition of the Babri Masjid,
anti-Sikh riots in 1984, Mumbai riots in December 1992 and January 1993, Godhra riots in 2002, etc. have
shown the well-established problem of communalism raising its head now and then.
• The Defective educational system: The defective educational system which has encouraged the people to
think in terms of groups and communities, has also failed to inculcate secular ideas in the minds of young
students and promote a feeling of mutual give and take.
• Religious intolerance: Religious intolerance is on rise. Recent Delhi riots are such an example of religious
intolerance based on religion.
• Constitutional contradiction: Constitutional provision meant for secularism has loopholes and is
discriminative in nature. There are certain secular principles that are mutually exclusive. For instance, Article
48 bans cow slaughter for respecting the religious sentiment of Hindu but such actions are approved of as a
part of Muslim tradition.
• Exclusion of minorities: The overall participation of religious minorities in the political sphere continues to
occupy a tiny space and they are not given their due shares. Sachar Committee reported “while Muslims
constitute 14 percent of the Indian population, they comprise only 2.5 percent of the Indian bureaucracy.”
• Growing radicalisation: In recent years there have been stray incidences of Muslim youth being inspired
and radicalized by groups like ISIS which is very unfortunate for both India and world.
WAY FORWARD
• Effectively implement Right to Education: Stress should be laid on education. Right to Education should
be effectively implemented to grant education to all.
• Educational Reform: This will give the people the ability to understand the difference between truth and
propaganda and will develop a broader vision about the society. It is pertinent to mention that 'Development
of scientific temper' has been included in the Constitution in Article 51A as a part of our Fundamental duties.
School text books should always be unprejudiced.
• Electoral Reform: Electoral reforms should be carried out and the Election Commission be given more
powers to regulate the functioning of political parties. Strict possible steps by the Election Commission,
against the political parties which try to assume power through inflammatory speeches and communal
propaganda.
• Judicial Reform: Judiciary should be geared up to provide speedy justice particularly in those cases which
have a social implication. As the delay in deciding the case gave some people ample time to make the issue a
national one, the result was immense loss of life and property.
• Socio-economic development: People need to accept from their heart that India is a multi-religious country
and peaceful coexistence is the only solution. It must be understood that religion is essentially a connection
between an individual and the Almighty and hence, is essentially a matter of individual preference.
• Police reform: Strict punishment to police personnel and all other officers who are found guilty of neglecting
their duty, or encouraging communal violence.
• Media should act responsibly: Make the media more responsible, so that it brings the true picture of the
violence.
• Promote communal harmony: Promote communal harmony by organizing inter-religious meets, festivals,
broadcasting such events through media so that people become aware of harmony.
STEPS TAKEN BY GOVERNMENT OF INDIA TO PROMOTE SECULARISM

• 42nd CAA 1976: Establishing India as a secular state with many constitutional securities
• Ministry of Minority Affairs: Created in 2006 as an offspring of the Ministry of Social Justice &
Empowerment.
• National Integration Council (NIC): It was formed in 1962 under the chairmanship of Prime minister as a
means of combating the menace of communalism and to ensure unity and integrity of the nation.
• Open all religious places and institutions to all classes and sections of the people. For example, the
Sabarimala Temple entry case.
• The Sachar Committee: was designated to find out the socio-economic conditions of Muslims (2005-2006).
• Ranganath Misra Commission: was set to ascertain the status of Religious and Linguistic Minorities (2004-
2007).
• Multi-Sectoral Development Programme: which aims to enhance the socio-economic conditions of
minorities, provide basic amenities for improving their quality of life, and reduce imbalances in the identified
minority concentration.
• Introduction of value and moral education along with the regular curriculum.
• Abolition of separate electorate and introduction of universal adult franchise (Article 326) immediately
after the Independence.
• National Minorities Development & Finance Corporation (NMDFC): was formed in 1994 to promote
economic activities among the backward sections of notified minorities by providing them financial aid with
discounts for self-employment activities.
• Welfare schemes: like Nai Udhan, Nai Roshni (leadership development of minority women), Seekho aur
Kamao (Learn and Earn).
• Skill development cum employment programmes: like Udaan and Himayat to accommodate j&K youth
into mainstream development of India were started.
• Wakf Board: Regularization and computerization
• Prime Minister’s 15-point programme for minorities.
CONCLUSION
• The essence of secularism lies in accommodation of varied social groups and overcoming tendencies
that destroy the social fabric of any society. In India where differences exist in terms of different religions
and cultures secularism plays a crucial role. It is evident that Indian secularism since ancient times.
• India embraced many religions, sects, communities showing tolerance and true sense of accommodation,
leading to a tolerant nation with social cohesion.
CONTEMPORARY ISSUES
1. UNIFORM CIVIL CODE (UCC)

• Article 44 of the Constitution states that the State shall endeavour to secure for citizens a uniform civil code
throughout the territory of India. It essentially means a common set of laws governing personal matters for
all citizens of the country, irrespective of religion.
ARGUMENT IN FAVOUR OF UCC:

• National Integration: A unified code is imperative, both for the protection of the vulnerable sections in
Indian society(women and religious minorities) and for the promotion of national unity and solidarity.

• Simplification of laws:
o There exists so many personal laws like Hindu code bill, Sharia law, etc.
o Presence of so many laws creates confusion, complexity and inconsistencies in the adjudication of
personal matters, at times leading to delayed justice or no justice.
o UCC will eliminate this overlapping of laws.
• Simplification of Indian legal system: UCC will lead to reduction in litigation emanating from multiple
personal laws.
• Secular society: UCC will de-link law from religion which is a very desirable objective to achieve in a secular
and socialist pattern of society. Moreover, it fulfils constitutional mandates under Article 44 of Directive
Principles of State Policy.
• Gender justice:
o The rights of women are usually limited under the patriarchal discourse through religious laws.
o UCC will liberate women from patriarchal domination and provide them with the right to equality and
liberty.
• In the long term, UCC would lead to the defeat of the communal and the divisionist forces.
ARGUMENTS AGAINST UCC:

• Implementation of UCC might interfere with the principle of secularism, particularly with the provisions
of Articles 25 and 26, which guarantee freedom relating to religious practices.
• Conservatism by religious groups, which resist such changes as it interferes with their religious practices.
• It is difficult for the government to come up with a uniform law that is accepted by all religious
communities. All religious groups- whether the majority or minority have to support the change in personal
laws.
• Drafting of UCC is another obstacle. There is no consensus regarding whether it should be a blend of
personal laws or should be a new law adhering to the constitutional mandate.
2. ISSUE OF INSTANT TRIPLE TALAQ

• Instant triple talaq is a form of Islamic divorce practiced in India, whereby a Muslim man can legally
divorce his wife by stating the word talaq three times in oral, written, or more recently electronic form.
• The practice has raised several controversies and discussions regarding issues of justice, gender equality,
human rights, and secularism.
• In the Shayara Bano vs Union of India case (2017), the Supreme Court declared the practice of triple talaq
as unconstitutional by a 3:2 majority.
POSITIVE OUTCOMES OF THE JUDGEMENT:

• It ensures equality by upholding fundamental rights guaranteed by Articles 14 and 21 of the Constitution.
• It ensures gender equality especially for Muslim women as the provision of triple talaq resulted in feelings of
insecurity among them. Arbitrary talaq also impacted their social status and dignity.
• It upholds core constitutional provisions, as fundamental rights guaranteed by the Constitution override the
provisions of personal laws.
NEGATIVE OUTCOMES OF THE JUDGMENT:

• It goes against Article 26 of the Indian Constitution, which guarantees freedom in matters of religion to
every religious denomination and sect (including Hanafi school, which is followed by Shayara Bano).
• Opponents contend that it is not the court’s role to “determine the true intricacies of faith”. Also, there
is the contention that Muslim Personal Law (Shariat) Act 1937, has not codified talaq-e-bidat (triple talaq)
into statutory law, thus, it does not fall under Article 13.
• The challenge is to inform the Muslim masses that the abolition of the practice does not go against the Shariah
but it is closer to the original tenets of Islam.

11.IMPACT OF COVID 19 ON INDIAN SOCIETY

TABLE OF CONTENT
• Introduction
• Impact Of Covid On Employment
• Impact Of Covid On Domestic Violence
• Impact Of Covid On Women And Children
• Impact Of Covid On Education: Learning Losses
• Impact Of Covid On Culture And Tradition
• Impact Of Covid On Health
• Impact Of Covid On Poverty
• Impact Of Covid On Rising Inequality
• Lessons Learned From The Covid-19 Pandemic
• Government Steps To Mitigate The Impact Of Covid:
o Schemes
o Governance
o Medical Measures
o Economic Interventions
o Technology Related Interventions
1. COVID-19 pandemic has caused unprecedented devastation worldwide. However, technological 2020
advancements are being availed readily to win over the crisis. Give an account of how technology
was sought to aid management of the pandemic.
INTRODUCTION
This pandemic has magnified every existing inequality in our society – like systemic racism, gender
inequality, and poverty - Melinda Gates
The COVID-19 pandemic has led to a dramatic loss of human life worldwide and presents an unprecedented
challenge to public health, food systems and the world of work. Millions of enterprises face an existential threat
and nearly half of the world’s 3.3 billion global workforce are at risk of losing their livelihoods. Informal
economy workers are particularly vulnerable because the majority lack social protection and access to quality
health care and have lost access to productive assets - World Health Organisation
IMPACT OF COVID ON EMPLOYMENT

• Unemployment rate : The unemployment rate stands at 7.2%, India, (Rural: 6.6%,
Urban: 8.6%) as of August 2021.
• Manufacturing and engineering sectors : They have largely been affected by the
lockdown during the 2nd wave.
• Index of actual hiring : It has come down from 132 in July-September, 2020 to 60 in
January-March, 2021. According to Aditya Mishra, CEO, CIEL,, the gap between the
intent of hiring and the actual hiring in the market is around 50%.
• Azim Premji University report:
a. It revealed in its study that the 1st wave of COVID 19 pandemic has pushed 23 crore people below the
poverty line (below the national minimum wage threshold of Rs. 375.00 per day as recommended by
the Anoop Satpathy committee).
b. The report said that there has been a rise of 15% in poverty in rural India and a rise of 20% in urban
India during the last one pandemic year.
• On women employment:

a) A recent study in Delhi (financial express): It found that in eight months, the unemployment rate in
the national capital increased by 17%, with about 83% of women respondents choosing to permanently
opt out of participating in the workforce.
b) CMIE estimates: As per CMIE estimates, between mid-2016 and early 2020, the female labour
participation rate, which is the percentage of women working out of all women falling in the working age,
fell from 16.4% to about 11%. And now, it has been estimated that this number might have further been
pushed down to 9% due to the pandemic.
c) Jobs for women: CMIE data stated that while women accounted for only about 10.7% of the total
workforce in 2019-20, they formed about 13.9% of the job losses India witnessed in April 2020.
CONCLUSION:
• According to the OECD, the COVID-19 pandemic has triggered one of the worst jobs crises since the Great
Depression. Reconstructing a better and more resilient labour market is an essential investment in the future
and in future generations.
IMPACT OF COVID ON DOMESTIC VIOLENCE

The term ‘domestic violence’ (DV) is used in many countries to refer to intimate partner
violence (IPV), but it also encompasses child or elder abuse, or abuse by any member of a
household. The lockdown imposed by authorities in the wake of COVID-19 pandemic has
imposed stricter control on one’s mobility and put women in abusive relationships at extremely
high risk of damage from physical, sexual and emotional abuse.
CAUSES OF DOMESTIC VIOLENCE:

• Patriarchal mindset: Some people with very traditional beliefs may think they have the right to control their
partner, and that women aren’t equal to men. According to NFHS data 42% of the surveyed men think there
is at least one valid reason for wife-beating.
• Societal influence: Some abusers learn violent behaviour from their family, people in their community and
other cultural influences as they grow up. Girls who witness domestic violence in their families of origin are
more likely to be victimized by their own husbands.
• Economic causes : Unemployment, alcohol and drugs may also contribute to violent behaviour.
• Socio-Cultural factors: Dowry related deaths and honour killings is also a reality that testifies domestic
violence.
• Individual Factor : Some abusers may feel this need to control their partner because of low self-esteem,
extreme jealousy, difficulties in regulating anger and other strong emotions, or when they feel inferior to the
other partner in education and socioeconomic background.
Data and figures

• One in every three women across the globe experience physical and/or sexual violence by an intimate
partner or sexual violence by any perpetrators in their lifetime – WHO
• Women violence in India – National Family Health Survey-4 (2015-16):
o About 30% women in India in the age group of 15-49 have experienced physical violence since the
age of 15
o About 31 percent of married women have experienced physical, sexual or emotional violence by
their spouses.
o About 6 per cent women in the age group 15-49 years have experienced sexual violence at least once
in their lifetime.
IMPACT OF LOCKDOWN ON DOMESTIC VIOLENCE IN INDIA:

• Increased burden: Women are burdened with three times more unpaid care work than men, which
increases during lockdown.
• Under Reporting of the Cases: The National Commission of Women has recorded 291 complaints of
domestic violence (in March 2020) and is now only receiving complaints via email. However, actual reported
cases may be quite low.

• Minimum mobility: With curtailed mobility and a police force being engaged in ensuring that lockdown
properly followed, women are losing even the avenues that could have saved them from abuse, and in
extreme cases, death.
• Orthodox social norms: Further, due to the prevalence of orthodox social norms and the stigma that is
placed on survivors of domestic violence, such cases are being grossly under-reported.
• System fail: Women belonging to poor and vulnerable classes are not able to file any complaints.
• Defunct NGOs: The counselling centres are supposed to reach out to the complaint pertaining to domestic
violence. However, amid lockdown the NGOs and volunteer organisations, that are usually the avenues for
women to report such attacks are not working.
• Undermining of Gender Equality: The Sustainable Development Goal (SDG)- 5 that seeks to “eliminate all
forms of discrimination and violence against women in the public and private spheres, and to undertake
reforms to give them the same rights to economic resources and access to property by 2030,” is being
enormously compromised.
• Mental health of women: An added challenge has been the importance of intertwined negative psychosocial
impact on mental health of women.
• Employment vulnerability: Further increases with job losses and other economic pressures on women.
WAY FORWARD:
• Helpline numbers : The state governments need to declare helplines as “essential services” that should
remain open during lockdowns
• Building Psychological Capital : One of the fundamental reasons for domestic violence is a lack of economic
well-being. Research on well-being suggests that creating positive psychological capital (including hope,
resilience, optimism, and self-efficacy) is vital for creating a positive future.
• Improve reporting of violence : To answer these issues, policymakers and governments may install rules
and regulations for flexible reporting and immediate actions so that victims can come forward to seek help.
• Establishing Digital Monitoring : Specialist apps can be used to track potential suspects as well and can be
activated with an SOS system that may allow the complainants to report issues associated with domestic
violence.
• Increase resourcing for NGOs : As they respond to domestic violence and aid including shelter, counselling,
and legal aid to survivors.
• Healthcare services : Provide for the continued provision of healthcare services based on medical research
and tests unrelated to the virus for women and girls and ensure women’s timely access to necessary and
comprehensive sexual & reproductive health services during the crisis, such as maternal health services, safe
abortion etc.
• Examples from other Countries worth emulating :
a) France : French government will pay for up to 20,000 hotel nights for survivors and finance pop-up
counselling centres at grocery stores for easy access to abuse survivors.
b) Spain : In Spain, women are being given codewords such as “Mask-19” in pharmacy stores, which can act
as an alarm-response mediator.
CONCLUSION:
• Covid-19 is an exogenous shock that is significantly impacting the incidence of domestic violence around the
world. While nobody had predicted that the world would see such an increase in the number of cases, it is
time for law enforcement organizations, governments, and society, in general, to come together to design
effective strategies to combat the adverse effects of Covid-19 on domestic violence.
IMPACT OF COVID ON WOMEN AND CHILDREN

The COVID-19 crisis has a potentially far-reaching, long-term negative impact on women and children around
the world. More than 1.5 billion students are out of school. Widespread job and income loss and economic
insecurity among families are likely to increase the stress on this vulnerable population.
IMPACT ON CHILDREN AND WOMEN:

• Falling into poverty : An estimated 42-66 million children could fall into extreme poverty as a result of the
crisis this year, adding to the estimated 386 million children already in extreme poverty in 2019.

• Economic well-being: Economic challenges during the outbreak pose a serious threat to young women’s
work and business activity and expose them to increased risk of exploitation or abuse. Girls and young
women facing severe economic shocks are more likely to take on high-risk work for their economic survival.
• Exacerbating the learning crisis : 188 countries have imposed countrywide school closures, affecting more
than 1.5 billion children and youth, especially girl child. More than two-thirds of countries have introduced a
national distance learning platform, but among low-income countries the share is only 30 percent.
• Threats to survival and health : Rising malnutrition is expected as 368.5 million children across 143
countries who normally rely on school meals for a reliable source of daily nutrition must now look to other
sources.
• Risks for child safety : Children in conflict settings, as well as those living in unsanitary and crowded
conditions such as refugee and IDP settlements, are also at considerable risk. Children’s reliance on online
platforms for distance learning has also increased their risk of exposure to inappropriate content and online
predators.
• Increased malnutrition : The pandemic has threatened India's food security landscape across all four
indicators: availability, access, stability, and utilisation of resources. It could in turn further intensify the
existing problem of malnutrition among women and children.
• Affected ICDS : COVID-19 has also substantially affected the network of government-run health and
development centres, popularly known as Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS). These centres are
responsible for providing food and primary healthcare, among others, to children below six years of age, and
mothers, especially those from low-income-families, through ‘anganwadi’ workers.
• Effect on marginalised and disabled women population : Girls, especially those from marginalised
communities and with disabilities, may be particularly affected by the secondary impacts of the outbreak.
• Gender-based violence and coronavirus : Economic stress on families due to the outbreak can put
children, and in particularly girls, at greater risk of exploitation, child labour and gender-based violence.
• Disruption of supply chain and its impact on pregnant women : The disruption of food supply chains,
labour shortages, limited production, and restricted mobility also have a direct bearing on pregnant women's
food and nutrition consumption.
WAY FORWARD:
• More information : We need a rapid accumulation of data on the scale and nature of impacts among children
and women, including specifically girls, families and communities. We need to know more about the
unknowns and to act on it.
• More solidarity : The COVID-19 pandemic is a test of our solidarity, within local communities, the scientific
research community, and the community of nations to ensure their well being both during the pandemic and
after it ends.
• Social assistance : The immediate rollout or expansion of social assistance to families, preferably through
the use of universal child grants which offer a simple and proven tool for shielding children from extreme
poverty. The urgent securing of food supply chains and local food markets, to protect children and women
(especially girl child and pregnant women) from a food security crisis.
• Urgent adaptation of standard physical distancing and lockdown strategies : In low-income settings,
especially in urban areas, refugee settlements and places affected by active conflicts, which will otherwise
exacerbate the negative impacts of the pandemic.
• Prioritizing the continuity of services : With a particular focus on equity of access. These services include
schooling, nutrition programmes, maternal and newborn care, immunization services, sexual and
reproductive health services, etc. including those living with disabilities, and abuse victims.
• Providing practical support : To parents and caregivers, including how to talk about the pandemic with
children, how to manage their own mental health and tools to help support their children’s learning.
VIOLENCE FREE HOME- A WOMEN’S RIGHT INITIATIVE:

• A joint programme of the National Commission for Women (NCW), Delhi Police and Tata Institute of Social
Sciences, (TISS) Mumbai.
• The NCW is implementing the project with Delhi Police and TISS and is committed to work on the issue of
violence against women.
• Scope of programme:
o Rebuilding violated women’s self-esteem, self-worth, and dignity.

o Offering the violated woman immediate services, based on her needs, such as carrying out counselling,
arranging for shelter or medical aid, providing information on laws and her rights, harnessing police
support
o Creating awareness in the community on the issue of violence against women.
CONCLUSION:
• We should all come out of this the way one is rehabilitated after the war and be educated about the stress
and post-traumatic stress disorders, as the effects of this pandemic will last on people’s minds specifically of
children for a long time to come even after the lockdown is over.
IMPACT OF COVID ON EDUCATION: LEARNING LOSSES

Though the outbreak of COVID-19 has created many negative impacts on education, educational
institutions of India have accepted the challenges and tried their best to provide seamless
support services to the students during the pandemic. Indian education system got the
opportunity for transformation from the traditional system to a new era. The following points
may be considered as the positive impacts.
POSITIVE IMPACT ON EDUCATION SYSTEM:

• Developed the use of soft copy of learning material : In lockdown situations, students were not able to
collect the hard copies of study materials and hence most of the students used soft copy materials for
reference.
• Improvement in collaborative work : There is a new opportunity where collaborative teaching and
learning can take on new forms.
• Rise in online meetings : The pandemic has created a massive rise in teleconferencing, virtual meetings,
webinars and e-conferencing opportunities.
• Enhanced digital literacy : The pandemic situation induced people to learn and use digital technology and
resulted in increasing digital literacy.
• Improved the use of electronic media for sharing information : Learning materials are shared among the
students easily and the related queries are resolved through email, SMS, phone calls and using different social
medias like WhatsApp or Facebook.
• Worldwide exposure : Educators and learners are getting opportunities to interact with peers from around
the world. Learners adapted to an international community.
• Better time management : Students are able to manage their time more efficiently in online education
during pandemics.
• Demand for Open and Distance Learning : During the pandemic situation, most of the students preferred
Open and Distance Learning mode as it encourages self-learning providing opportunities to learn from
diverse resources and customized learning as per their needs.
NEGATIVE IMPACT ON EDUCATION SYSTEM:

• Educational activity hampered : Schools are closed and classes have been suspended. Different boards have
already postponed the annual examinations and entrance tests across India.
• Unpreparedness of teachers and students : Teachers and students are unprepared for online education;
they were not ready for this sudden transition from face to face learning to online learning.
• Parents role : In urban areas some educated parents are able to guide but some may not have the adequate
level of education needed to teach children in the house.
• Digital gadgets : Especially in rural areas many students have limited or no internet access and many
students may not be able to afford computers, laptops or supporting mobile phones in their homes, online
teaching-learning may create a digital divide among students.
• Create rich-poor Difference : This online teaching-learning method creates a big gap between rich vs poor
and urban vs rural students. The lockdown has hit the poor students very hard in India as most of them are
unable to explore online learning according to various reports.
• Seriously affected the educational assessment system : Most of the external examinations had been
postponed and almost all the internal assessments had been cancelled. The cancellation of assessments had
a negative impact on students’ learning.

GOVERNMENT INITIATIVES FOR EDUCATION IN THE COVID-19 PANDEMIC:

• PM eVIDYA : It is a comprehensive initiative to unify all efforts related to digital/online/on-air education to
enable multi-mode and equitable access to education for students and teachers.
• Swayam MOOCs : Around 92 courses have started and 1.5 crore students are enrolled under Swayam MOOCs
which are online courses relating to NIOS.
• Samagra Shiksha Scheme : To mitigate the effect of COVID-19, Rs. 818.17 crore is allotted to States/UTs to
promote online learning through digital initiatives and Rs.267.86 crore for online teacher training under
Samagra Shiksha Scheme.
• PRAGYATA guidelines : Digital education has been developed with a focus on online/blended/digital
education for students who are presently at home due to closure of schools.
• MANODARPAN initiative : It is for psychological support and has been included in Atma Nirbhar Bharat
Abhiyan.
• Diksha : It is a portal containing e-Learning content for students, teachers, and parents aligned to the
curriculum, including video lessons, worksheets, textbooks and assessments.
• National Repository of Open Educational Resources (NROER) : This portal provides a host of resources
for students and teachers in multiple languages including books, interactive modules and videos including a
host of STEM-based games.
• PG Pathshala : It is for postgraduate students. Postgraduate students can access this platform for eBooks,
online courses and study materials during this lockdown period.
• Swayam : This is the national online education platform hosting 1900 courses covering both school (classes
9 to 12) and higher education (undergraduate, post graduate programs) in all subjects including engineering,
humanities and social sciences, law and management courses. The unique feature is that it is integrated with
conventional education.
WAY FORWARD:
• Personal Supervision : The teachers and non-teaching staff should visit the locality of the students (in and
around the school area) on a weekly basis to supervise the whole work. They should take notes on the
problems faced by students in understanding the reading material and also whether things are reaching them
on time.
• New Evaluation System : The evaluation should be based on the capacity of analysis, and the questions
should be framed in such a way that students need to apply their minds to answer the questions on each
subject.
• Prioritizing Vaccination : In addition, the government should take the responsibility to vaccinate the whole
teaching community as fast as possible to advance this learning process.
CONCLUSION:
• Even though the COVID-19 crisis stretches longer, there is an urgent need to take efforts on maximum
utilization of online platforms. India should develop creative strategies to ensure that all children must have
sustainable access to learning during pandemic COVID19.. Further detailed statistical study may be
undertaken to explore the impact of COVID-19 on the education system of India.
IMPACT OF COVID ON CULTURE AND TRADITION

According to UNESCO, there have been serious implications on the culture of the world. Empty World Heritage
sites, cultural events cancelled, cultural institutions closed, community cultural practices suspended, heightened
risk of looting of cultural sites and poaching at natural sites, artists unable to make ends meet and the cultural
tourism sector greatly affected. This impact is social, economic and political, it affects the fundamental right of
access to culture, the social rights of artists and creative professionals.
MULTIDIMENSIONAL IMPACTS:
• Data from the World Health Organization : It shows that COVID- 19 now has a firm grip on every continent,
with governments putting in place widespread confinement or mobility restrictions on an unprecedented
scale.
• UN World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) reports : That 96% of all worldwide destinations have
introduced full or partial restrictions since the end of January 2020. The World Travel and Tourism Council

predicts that up to 75 million jobs in the travel and tourism sector are under immediate threat, equating to a
loss of US$2 .1 trillion GDP in 2020.
• According to the International Council on Museums (ICOM) : 95 % of the estimated 60, 000 museums
worldwide are closed due to the COVID- 19 pandemic. In the immediate term, the closure of museums poses
great challenges in terms of access to culture.
• The closures of cultural institutions : The closures of sites that rely heavily on tourism to maintain their
budgets could make longer term management of the site and working conditions more precarious.
• Inequalities within and between nations : The pandemic has exposed some structural vulnerabilities and
inequalities within and between countries. Within countries, the pandemic has further revealed inequalities
facing vulnerable groups, in particular women, indigenous peoples, migrants and refugees
• Threat to indigenous people's biological diversity : Numbering approximately 5% of the world’s
population, indigenous people are guardians of some 20% of the world’ s territory, playing a vital role in the
protection of biodiversity and natural cultural heritage, as well as the management of natural resources and
the fight against climate change.
• OECD estimation : In mid-April 2020, the OECD estimated that spending on “recreation, culture, hotels and
restaurants'' had declined by 75% in G7 countries. However, the complex and rapidly changing situation
makes it extremely difficult to fully quantify the exact magnitude of the impact.
WAY FORWARD:
• Improve information and data exchange between sectors : For instance, specific data on the socio-
economic impacts of COVID-19 on culture and tourism, as well as on the solutions being put in place for
cultural tourism survival, will allow for more focused mitigation plans to respond to different needs and
replicate good practices.
• Launch innovative alliances : The confinement has proven the importance of new technology and media in
our daily lives. With millions of people confined to their homes, this is an opportune moment to develop and
promote cultural experiences to a captive audience.
• Inspire a more sustainable future for cultural tourism : Marketing strategies in tourism are highlighting
local cultural expressions not only to address new audiences, but also to inspire responsible travel.
Destinations and cultural sites are grappling with how to survive this period of hibernation, while planning
for reopening of tourism.
• Form a more resilient tourism and culture workforce : The professional profiles of culture workers will
require new skills for immediate actions and to take part in the recovery. Both sectors need to develop
creative and inventive employment solutions to provide resilience to the workforce after decades of
precarity.
• Strengthen governance structures for better coordination and information sharing : This crisis is an
outstanding opportunity to build cross-sectoral governance models between key players.
• Customize cultural offer for international visitors : By customizing their cultural offer, governments,
destinations and cultural industries can have a more international outreach. International and cross-sectoral
alliances will have a key role.
CONCLUSION:
• A better understanding of culture and regional innovation, job creation, entrepreneurship and well-being
interact and reinforce each other is the need of the hour. Robust data and evidence can raise awareness of
the value of culture and creative sectors among policymakers, citizens, education and training providers,
other firms in the value chain, and public and private investors.
IMPACT OF COVID ON HEALTH

The Covid-19 pandemic reiterates the importance of Public Health systems. The private health
sector which accounts for 70% of healthcare services in India, is playing only a supporting role.
There is a need to address the constraints and revamp of the public health system in India which
would not only enable improved handling of Covid-19, but would also have widespread positive
impacts extending much beyond the Covid-19 situation.
ISSUES WITH HEALTHCARE SYSTEM:

• Issue of life and death : For the Indian population, the availability of functional public health systems is
literally a question of life and death.
• Supply-side deficiencies : Poor health management skills and lack of appropriate training and supportive
supervision for health workers prevent delivery of the desired quality of health services.
• Inadequate funding : Expenditure on public health funding has been consistently low in India
(approximately 1.3% of GDP). As per OECD, India's total out-of-pocket expenditure is around 2.3 % of GDP.
• Sub-optimal public health system : Due to this, it is challenging to tackle Non-communicable Diseases,
which is all about prevention and early detection. It diminishes preparedness and effective management for
new and emerging threats such as pandemic like Covid-19.
• Effectiveness of public health system : A major reason for such critical divergence is likely to be the huge
differences in the effectiveness of public health systems.
• Lack of primary healthcare services : The existing public primary health care model in the country is
limited in scope. Even where there is a well-functioning public primary health centre, only services related
to pregnancy care, limited childcare and certain services related to national health programmes are provided.
WAY FORWARD:
• Biotechnology : Cell biology and genetics help in understanding human life and disease, and have made
personalised medicine a way of life.
• Digitization of health services : It can have long term benefits at a time when public health spending is less
than 2% GDP and more than 60% expenditure is out of pocket.
• Cloud computing : It allows doctors to access and compare patient data to be able to give better diagnosis
and treatment to their patients.
• International Experience :
a) Canada was one of the earliest to start in 2002 to lead the development and implementation of electronic
health projects.
b) U.K., Australia and Singapore have been other prominent countries who have taken initiatives for setting
up nationwide e-Health.
• Focus On public health : Need for a larger programme which requires the immediate attention is the
National Health Mission (NHM); since 2017-18, Union government allocations for the NHM have declined in
real terms, resulting in inadequate support to states for core activities such as immunisation, while systemic
gaps affect the delivery of Covid-19 vaccination.
• Private sector regulation : Another clear priority that has been highlighted during the Covid-19 pandemic
is the need to regulate rates and standards of care in the private sector. Massive hospital bills have caused
untold distress even among the middle class. Although various determinants have contributed to the
Mucormycosis outbreak, irrational use of steroids in Covid-19 patients, especially diabetics, appears to be an
important factor.
CASE STUDY: COMPARISON OF MAHARASHTRA AND KERALA

A robust government health-care service is translated into a more effective outreach, timely testing, early case
detection and more rational treatment for Covid patients. This is evident by comparing two states, Maharashtra
and Kerala.
• Their per capita gross State domestic product (GSDP) is similar. However, their Covid-19 case fatality rates
are hugely different — this being 0.48% for Kerala and 2.04% for Maharashtra.
• Kerala has per capita two and a half times more government doctors, and an equally higher proportion of
government hospital beds when compared to Maharashtra, while allocating per capita over one and half
times higher funds on public health every year.
• Despite Maharashtra having a large private health-care sector, its weak public health system has proved to
be a critical deficiency.
NITI AAYOG’S PRESCRIPTIONS :

• NITI Aayog has recently published the document, ‘Investment Opportunities in India’s Healthcare
Sector’.
• The document states that ‘in the hospital segment, the expansion of private players to Tier 2 and Tier
3 locations, beyond metropolitan cities, offers an attractive investment opportunity’.

• Manufacturing of medical devices and equipment, expansion of diagnostic and pathology centres and
miniaturized diagnostics have high growth potential.
• Technology advancements such as Artificial Intelligence, wearables and other mobile tech, along with
the Internet of Things, also offer numerous avenues for investment.
CONCLUSION:
• Existing evidence from the Covid-19 pandemic provides a clear message that a neglect of public health
systems can mean large-scale, avoidable losses of lives; hence, public health services must be upgraded
rapidly and massively as a topmost priority.
IMPACT OF COVID ON POVERTY

The Poverty and Shared Prosperity Report 2020 (PSPR 2020) reported that COVID-19 was
likely to push between 88 and 115 million people into extreme poverty, those living under
$1.90-a-day—around the globe in 2020.
IMPACT OF THE PANDEMIC ON POVERTY:

• Early lockdown impact : India introduced one of the earliest and most stringent
lockdowns in the face of the pandemic and its enforcement brought the economy to a
standstill, triggering unemployment, hunger, distress migration, and untold hardship.
• Not-so-fortunate Indians : The rich were able to escape the pandemic’s worst impact; and while the white-
collar workers isolated themselves and worked from home. However, a majority of the not-so-fortunate
Indians (migrant workers) lost their livelihood. India’s large informal workforce was the worst hit as it made
up 75% of the 122 million jobs lost.
• Unemployment rate among women : The unemployment rate among women rose from an already high
15% pre covid to 18% post covid.
• Health implications : Beyond income and job losses, poorer women also suffered health wise because of the
disruption in regular health services and Anganwadi centers.
• UNDP study : A new study from the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) has found that an
additional 207 million people could be pushed into extreme poverty by 2030 due to the severe long-term
impact of the coronavirus pandemic, bringing the total number of the world’s extremely poor to more than a
billion.
CONCLUSION:
• The majority of the poor already had low incomes to begin with, a further reduction in household income is
akin to taking a bullet train to hunger. This calls for special attention on social protection like PM Garib Kalyan
Yojana, etc. and measures including schemes for provision of subsidised food and employment guarantee in
rural and urban areas.
IMPACT OF COVID ON RISING INEQUALITY

Inequality was alarmingly high and destabilizing social and political order in much of the
world even before the pandemic struck. Inequality is widening across the world, and India is
no exception. According to the recent Oxfam report, Inequality in India has risen to levels last
seen when it was colonized. For instance, an unskilled worker in India would take three years
to earn the richest person earned in one second last year.
IMPACT OF INEQUALITIES:
• New normal of Inequality : the distribution of new wealth between capital and labor has become so one-
sided that workers are constantly being pushed to penury while the rich are getting richer.
• FAO assessment : A Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) assessment shows that COVID-19 may cause
an increase in each country’s Gini by two percent.
• Rise of monopoly : Despite its alleged commitment to market competition, the neoliberal economic agenda
instead brought the decline of competition and the rise of close to monopoly power in vast swaths of the
economy i.e. pharmaceuticals, telecom, airlines, agriculture, banking, industrials, retail.
• Ethnic inequalities on the rise : As with previous crises, minorities are hit harder and recovering more
slowly from the COVID-19 induced downturn.
• Rich and poor inequality : The rich were able to escape the pandemic’s worst impact; and while the white-
collar workers isolated themselves and worked from home, a majority of the not-so-fortunate Indians lost
their livelihood.
• Informal Sector inequality : India’s large informal workforce was the worst hit as it made up 75% of the
122 million jobs lost. The 40-50 million seasonal migrant workers, typically engaged in construction sites,
factories etc. were particularly distressed.
• Education inequality : On the one hand, private providers experienced exponential growth yet, on the other,
just 3% of the poorest 20% of Indian households had access to a computer and just 9% had access to the
internet.
• Health Inequalities : Oxfam found that India currently has the world’s second-largest cumulative number
of Covid-19 positive cases and globally, the poor, marginalised and vulnerable communities have higher rates
of Covid-19 prevalence. Only 6% of the poorest 20% households had access to non-shared sources of
improved sanitation, compared to 93% of the top 20% households in India.
THE INEQUALITY VIRUS REPORT: OXFAM INTERNATIONAL

• The Inequality Virus Report, released by Oxfam International, has found that the Covid pandemic deeply
increased the existing inequalities in India and around the world.
• The report states that Covid has the potential to increase economic inequality in almost every
country at once, the first time this has happened since records began over a century ago.
WAY FORWARD:
• Nordic Economic Model : To make the current redistribution of wealth more equitable, the current neo-
liberal model can be replaced by the ‘Nordic Economic Model.’ The Nordic Economic Model consists of
effective welfare safety nets for all, corruption-free governance, the fundamental right to quality education
& healthcare, high taxes for the rich, etc.
• 4P Model of Capitalism : Rather than just rhetoric, the new capitalism model should focus on 4P’s viz. ‘Profit,
People, Planet, Purpose and it should be the government’s task to ensure that the corporates adhere to this
model.
• Quick measures : The short-term impact of the pandemic requires unprecedented measures to support the
growing numbers of unemployed, with record low interest rates allowing this to be funded by debt.
CONCLUSION:
• Investments in health, education and infrastructure in deprived areas are particularly vital, as are
investments in affordable housing and other measures to increase mobility, allowing individuals to move to
dynamic centres which offer jobs and higher incomes.
LESSONS LEARNED FROM THE COVID -19 PANDEMIC

• Coordination and responsiveness : Early response, effective command, whole-of-government approach
and strong political leadership ensure focused and coordinated actions.
• Existing laws provide a legal framework for control activities : The Epidemic Disease Act of India has
been on statute for more than a century. The Disaster Management Act was passed by the Indian Parliament
in 2005. These legislative tools provide widespread legal power to civil authorities to implement pandemic
control measures, thus ensuring cooperation from the public and reporting of cases by the medical
professionals irrespective of their affiliation to the public or private sector. Hence, judiciously utilisation of
the law was a valuable lesson.
• Evidence-based strategy to reduce viral transmission worked for a shorter time : The COVID-19
pandemic has not been uniform in India. One of the possible solutions is to develop and implement
operational plans through micro planning for local areas using data generated locally.
• Understand the impact of uncontrolled movement of migrant populations : One-third of India's
population comprises internal migrants. They work in unorganized sectors and most of them live below the
poverty line. This was a high-risk public health action with the potential to seed the outbreaks of COVID-19
in different and far-flung rural areas of India, thus requiring utmost surveillance and rapid containment
actions.
• Pan-India laboratory networks are essential and must be sustained : Apart from an Indian Council of
Medical Research (ICMR) network of around 65 Virus Research and Diagnostic Laboratories (VRDLs), India
did not have many laboratories that could provide diagnostic support at the beginning of the COVID-19
pandemic. The testing capacity of the entire network was limited to a few thousand samples. It was swiftly
scaled up.
• Protection and preservation of vulnerable senior citizens should be a priority : Of India's entire
population, 9.3 percent are between 60 and 79 years. This large population is extremely vulnerable to COVID-
19 and the resultant high mortality. India is also considered the capital of diabetes. Coronavirus patients with
heart ailments have almost 10 per cent mortality rate and those with diabetes have mortality rate of seven
per cent. Strong risk communication strategies and access to medical care are essential to preserve and
protect this population.
• Frontline workers need protection from infection and ignorant communities : The professional
responsibilities of frontline workers bring them close to the known and unknown sources of exposure.
Availability and the use of personal protective equipment (PPE) are mandatory for them. Active dialogue
with the communities to promote their engagement to recognize and respect these workers is the need of
the hour.
• Harnessing all national resources is a swift and cost-effective approach : Infrastructure and expertise
available in different sectors namely research institutes or universities, other government departments and
the private sector, especially the diagnostic laboratory services, have been and are being extensively used in
India. The success of this endeavour augurs well for the future and needs to be employed in harnessing
tremendous expertise and infrastructure available in different sectors.
• Public engagement is the key to contain COVID-19 pandemic : A positive change in the behaviour of the
communities in implementing non-pharmaceutical interventions (NPIs) is a prerequisite. There is a need to
learn from the success obtained by TB and HIV programmes by engaging civil society.
• Responsible role of mainstream and social media is crucial : The reach of mainstream media in the
dissemination of appropriate and accurate information is huge. Several messages of public health importance
have been generously transmitted by electronic and print media. Social media has now become an integral
part of human life and its presence is undeniable.
• Encourage R&D at national level and participate in global research activities : India is considered world
pharmacy because of the huge manufacturing capacity for medical devices, vaccines and medicines. The
National Regulatory Authority should, in advance, put in place mechanisms to fast-track the approval
processes so that quality-assured tools to combat the pandemic become available at the earliest.
• One-Health approach for early detection and control of pandemics : Millions of viruses, including
coronaviruses, are circulating in wildlife and most of these have the potential to infect humans. A need for
undertaking joint surveillance by human health and animal health has also been expressed, for early
detection of zoonotic infections.
• Mathematical models fail to predict the biological phenomenon of infectious diseases : Several
mathematical models projected the severity of pandemic in terms of cases and deaths. At least in the context
of India, none of these proved correct. It was obvious that the models proposed during the COVID-19
pandemic carried a strong element of bias and used assumptions which proved to be far from real.
• Pandemic should not interrupt or disrupt non-COVID-19 healthcare services to people : The COVID-
19 pandemic is an add-on to the existing health problems of the communities. Some of these require
continuous monitoring and interventions (e.g., cancer therapy), emergencies (e.g., myocardial infarction,
stroke), uninterrupted supply of anti-TB and antiretroviral drugs, antenatal care and regular immunization
of children. Health system must be robust enough to address these issues along with mounting a strong fight
against the pandemic.
CONCLUSION:
• India's COVID-19 Containment Strategy has been aligned with WHO's Strategic Preparedness and Response
Plan for COVID-19. One must never ignore the fact that SARS-CoV-2 is an unknown treacherous enemy.
Despite having a rudimentary genetic structure it is proving to be more experienced and intelligent than the
entire humanity. It can strike in hitherto unknown ways. It has the potential of causing greater disruption
and destruction. India cannot afford any complacency. Caution should be the keyword during the days to
come.
GOVERNMENT STEPS TO MITIGATE THE IMPACT OF COVID

SCHEMES
The Finance Minister had announced a relief package worth approx. Rs 1.7 Lakh Crore to provide support to the
citizens, including poor and the under-privileged during the pandemic. Major features of the scheme are:
• PM Garib Kalyan Ann Yojana : Under the scheme, almost two-thirds of the population, comprising about 80
Crore people would be provided with an additional 5 Kg of Rice or wheat and 1 Kg of Pulses.
• Farmers : The first instalment of PM Kisan Samman Nidhi (PM-KISAN) scheme would be given in advance,
to support the farmers in the crisis.
• Support to Women PM Jan Dhan Account Holders : All women PMJDY holders would get Rs. 500 per month
for three months.
• Free LPG cylinders : 8 Crore households will be given free LPG cylinders.
GOVERNANCE
• Lockdown : Although the second wave of COVID has not seen a proportionate response from the Centre, the
states have been given a free hand to impose complete or partial lockdown as per the requirements in the
respective territories.
• Awareness programs : The government issued multiple alerts and advisories to make people sensitive
about the COVID-appropriate behaviour. For e.g. wearing masks was made mandatory in the public, while
advising people to regularly wash their hands and sanitize their belongings before re-use.
MEDICAL MEASURES
• Insurance scheme for Frontline Workers : All health professionals treating COVID patients are eligible for
a free cover of Rs. 50 Lakh under the scheme. This includes support staff, viz. ward-boys, nurses, ASHA
workers, paramedics, apart from doctors and other health workers.
• Vaccines : Three vaccines (see the table for comparison) have been approved for usage till date by the
government as a part of mass vaccination drive in the country. The vaccines are being prioritized to the most
vulnerable groups, with the objective of reaching all the sections in the coming times.
• Oxygen express : To tide over the shortage of oxygen in the country, railways created green corridors for
the trains transporting oxygen tanks from oxygen-surplus states to the deficient ones.
• Scaling up testing infrastructure : With an objective of early detection and treatment of the cases, the
testing capacity of COVID has been ramped up from 2000 odd tests in the initial days to almost 20 Lakh tests
per day. The objective is to increase the number of tests in such a way that the test positivity rate remains
below the recommended level of 5%.
ECONOMIC INTERVENTIONS
• Atma Nirbhar Bharat Abhiyan : During the initial stages of pandemic, over a period of 5 days, the Finance
Minister had announced a relief package worth Rs 20 Lakh Crore to support the different sectors of economy
viz. industry, agriculture, PSUs, MSMEs etc. Measures taken for health in the Atmanirbhar Bharat Abhiyan
package:
o Covid-19 Emergency Response and Health System Preparedness Package of Rs. 15 000 crore for
state governments and Union Territories, to be used to develop Covid-19 hospitals, buying personal
protective equipment, setting up of laboratories, procurement of essential medical supplies, medicines
and consumables for Covid-19 patients.
o Leveraging Information Technology : Rolling out of e-Sanjeevani Tele Consultation Services, capacity
building through Virtual learning modules namely iGOT platform and Arogya Setu app for self-
assessment and contact tracing.
o Amendment to Epidemic Diseases Act to protect Health Workers from public harassment.
o Ensuring adequate provision for Personal Protective Equipment (PPE). Other Health Reforms and
Initiatives announced in the package.
o Increased investments in Public Health: Public Expenditure on Health will be increased including
investments in grass root health institutions. For example, ramping up investment in Health and Wellness
Centres in both rural and urban areas.
o Preparing India for any future pandemics : Maintaining Infectious Diseases Hospital Blocks in all
districts of the country, strengthening of lab network and surveillance by creating Integrated Public
Health Labs in all districts along with block level Labs and Public Health Unit to manage pandemics.
o Encouraging projects like National Institutional Platform for One health by ICMR.
o Implementation of National Digital Health Blueprint for fulfilling National Digital Health Mission.
• PM CARES Fund : A dedicated fund to help in the healthcare emergencies emerging due to COVID has been
set up, with PM as its ex-officio chairperson. The fund will consist of voluntary donations by the individuals
or organisations.
• Employment : PM announced the Garib Kalyan Rojgar Abhiyan to boost the employment and livelihood
opportunities for migrant workers, who have returned to their native villages. The government has increased
the allocation for MGNREGA for the benefit of migrants, apart from increasing the daily wages by Rs. 20.
• RBI announcements : RBI had announced moratoria on loan repayment to help the retail investors cope up
with the COVID-induced crisis in the country. Recently, RBI again announced augmentation in the capacity of
healthcare by allocating additional capital to the sector and relief packages to the MSMEs, which have been
rendered vulnerable due to the COVID-induced lockdown.
TECHNOLOGY RELATED INTERVENTIONS

• Arogya setu : The app was designed to identify and track the COVID-infected patients, apart from providing
information to the people about the number of cases in their vicinity.
• Case tracking : To increase the transparency, the government has started to post the data regarding the
infected cases, recovered cases and the pandemic-related deaths on the COVID portal.
• CoWin app : Again to increase the accessibility and ease for the public, the vaccine inoculation is being done
through an online slot booking app called CoWin. This avoids queues and makes people follow the principle
of social distancing to keep them safe during the vaccination drive.

12.HEALTH: SOCIAL PERSPECTIVE

TABLE OF CONTENT
• Introduction • Role of rural health care system in tackling the
• Status of Health in India pandemic
• Constitutional Provisions on health o Indian rural healthcare system
• Judiciary on health o Issues faced
• Social challenges of health sector o Way forward
• Way Forward o Conclusion
• Mental health and associated issues • Role of healthcare worker in tackling pandemic
o Status of Mental health in India o Way Forward for improving the health
o Importance of mental health professional situation
o Reasons for degenerating mental health of • Tribal Population In India And Health
late o Tribal Health status
o Way Forward o The socio-economic condition of tribals
o Conclusion o Reasons for poor health among tribals
• Violence against healthcare workers (In o Way forward
reference to COVID 19) • Fifteenth Finance Commission: Shifting Health
o Factors responsible for violence against to the Concurrent List
healthcare workers in India o Arguments in favour Shifting ‘Health’ to the
o Way Forward Concurrent List
o Conclusion o Arguments Against Shifting ‘Health’ to the
• Legal documents on patient's rights Concurrent List
o Other Suggestions by N.K. Singh
INTRODUCTION
• The World Health Organization (WHO) : Defines health as a state of complete physical, mental and social
well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity. The determinants of good health are: access to
various types of health services, and an individual’s lifestyle choices, personal, family and social
relationships.
• India’s health care system : It consists of a mix of public and private sector providers of health services.
Networks of health care facilities at the primary, secondary and tertiary level, run mainly by State
Governments, provide free or very low cost medical services. There is also an extensive private health care
sector, covering the entire spectrum from individual doctors and their clinics, to general hospitals and super
speciality hospitals.
STATUS OF HEALTH IN INDIA

• Health expenditure:
o General Government expenditure on health : as percentage of GDP in 2019-20 was 1.6% (up from
1.5% in 2018-19)
o Out-of-Pocket Expenditure (OOPE) : as a percentage of Current Health Expenditure fell down to 58.7%
in 2016-17 from 60.6% in 2015-16.
o Population with health insurance coverage : About 14% of the rural population and 19% of the urban
population had health expenditure coverage.
o Source of hospitalisation expenditure : Rural households primarily depended on their ‘household
income/savings’ (80%) and on ‘borrowings’ (13%) for financing expenditure on hospitalisation. The
figure is 84% and 9% respectively for Urban households.
• Life Expectancy : As per the 2019 Human Development Report released by United Nations Development
Programme (UNDP), between 1990 and 2018, life expectancy at birth increased by 11.6 years in India.
• Child Health : As per estimates developed by the UN Inter-agency Group for Child mortality estimation
Under-five mortality rate (U5MR) (deaths of children less than 5 years per 1,000 live births) has declined
from 126 in 1990 to 34 in 2019, with Annual rate of reduction (ARR) of 4.5 per cent in the time period 1990-
2019.
• Infant mortality rate (deaths of children less than 1 year per 1,000 live births) : It has declined from 89
in 1990 to 28 in 2019.
• Neonatal mortality rate (deaths of children within a month per 1,000 live births) : It has declined from
57 in 1990 to 22 in 2019. • Status of Immunisation among children aged 0-5 years.3
• Vaccinations : Mostly BCG and/or the first dose of Oral Polio Vaccine at birth, but two out of five children
(40%) do not complete their immunisation programme. Among States, Manipur (75%), Andhra Pradesh
(73.6%) and Mizoram (73.4%) recorded the highest rates of full immunisation. In Nagaland, only 12% of
children received all vaccinations, followed by Puducherry (34%) and Tripura (39.6%).
• Maternal Health : Institutional deliveries: In rural areas, about 90% childbirths were institutional (in
Government/private hospitals) and in urban areas it was about 96%.
• Pre and Postnatal Care : Among women in the age-group 15-49 years, about 97% of women took prenatal
care and about 88% of women took postnatal care.
• Maternal Mortality Rate (proportion of maternal deaths per 1,00,000 live births reported) : It has
declined from 130 in 2014-2016 to 122 in 2015-17.
• Profile of ailments : About 31% of the hospitalised cases had infectious diseases followed by injuries
(around 11%), cardio-vascular (around 10%) and gastro-intestinal (around 9%).
CONSTITUTIONAL PROVISIONS ON HEALTH

• Article 38 - the state shall secure a social order for the promotion of welfare of the people. Providing
affordable healthcare is one of the ways to promote welfare.
• Article 39(e) - the state to make sure that the health and strength of workers, men and women, and the
tender age of children are not abused.
• Article 41 - duty of the state to provide public assistance in cases of unemployment, old age, sickness and
disablement etc.
• Article 42 makes provision to protect the health of infants and mothers by maternity benefit.
• Article 47 - duty of the state to improve public health, securing of justice, human condition of work, extension
of sickness, old age, disability and maternity benefits.
• Article 48A - State shall Endeavour to protect and impose the pollution free environment for good health.
• 11th schedule and 12th schedule provisions - drinking water, health and sanitation, family welfare,
women and child development, social welfare etc.
• Seventh schedule – Health is state subject under seventh schedule of Indian constitution.
JUDICIARY ON HEALTH
• Judiciary has widely interpreted the scope of Right to Health under Article 21 (right to life) and has thus
established right to health as an implied fundamental right.
• The Supreme Court in Paramanand Katara v Union of India case gave a landmark judgement that every
doctor at government hospital or otherwise has the professional obligation to extend his services with due
expertise for protecting the life of a patient.
Sustainable Development goals On Health

• The health goal (SDG 3) is broad: ‘Ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all ages’. The
SDG declaration emphasizes that to achieve the overall health goal, ‘we must achieve universal health
coverage (UHC) and access to quality health care. No one must be left behind’.
SOCIAL CHALLENGES OF HEALTH SECTOR

• Neglect of Rural Population : A serious drawback of India’s health service is the neglect of rural masses. It
is largely a service based on urban hospitals. Although, there are large no. of PHC’s and rural hospitals yet the
urban bias is visible.
• Emphasis on Culture Method : The health system of India depends almost on imported western models.
Otherwise speaking, it has completely neglected preventive, pro-motive, rehabilitative and public health
measures.
• Inadequate Outlay for Health : In India, public expenditure on health is low in comparison to China, USA
and UK.
• Social inequality : The growth of health facilities has been highly imbalanced in India. Rural, hilly and remote
areas of the country are under served while in urban areas and cities, health facilities are well developed. The
SC/ST and the poor people are far away from modern health service.
• Shortage of Medical Personnel : In India shortage of medical personnel like doctors, a nurse etc. is a basic
problem in the health sector. In 1999-2000, while there were only
5.5 doctors per 10,000 population in India, the same is 25 in the USA
and 20 in China.
• Medical Research : Medical research in the country needs to be
focused on drugs and vaccines for tropical diseases which are
normally neglected by international pharmaceutical companies on
account of their limited profitability potential.
• Expensive Health Service : In India, health services especially
allopathic are quite expensive. It hits the common man hard. Prices
of various essential drugs have gone up.
• United Nations : According to the United Nations, indigenous
peoples experience high levels of maternal and infant mortality,
malnutrition, cardiovascular diseases and other infectious diseases
such as malaria and tuberculosis. And therefore, they are the most vulnerable group for pandemics.
WAY FORWARD
• Enabling Preventive Care : In order to promote preventive care, the Union government has announced the
conversion of primary health care centres into Health and Wellness Centers (HWCs). These HWCs will act as
the pillar of preventive care and ‘gateway’ for access to secondary and tertiary health services.
• Bringing Behavioural Change : There is a need to ensure people eat right, sleep right, maintain good
hygiene, exercise, and adopt a healthy lifestyle that necessitates concerted interventions at various levels of
the system.
• Cooperative Federalism : Given the major role that States have to play in creating strong health systems
across the country. State governments should be incentivized to invest in creating a dedicated cadre for
public health at the state, district and block levels.
• More Funding : Public funding on health should be increased to at least 2.5% of GDP as envisaged in the
National Health Policy, 2017.
• Decentralisation : There is a need to make nutrition, water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) part of the core
functions of Panchayati raj institutions and municipalities.
• Creating a Nodal Health Agency : There is a need to create a designated and autonomous focal agency with
the required capacities and linkages to perform the functions of public health regulations. In this pursuit,
NITI Aayog’s National Health Stack is a step in the right direction, which needs to be operationalised as soon
as possible.
MENTAL HEALTH AND ASSOCIATED ISSUES

According to the World Health Organization, over 90 million Indians, or 7.5% of the population, suffer from
mental health issues. A study published in Lancet in December 2019, titled The burden of mental disorders
across the states of India: the Global Burden of Disease Study 1990–2017, also highlights the scale of the
challenge.
FACTS AND FIGURES

Mental health issues are among the leading causes of non-fatal disease burden in India:
• One in every seven Indian was affected by mental health issues in 2017;
• The proportional contribution of mental health to the total disease burden has almost doubled since
1990;
• Suicide was the leading cause of deaths among young people — aged 15 to 39 — in 2016.
STATUS OF MENTAL HEALTH IN INDIA

• WHO estimation : According to an estimate by the World Health Organization (WHO), mental illness makes
up about 15% of the total disease conditions around the world. The same estimate also suggests that India
has one of the largest populations affected by mental illness.
• India status : As a result of WHO estimation, India is the world’s ‘most depressing country’.

• Indian mental history : Between 1990 to 2017, one in seven people from India have suffered from mental
illness ranging from depression, anxiety to severe conditions such as schizophrenia, according to a study. It
is no exaggeration to suggest that the country is under a mental health epidemic.
• People under mental illness : More than 450 million people suffer from mental disorders. According to
WHO, by the year 2020, depression will constitute the second largest disease burden worldwide (Murray &
Lopez, 1996).
IMPORTANCE OF MENTAL HEALTH

• Emotional and mental health : It is important because it’s a vital part of your life and impacts your thoughts,
behaviours and emotions.
• For productivity and effectiveness : Being healthy emotionally can promote productivity and effectiveness
in activities like work, school or caregiving.
• For healthy relationships : It plays an important part in the health of your relationships, and allows you to
adapt to changes in your life and cope with adversity.
• Impact our day-to-day behaviour : Our mental health encompasses our psychological, emotional and social
well-being. This means it impacts how we feel, think and behave each day.
• Impact our decision making process : Our mental health also contributes to our decision making process,
how we cope with stress and how we relate to others in our lives.
• The social and economic costs : Associated with the growing burden of mental ill health focused the
possibilities for promoting mental health as well as preventing and treating mental illness.
REASONS FOR DEGENERATING MENTAL HEALTH OF LATE

• Lack of awareness : The first and foremost reason for India to lose its mental health is the lack of awareness
and sensitivity about the issue.
• Stigma concern : There is a big stigma around people suffering from any kind of mental health issues.
• Vicious cycle of shame : They are often tagged as ‘lunatics’ by society. This leads to a vicious cycle of shame,
suffering and isolation of the patients.
• Lack of human resource : According to WHO, in 2011, there were 0·301 psychiatrists and 0·047
psychologists for every 100,000 patients suffering from a mental health disorder in India.
• Treatment gap : According to estimates nearly 92% of the people who need mental health care and
treatment do not have access to any form of mental health care.
• Economic burden of mental illness : It contributes significantly to the treatment gap in India. There are
both direct (cost of long-term treatment) and indirect costs (the inability of the patient and caregiver to work,
social isolation, psychological stress) contribute significantly to the economic burden.
• Violations of human rights : They have been reported in mental asylums and also at homes and places of
traditional healing. In India, mental hospitals still practice certain obscure practices that violate human
rights.
• Poor infrastructure : Such as closed structures, a lack of maintenance, unclean toilets and sleeping areas
etc. clearly violate the basic human right to a life with dignity.
WAY FORWARD
• Stigma and Awareness : If individuals continue to view mental illness with apprehension and resistance, it
will continue to be difficult for people with mental illness and hence strong awareness is the need.
• WHO views : If the global community doesn't act urgently, by 2030 depression will be the leading illness
globally.
• Early detection and treatment : Early detection and intervention of a psychological condition will allow
you to live the life you deserve.
• Destigmatising the issue : Sharing one’s story about mental health (through media campaigns) is the most
effective strategy to reduce stigma attached with mental illness.
• Community Approach: There is need to deploy community health workers who, with appropriate training
and supervision, effectively deliver psychosocial interventions for the needy
• Increase Funding: State governments need to scale up its psychosocial interventions through community
health workers

• Broadening the scope: Mental health care must embrace the diversity of experiences and strategies which
work, well beyond the narrow confines of traditional biomedicine with its emphasis on “doctors, diagnoses
and drugs”
• Digital initiatives: To help improve rural India’s mental health through telemedicine, initiatives like
Schizophrenia Research India’s (SCARF) mobile bus clinic is being run by an NGO. There is a need for scaling
up such initiatives through public-private collaboration to bridge the rural-urban divide.
CONCLUSION
• Considering that most of the earlier strategies to enhance mental health have not succeeded over the past six
decades or more in less-developed countries, the time has come to take on a new approach with renewed
vigour. Mental health awareness can become both the means and the way of ending this apathy. Progressive
government policies based on evidence-based approaches, an engaged media, a vibrant educational system,
a responsive industry, aggressive utilization of newer technologies and creative crowd-sourcing might
together help dispel the blight of mental illnesses.
VIOLENCE AGAINST HEALTHCARE WORKERS (IN REFERENCE TO COVID 19)

Since the beginning of the outbreak, health care providers have been shown more support, solidarity and
gratitude than they ever have. Yet, attacks on health care have continuously been reported and now also include
incidents linked to the COVID-19 pandemic across the world.
FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR VIOLENCE AGAINST HEALTHCARE WORKERS IN INDIA

• Common reasons :
o Lack of infrastructure and a poor physician-patient ratio.
o Absence of postgraduate training in emergency medicine in
India.
o Poor quality of emergency care in hospitals.
o Poor communication skills of healthcare workers.
o Lack of emergency resources i.e. blood, laboratory services
workforce, relevant drugs, etc.
• Poor grievance redressal mechanism : The majority of the
hospitals in India do not have a good grievance redressal system in
place. A legal procedure in India also takes an inordinately long
time.
• Emergency intake capacity overwhelmed : Long waiting period, non-availability of crucial investigations,
and inordinate delay in referral, unhygienic and extremely crowded conditions.
• Lack of civic responsibility in the public : In India, patients by themselves are not violence makers, but
their relatives are. Sometimes unknown apparently sympathetic individuals, political leaders, and political
parties take the law in their hand.
• Absence of legislation : There is no strong law against violence to healthcare workers.
• The negative image of doctors portrayed in the media : Electronic and print media do not have a real
understanding of the challenges faced by the doctors.
• Perceived Injustice : Feeling of wrongdoing by the doctors for financial gain or for avoiding his/her duties.
• Lack of security : Unrestricted public access to all areas in government hospitals with overcrowding and
lack of security, surveillance, and mob preventing drills in the hospital.
• Impunity : In a majority of cases, the perpetrators of violence go unpunished.
• Pseudo-intellectuals : Deterioration of the moral ethics of intellectual class in India and the rise of pseudo-
intellectuals.
WAY FORWARD:
• Better training : The doctor and medical personnel should have better training to tackle situations of
emotional outbursts through anxiety alleviation techniques.
• Show empathy : The doctor should understand some of the patient-related characteristics that may be
associated with violence.
• Reduce long waiting periods : Doctors probably should try to optimize and reduce long waiting periods for
the patients in the waiting rooms and try to improve patient contact as much as possible.
• Use of digital technology : It has been seen that long queues in the hospital, lack of communication from the
doctors and opaque billing systems are important predictors of violence in India. Both digital and mobile
technology can substantially help in this area.
• General reform for the hospital services in the form of:
o Improvement of services in a global fashion.
o Employment of an adequate number of doctors and other steps to ease the rush of patients and long
waiting hours.
o Hospital security should be strengthened and it needs to be properly interlocked with the nearby police
station. RML Hospital of New Delhi got ‘bouncers’ as a preventive measure in 2015.
o No arms/ammunition by patients or their relatives should be allowed inside the hospital.
o There should be transparency on rates of different investigations, rents, and other expenses in the
hospital.
o There should be a proper complaint redressal system in the hospital.
o Install CCTVs at high-risk places like casualty.
• Concentrate on preventive medicine : Nutrition, immunization, health education, pollution control,
personal hygiene, access to clean water, unadulterated milk, unadulterated food, facilities for exercise,
playground, etc. are the basic requirements.
• Central law : There is a need for a central law instead of a state-wise Medical Protection Act for adequate
security at hospital premises.
CONCLUSION:
• Hospitals should be retained as a safe zone. There is a need for a detailed longitudinal study across the
country to understand the prevalence, nature and regional differences in violence perpetrated against
doctors in this country. As there are certain responsibilities of doctors and other healthcare workers,
similarly, responsibilities also have to be borne by patients and their relatives, political parties, hospital
authorities, law maintaining machinery, media, and government to see that health care improves and
violence against doctors is strongly dealt with.
LEGAL DOCUMENTS ON PATIENT'S RIGHTS

• Article 21 of the Constitution of India : The Supreme Court has held that the right to live with human
dignity enshrined in Article 21, derives from the directive principles of state policy and therefore includes
the protection of health.
• Indian Medical Council (Professional Conduct, Etiquette and Ethics) Regulations 2002.
• The Consumer Protection Act 1986.
• Drugs and Cosmetic Act 1940.
• Clinical Establishment Act 2010 etc.
• Various societies and countries in the form of Charters of Patient's Rights : A patient is entitled to a
certain amount of protection to be ensured by physicians, healthcare providers, and the state, which have
been codified in various societies and countries in the form of Charters of Patient's Rights.
• Right to Safety and Quality Care According to Standards : Patients have a right to safety and security in
the hospital premises. They have the right to be provided with care in an environment having requisite
cleanliness, infection control measures, and safe drinking water as per BIS/FSSAI Standards and sanitation
facilities.
• Right to Emergency Medical Care: As per the Supreme Court, all hospitals both in the government and in
the private sector are duty-bound to provide basic emergency medical care, and injured persons have the
right to get emergency medical care. Such care must be initiated without demanding payment/advance, and
basic care should be provided to the patient irrespective of paying capacity.
• International obligations: India is a party to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and the
International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights
recognizes the notion of patient rights.
ROLE OF RURAL HEALTH CARE SYSTEM IN TACKLING THE PANDEMIC

• Compared to the first wave in 2020, the second wave of 2021 has seen a rapid rise in the number of infections
and deaths in rural parts, home to 65% of the country’s 1.3 billion population. Given the precarious state of

the health infrastructure in rural areas, the National Centre for Disease Control (NCDC) has conveyed the
government to prioritize testing and vaccination in these areas.
INDIAN RURAL HEALTHCARE SYSTEM

The health care infrastructure in rural areas has been developed as a three tier system as follows :
1. Sub Centre : Most peripheral contact point between Primary Health Care System & Community manned with
one HW (F)/ANM & one HW (M)
2. Primary Health Centre (PHC) : A Referral Unit for 6 Sub Centres 4-6 bedded manned with a Medical Officer
In charge and 14 subordinate paramedical staff
3. Community Health Centre (CHC) : A 30 bedded Hospital/Referral Unit for 4 PHCs with Specialized services
ISSUES FACED
• Indian Public Health Standards : Only 11% sub-centres, 13% Primary Health Centres (PHCs) and 16%
Community Health Centres (CHCs) in rural India meet the Indian Public Health Standards (IPHS).
• Doctor and nurses ratio : Only one allopathic doctor is available for every 10,000 people and one state run
hospital is available for 90,000 people. In many rural hospitals, the number of nurses is much less than
required.
• Exploitation : Innocent and illiterate patients or their relatives are exploited and they are allowed to know
their rights. Patients when in an emergency are sent to the tertiary care hospital where they get more
confused and get easily cheated by a group of health workers and middlemen.
• Unskilled or semi-skilled paramedics : Most of the centres are run by unskilled or semi-skilled paramedics
and doctors in the rural setup are rarely available.
• Under-financed : The existing healthcare centres in rural areas are under-financed, use below quality
equipment, are low in supply of medicines and lack qualified and dedicated human resources.
• Lack of basic medicines : Medicines are often unavailable in rural areas. Supply of basic medicine is
irregular in rural areas. It is a persistent problem of India’s rural healthcare.
WAY FORWARD
• Affordable medical facilities : Should be provided to people living in rural areas.
• Medical colleges : Need to encourage students to visit rural areas and understand the healthcare
requirements of the poor and downtrodden.
• Doctors in the government services : They must mandatorily serve in rural areas before getting his/her
first promotion.
• Young doctors : At the grass roots level need to be sensitive to patients and their family.
• Private sector : It needs to work with a spirit of altruism, commitment and missionary zeal in providing
modern and affordable healthcare facilities in the rural areas and bridge the urban- rural divide.
• Medical associations : They should campaign to educate people on preventing lifestyle diseases which are
slowly penetrating even the rural areas.
CONCLUSION
• Pandemics such as Covid-19 starkly remind us that public health systems are core social institutions in any
society. The government has made several efforts to address the shortfall in the public health system through
the schemes like the National Medical Commission (NMC) Act, 2019, Pradhan Mantri Bhartiya Janaushadhi
Pariyojana, Pradhan Mantri Jan Arogya Yojana etc. However, the need of the hour is an adequate investment,
for creating a health system that can withstand any kind of public health emergencies, deliver universal
health coverage and meet the targets of the Sustainable Development Goals.
ROLE OF HEALTHCARE WORKER IN TACKLING PANDEMIC

• Healthcare gives professionals a role : They play a central and critical role in improving access and quality
health care for the population.
• Services : They provide essential services that promote health, prevent diseases and deliver health care
services to individuals, families and communities based on the primary health care approach.
• Healthcare workers and MDG : Mechanisms for optimizing the strengths and skills of health professionals
will be essential to achieving the Millennium Development Goals (MDG).
• Covid and healthcare professionals : The pandemic has shown the importance of healthcare professionals
in saving the lives of people in this pandemic.
WAY FORWARD FOR IMPROVING THE HEALTH PROFESSIONAL SITUATION

• Support member states : To maximize the contributions of health professionals through interprofessional
education and collaborative practice.
• Provide technical guidance : And develop policy options and tools for enhancing health professionals'
contribution to health systems strengthening through the primary health care approach.
• Map the networks : the international and regional health professional networks that have the capacity to
support global health initiatives.
• Link health professionals worldwide : Through virtual communities of practice so they can inform
effective policies and promote successful practices.
• Support the maintenance and development : Of professional competencies through continuing education
to ensure health professionals are equipped to provide the best care possible.
TRIBAL POPULATION IN INDIA AND HEALTH

• According to the 2011 census, the tribal population in India is over 104 million which is spread across 705
tribes and accounts for 8.6% of the country's population.
• More than 90% of tribal people live in rural areas.
• M.P. has the highest tribal population followed by Maharashtra, Odisha, etc. (Census 2011).
TRIBAL HEALTH STATUS

• Disease burden : Tribals suffer from a triple burden of diseases.
• Malnutrition and communicable diseases : Tribal population share a disproportionate burden of
communicable disease like malaria, for. e.g. tribals account for 30% of malaria cases and 60% of malaria
related mortality, low body mass index and stunting in tribals is more than non-tribal population.
• Genetic disorders and lifestyle diseases : like hypertension, diabetes, respiratory diseases etc. Also,
genetic disorder in the form of sickle cell anaemia ranges from 1-40%. G-6-PD red cell enzyme deficiency is
reported in tribes like Adiyan, Irula, Paniyan, Gonds.
• Mental illness and addictions : According to NFHS-3, 72% of tribal men in the age of 15-54 use tobacco as
compared to 56% of non-tribal men.
• Other Indicators : The performance related to life expectancy, maternal mortality, adolescent health, child
morbidity, mortality and under five mortality is below national average by 10-25%.
• For example:
o Life expectancy of tribals is 63.9 compared to the national average of 67 years.
o Under 5 mortality rate is 74 as against the national average of 62.
o 50% Adolescent ST girls are underweight and BMI below less than 18.5.
o About 80 percent of tribal children are undernourished and suffering from anaemia.
o While 40 percent of under-five tribal children in India are stunted.
THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC CONDITION OF TRIBALS

• Livelihood status - 40.6% of tribals live below poverty line vis-a-vis 20.5% non tribals.
• Lack of Basic amenities- The 2011 census data shows that access to tap water, sanitation facilities, drainage
facilities and clean cooking fuel is much lower among the tribal population.
• Education gap-There is also a stark gap in educational status as 41% of STs are illiterate.
• Sex ratio among tribals is 990/1000 as compared to national average of 933/1000.
REASONS FOR POOR HEALTH AMONG TRIBALS

• Unhygienic and primitive practices : The chief causes of maternal and infant mortality were found to be
unhygienic and primitive practices for parturition and no specific nutritious diet with iron, calcium and
vitamins is consumed by women.
• Lack of Health Infrastructure : Though tribals are heavily dependent on public health services, there is a
shortfall of public health centres, sub-centres, and community health centres by 27-40% in about half of the
states. This has resulted in low access and coverage, low outputs and outcomes in tribal health status.
• Lack of Human resource : There are severe shortages in health human resources in terms of PHC doctors
(33% shortfall), CHC specialists (84% shortage), health workers, nursing staff, ASHA workers and locally
trained youth. The isolated locations with minimal facilities create unwillingness among the health workers.

• Financing of Tribal Health : The tribal sub plan (TSP), though started with the noble goal of complementing
existing finances for tribal policies, has shown a lackadaisical response. The tribal affairs ministry has no
information regarding TSP allocations of various states. Also, there is a lack of accounting of actual tribal
health expenditure.
• Lack of Awareness and mistrust on modern medicine : The tribals are amenable to western systems of
medicine. Hence, vaccination and immunization of Infants and children have been inadequate among tribal
groups.
• Issues in Governance Structure : Lack of population level data, centralized policy formulation and
implementation, near absence of tribals from the process, weak state level intervention etc. has accentuated
dismal health conditions among tribals.
WAY FORWARD
• Health Services to Remote Populations : Mobile medical camps to improve outreach in remote tribal
populations would play a major role and will make availability of drugs, diagnostic facilities to tribals in
remote areas.
• Transportation for Expectant Mothers : Tribal populations generally have to deal with lack of resources
in tough terrains. Provision of emergency transportation for pregnant tribal women to health facilities for
obstetric care is one of the major necessities of the tribal women.
• Health Workers from Tribal Communities : As tribal populations find it difficult to navigate through the
complexities of medical facilities, health workers from tribal communities may become the link between the
healthcare facilities and tribal communities.
• Other measures such as : Creation of National Tribal Health Council and Tribal health research cell, raising
awareness of health issues, upgrading infrastructure and capacity building.
FIFTEENTH FINANCE COMMISSION: SHIFTING HEALTH TO THE CONCURRENT LIST

• Fifteenth Finance Commission Chairman N.K. Singh said that health should be shifted to the Concurrent
list under the Constitution. Presently, ‘Health’ is under the State List. He also stressed for a Developmental
Finance Institution (DFI) dedicated to healthcare investments.
ARGUMENTS IN FAVOUR SHIFTING ‘HEALTH’ TO THE CONCURRENT LIST

• Greater Flexibility to Centre: Bringing health into the Concurrent list would give the Centre greater
flexibility to enact regulatory changes and reinforce the obligation of all stakeholders towards providing
better healthcare.
• Rationalisation and Streamlining of the Multiple Acts: There is a multiplicity of Acts, rules and
regulations, and mushrooming institutions, yet the regulation of the sector is far from adequate. With the
health in the concurrent list, uniformity of acts can be ensured.
• Centre Expertise to States: The Central government is also technically better equipped to come up with the
health schemes because it has the assistance of multiple research bodies and departments dedicated to the
management of public health. States on the other hand do not have the technical expertise to independently
design comprehensive public health policies.
ARGUMENTS AGAINST SHIFTING ‘HEALTH’ TO THE CONCURRENT LIST

• Right to Health: It is neither necessary nor sufficient to guarantee the provision of accessible, affordable and
adequate healthcare for all. Besides, the right to health is, arguably, already provided for via the
Constitution’s Article 21 that guarantees protection of life and liberty.
• Challenges Federal Structure: Shifting ever more subjects from the states to the Centre would erode India’s
federal nature and impair efficiency by abandoning the principle of subsidiarity, which holds that any task
should be left to the level of government best placed to do it.
• Trust Cooperative Federalism: The centre must direct its energies to designing policy that would help
states deliver on their constitutional mandate to provide adequate, accessible and affordable healthcare for
all.
• More Burden With Centre: The Centre has onerous responsibilities of its own, for which it struggles to find
resources. Taking more functions would help neither the states nor the Centre discharge their constitutional
obligations.

• Encourage States: The Centre devolves 41% of the taxes it collects to the states. The Centre should
encourage the states to do what they are supposed to do, while the Centre optimises use of its own resources,
focusing on its obligations.
o Health being a state subject does not preclude the Centre offering constructive support.
o The NITI Aayog’s Health Index, financial assistance through the insurance-based programme Ayushman
Bharat, improved regulatory environment for healthcare providers and medical education are examples
of such support that can nudge states in the right direction.
OTHER SUGGESTIONS BY N.K. SINGH

• Increase the government spending on health to 2.5% of GDP by 2025.
• Primary healthcare should be a fundamental commitment of all States in particular and should be
allocated at least two-thirds of health spending.
• To have a standardisation of health care codes for both the Centre and states.
• Forming an All India Medical and Health Service. Given the inter-state disparity in the availability of medical
doctors, it is essential to constitute the Service as is envisaged under Section 2A of the All-India Services Act,
1951.
• Emphasised the importance of universalising healthcare insurance, as a large section of the society still
remain uncovered.

13.EDUCATION: SOCIAL PERSPECTIVE

TABLE OF CONTENT
• New Education Policy (NEP) 2020 o Challenges associated with digital education
o Issues of NEP o Opportunities associated with digital
o Way Forward education
o Conclusion o Government initiatives to support the digital
• Early childhood care and education (ECCE) education
o Need for ECCE o Way Forward
o Benefits o Conclusion
• Draft National Education Policy, 2019 • ASER (Annual Status of Education Report)
o Associated Challenges Report 2020
o Way Forward o ASER, 2020 observations
o Conclusion o Opportunities
• Digital Education o Way forward
o Constitutional provisions related to o Conclusion
education
“The true teachers are those who help us think for ourselves,” said Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan.
NEW EDUCATION POLICY (NEP) 2020

The policy is aimed at transforming the Indian education system to meet the needs of the 21st
Century. The new policy seeks rectification of poor literacy and numeracy outcomes associated
with primary schools, reduction in dropout levels in middle and secondary schools and
adoption of the multidisciplinary approach in the higher education system.
ISSUES OF NEP 2020

• Knowledge-Jobs Mismatch : There is a persistent mismatch between the knowledge &
skills imparted and the jobs available. This has been one of the main challenges that have affected the Indian
education system since Independence.
• The Requirement of Enormous Resources : An ambitious target of
public spending at 6% of GDP has been set. Mobilising financial
resources will be a big challenge, given the low tax-to-GDP ratio and
competing claims on the national exchequer of healthcare, national
security and other key sectors.
• Cooperation from States : Any educational reform can be
implemented only with support from the States, and the Centre has
the giant task of building a consensus on the many ambitious plans.
The idea of a National Higher Education Regulatory Council as an
apex control organisation is bound to be resented by States.
• Inadequate check on donations : Fee regulations exist in some States even now, but the regulatory process
is unable to rein in profiteering in the form of unaccounted donations.
• Funding : Progress on these crucially depends on the will to spend the promised 6% of GDP as public
expenditure on education.
• Three-language formula : While the NEP 2020 has been hailed by most as a progressive shift in the
government’s approach to school education, certain changes regarding the three-language formula have been
criticized as the new policy states the regional mother tongue to be the medium of instruction till 5th grade.
• Learning emphasis : The document also emphasises on mathematics and computational thinking, besides
mainstreaming Sanskrit to increase “knowledge on ancient India and its contributions to modern India”.
• Governance and academic structure : The policy brings in major changes in the governance and academic
structure of school and higher education. The Delhi University Teachers Association (DUTA) has criticized
the concentration of powers within a board of governors in universities.

WAY FORWARD
• Need For Cooperative Federalism : Since education is a concurrent subject (both the Centre and the state
governments can make laws on it), the reforms proposed can only be implemented collaboratively by the
Centre and the states. Thus, the Centre has the giant task of building a consensus on the many ambitious
plans.
• Strive Towards Universalisation of Education : There is a need for the creation of ‘inclusion funds’ to help
socially and educationally disadvantaged children pursue education. Also, there is a need to set up a
regulatory process that can check profiteering from education in the form of unaccounted donations.
• Bridging Digital Divide : If technology is a force-multiplier, with unequal access it can also expand the gap
between the haves and have nots. Thus, the state needs to address the striking disparities in access to digital
tools for universalization of education.
• Inter-ministerial Coordination : There is an emphasis on vocational training, but to make it effective, there
has to be close coordination between the education, skills and labour ministry.
CONCLUSION
• Education and public health are possibly the two most important development sectors in a democracy and
NEP is aligned to the needs of the 21st century and the Sustainable Development Goals. It is hoped that the
ministry's move will give a new direction to the education sector, halt the precipitous decline in standards,
and pave the way for much better quality standards.
EARLY CHILDHOOD CARE AND EDUCATION (ECCE)

• As per UNICEF, early childhood is defined as the period from conception through eight years of age. Early
childhood care and education (ECCE) is more than preparation for primary school. It aims at the holistic
development of a child’s social, emotional, cognitive and physical needs in order to build a solid and
broad foundation for lifelong learning and wellbeing.
• Target 4.2 of SDG 4 aims to ‘By 2030, ensure that all girls and boys have access to quality early childhood
development, care and pre-primary education.
NEED FOR ECCE

• Early childhood : It is defined as the period from birth to eight years old, is a time of remarkable growth
with brain development at its peak.
• This stage influence : children are highly influenced by the environment and the people that surround
them.
• Holistic development : These years lay the foundations for her/ his learning and holistic development.
BENEFITS
• Socialisation : Humans are social beings and the main socialisation takes root in early childhood. This helps
to develop self-confidence in your children by eliminating their shy nature.
• Cooperation : During this phase, children learn to share and cooperate. These are all part of a social life. This
is especially beneficial for single children. In the safe environment provided, the child learns to cooperate
with guidance from professionals.
• Holistic Development : It is important to have a strong foundation in every aspect of the personality such
as emotional, social, mental and physical.
• Enthusiasm for Lifelong Learning : Children develop a hunger for learning if they are taught through fun
and exciting activities in early childhood. This eagerness and enthusiasm for learning remains with them
their entire lives.
• Value of Education : The new environment provided in preschool gives children an entirely different
perspective on the requirement of education. Grasping knowledge and applying them to their lives
demonstrates the value of education.
• Teamwork : Many preschool activities are focused on teamwork and help children improve their attitude
towards working as a team. A person’s teamwork capability is based on their respect for others opinions,
listening skills and mentality towards equality. All these qualities are needed to be taught at a young age.
• Confidence and Self Esteem : A sense of wellbeing is important for a person to explore their talents. The
positive interactions with peers and teachers encourage a positive view of themselves. This is an important
impact of early childhood education.
• Cognitive Development : Professionally crafted activities in preschool enhance the development of the
brain. Various activities involving analysing and logical reasoning help them to develop their skills.
DRAFT NATIONAL EDUCATION POLICY, 2019

• Committee: The draft National Education Policy (NEP) developed by a committee chaired by K.
Kasturirangan was shared for public comment.
• RTE expansion: The Policy projects an expansion of the Right To Education (RTE) Act to cover the three
years of preschool before Class 1.
• Integrated curricular framework: It suggests a new integrated curricular framework for 3 to 8-year olds
with a flexible system based on play, activity and discovery, and beginning exposure to three languages from
age 3 onwards.
• High-quality early childhood care and education: The policy aims to provide High-quality early childhood
care and education for all children between the ages of three and six by 2025. This will be done within schools
and anganwadis, which will take care of the overall well-being of the child.
• Support to families for children : These institutions will also provide similar support to families for
children younger than three years of age—within their homes.
• Multiplier effect : This policy will result in a massive positive multiplier effect on society.
ASSOCIATED CHALLENGES
• Unavailability of trained teachers : One of the major issues
of ECCE is the unavailability of trained teachers.
• Constrained anganwadis : They are currently quite deficient
in supplies and infrastructure for education. As a result, they
tend to contain more children in the 2-4 year age range and
fewer in the educationally critical 4-6 year age range.
• Trained teachers : Anganwadis also have few teachers trained
in or specially dedicated to early childhood education.
• Private pre-schools : They often consist of formal teaching
and rote memorisation with limited play based learning.
• Study report : A 2017 study by the Ambedkar University
showed that “a significant proportion of children in India who
completed pre-primary education, public or private, did not have the needed school readiness competencies
when they joined primary school.
WAY FORWARD
• Teacher training : ECCE teacher training should be added as a skill gap in the list of National Skill
Development Corporation to ensure that easy investment is available to produce efficient ECCE teachers.
• Universal access : To quality early childhood education is perhaps the best investment that India can make
for our children’s and our nation’s future.
CONCLUSION
• Recent studies reveal the importance of early childhood education as it can influence the mental, emotional
and physical development of a child. To increase the quality of the education of children, it is important to
ensure early childhood education. The recommendations in the draft NEP should be implemented early.
DIGITAL EDUCATION
• Digital education is the innovative use of digital tools and technologies during teaching and learning, and is
often referred to as Technology Enhanced Learning (TEL) or e-Learning. Exploring the use of digital
technologies gives educators the opportunity to design engaging learning opportunities in the courses they
teach, and these can take the form of blended or fully online courses and programmes.
CONSTITUTIONAL PROVISIONS RELATED TO EDUCATION

• Education was the sole responsibility of the state till 42nd Amendment Act of 1976. After the amendment,
education was transferred from the State list to Concurrent list.

• Fundamental Rights:
o Article 21A: Right to Education
o Article 28: Freedom as to attendance at religious instruction or religious worship in certain educational
institutions.
o Article 29: Equality of opportunity in educational institutions.
o Article 30: Right of minorities to establish and administer educational institutions.
• Directive Principles:
o Article 41: Right to work, to education and to public assistance in certain cases
o Article 45: Provision for free and compulsory education for children and Provision for early childhood
care and education to children below the age of six years
o Article 46: It provides for special care to the promotion of education and economic interests of the
scheduled caste, scheduled tribes and the weaker sections of society.
CHALLENGES ASSOCIATED WITH DIGITAL EDUCATION

• Lack of Proper Study Room : Census 2011 tells
us that 71 per cent of households with three or
more members have dwellings with two rooms
or less (74 per cent in rural and 64 per cent in
urban areas).
• Inadequate Internet Penetration : According
to National Sample Survey data for 2017-18, only
42 percent of urban and 15 percent of rural
households had internet access, and only 34 per
cent of urban and 11 per cent of rural persons
had used the internet in the past 30 days. These
data clearly suggest that 2/3rd of the children
will be left out of the online education process.
• Slow Internet Speed : In absence of adequate speed of the internet the whole idea will fail. We can see the
same from the UT of Jammu and Kashmir when there are regular protests by the students as they are not
able to study in absence of proper internet connection.
• No Standard Policy : Digital education is not about videos of lectures on blackboards by teachers on the
internet. It is about appropriate platforms, technology, tools, interactivity, curation, content and a lot more.
We lack a proper policy on digital education, infrastructure, content, interaction and multiple languages.
• Lack of Social Cohesion : Public educational institutions also play an exemplary role in social inclusion and
relative equality. It is the place where people of all genders, classes, castes, and communities can meet
without one group being forced to bow to others.
• Teacher Training : Teachers look after the mental, emotional and social health of children in schools.
Schooling is supposed to look after the emotional, social and behavioural health of children, which is
diametrically opposite to social distancing. Teachers are not adequately trained to inculcate these learnings
through online mediums.
• Issue of Parenting : Another challenge is to keep thousands of children out of school when their parents
return to their work spaces post lock down.
OPPORTUNITIES ASSOCIATED WITH DIGITAL EDUCATION

• Learning pace : Online education enables both the teacher as well as the students to set their own learning
pace plus provides the flexibility of setting a schedule that fits everyone’s agenda. Consequently, providing a
better work-study balance.
• A Wide Range of Courses : In a space as vast and wide as the internet, infinite skills and subjects are there
to teach and learn. A growing number of universities and higher education schools are coming forward to
offer online versions of their programs for various levels and disciplines.
• More Cost-Effective than Conventional Learning : Lesser monetary investment is there with better results.
With the online mode of learning, the money spent on study materials along with commute charges is
considerably less.
• A Comfortable Learning Environment : Online learning allows students to work in the environment that
best suits them.

• Updated knowledge : Online Education provides professionals with the flexibility to improve and update
their skill set while working simultaneously. This helps them in staying updated about the existing
advancements and technologies.
• Quality education for all : Students may also no longer travel to other countries to attain a quality education
that they are not able to receive in their home country for socio-economic or political reasons.
• Access to everyone irrespective of location : Online learning helps to eliminate borders and barriers, both
social and physical. Online courses are a great solution to the challenges that these people face as they are
provided with high-quality education and on their own place and time.
GOVERNMENT INITIATIVES TO SUPPORT THE DIGITAL EDUCATION

• SWAYAM : The ‘Study Webs of Active Learning for Young Aspiring Minds' (SWAYAM) is an integrated
platform for offering online courses and covering school (9th to 12th) to Postgraduate Level.
• SWAYAM Prabha : SWAYAM Prabha is an initiative to provide 32 High Quality Educational Channels through
DTH (Direct to Home) across the length and breadth of the country on a 24X7 basis.
• National Digital Library (NDL) : The National Digital Library of India (NDL) is a project to develop a
framework of virtual repository of learning resources with a single-window search facility.
• Free and Open Source Software for Education (FOSSEE) : FOSSEE is a project promoting the use of open
source software in educational institutions.
• E-Yantra : e-Yantra is a project for enabling effective education across engineering colleges in India on
embedded systems and Robotics.
WAY FORWARD
• A Multi-Pronged Approach : Flexible rescheduling the academic timetable and exploring options in
collaboration with schools, teachers, and parents for providing access to education to a larger section of
students.
o Staggering teacher-student interactions in physical mode with not more than 50% of the total strength
attending schools on alternate days.
o Giving priority to the less advantaged students who do not have access to e-learning.
o Genuine efforts must be invested to ensure every child gets good quality equitable education as a
fundamental right.
• Making Online Education More Effective : Shorter but quality discussions rather than long hours of
monotonous sitting and one-way communication, should be preferred.
• Focussing more on Knowledge Aspect : The education system should not just heartlessly push the students
and teachers in only finishing the course regardless of any gain of knowledge, focus should be upon quality
learning and not quantity cramming.
CONCLUSION
• Summing it up, at this stage, online education is all set to transform the education scenario in India and the
world. However, it would require a significant change in pedagogy to take advantage of innovation in this
space.
ASER (ANNUAL STATUS OF EDUCATION REPORT) REPORT 2020

• It is a nationwide survey of rural education and learning outcomes in terms of reading and arithmetic skills
that has been conducted by the NGO Pratham.
• ASER 2020 is the first ever phone-based ASER survey and it was conducted in September 2020, the sixth
month of national school closures.
ASER, 2020 OBSERVATIONS

• Textbooks access : According to an ASER survey conducted in September, 20% of rural children have no
textbooks at home (also means 80% students have textbooks). This proportion students having textbooks is
higher among students enrolled in government schools (84.1%) than in private schools (72.2%)
• Enrolment ratio : It found that 5.3% of rural children aged 6-10 years had not yet enrolled in school this
year, in comparison to just 1.8% in 2018. Non-enrolment is visible mostly among the youngest children (age
6 and 7), may be due to delay in admission owing to pandemic.
• Enrolment ratio in Government schools : Enrolment

patterns also show a slight shift toward government
schools, with private schools seeing a drop in enrolment
in all age groups. 55 per cent children in the 6-14 age
groups are enrolled in government schools, up from
66.42 per cent in 2018.
• Smartphones concern : As many as 24.3 percent of the
children said they had not received any learning
material from the school in the week the survey was held
because they had no Smartphone. 6% of students in
government schools without access to a smartphone
• Family education : Almost 40% in low education
households got no materials and did no learning, compared to 17% of high education families.
• Learning activities : In the week of the survey, one in three rural children had done no learning activity at
all. About two in three had no learning materials or activity given by their school that week, and only one in
ten had access to live online classes.
OPPORTUNITIES
• Observational learning : Students, specifically for lower classes, could use the safety of the open
countryside to learn a variety of topics by doing things themselves, under guidance from teachers.
Observational learning like that will create a strong foundation.
• Educational videos : Online education world is full of information on everything. Educational video, which
has helped thousands, can advance learning even beyond the pandemic, using talented teacher-
communicators.
• Case studies : States such as Tamil Nadu and Kerala have already hosted curriculum-based video lessons on
the Internet, after beaming them on television.
• Prevent 2020 from becoming a zero year : It will take out-of-the-box thinking during the pandemic to
come up with interventions that are a substitute for traditional methods and prevent 2020 from becoming a
zero year.
WAY FORWARD
• Observation of enrolment : As soon as the schools open, it will be important to observe, what percentage
of students go back to schools and whether there is learning loss as compared to previous years.
• Reaching parents at the right level : It is important to note that 80% of families provided learning support
to children, now schools should find ways to build on that home support. “Reaching parents at the right level”
is essential to understand how they can help their children.
• Promoting Hybrid learning : Centre and the State governments should plan remedial measures to make
“Hybrid learning” possible for students that combine traditional teaching-learning with newer ways of
“reaching-learning”.
• Study material : Schools opting out for a hybrid solution of partial reopening and online learning should
ensure expanding the availability of textbooks for all students including those who dropped out or waiting
to be formally admitted.
• Mediating the “digital divide” : Government must try to bridge the digital divide by providing the needy
families with the necessary support in terms of equipment and access to the internet.
CONCLUSION
• Covid-19 has left the nation with deep economic distress and uncertainty over school re-openings and
thrown open new challenges in every sector. The nationally representative sample highlighted the role
played by the families where everyone in the family supported children regardless of their education levels.
This strength needs to be leveraged by reaching out to more students and reducing the distance between
schools and homes.

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Sumit Rewri and team

1. Salient features of Indian Society and Diversity of India___________________________________________________________ 2

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1. SALIENT FEATURES OF INDIAN SOCIETY AND DIVERSITY

PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS

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CHARACTERISTICS OF INDIAN SOCIETY

STRUCTURAL AND FUNCTIONAL CHANGES IN THE MARRIAGE SYSTEM:

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TYPES OF THE FAMILY:

STRUCTURAL AND FUNCTIONAL CHANGES IN THE INDIAN FAMILY:

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DATA AND FACTS

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CHANGES IN TRIBAL SOCIETY

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MULTICULTURALISM AND PLURALISM:

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INDIA AS A MULTI-LINGUAL SOCIETY

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ISSUES AND CHALLENGES

STAKEHOLDERS IN INDIAN SOCIETY

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SCHEDULE TRIBE (ST)

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VICTIMS OF SUBSTANCE ABUSE

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2. ROLE OF WOMEN AND WOMENS ORGANISATION

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EVOLUTION OF THE ROLE OF WOMEN IN INDIAN SOCIETY

THE LATER VEDIC PERIOD (1000 BC–600 BC)

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MEDIEVAL PERIOD (6TH – 13TH CENTURY AD)

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19TH CENTURY SOCIAL REFORM MOVEMENTS AND EARLY WOMEN'S ORGANISATIONS

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MUSLIM WOMEN AND SOCIAL REFORM

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EARLY WOMEN'S ORGANISATIONS

WOMEN’S INDIA ASSOCIATION (WIA) (1917)

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