FyQ Tema 3

3 Chemical reactions
Unit presentation We therefore expect students to be able to identify changes easily.

However, this unit goes one step further, studying chemical
The unit is structured around macroscopic evidence of chemical changes in general rather than just in specific contexts, for
changes, their characteristics and properties as well as the structure example, metabolic processes or the breakdown of materials,
of matter. These are combined to study chemical reactions. which have been described and studied in the past.
We describe chemical reactions from a microscopic perspective, To achieve this, we recommend emphasising the fact that this
using conclusions regarding the characteristics of chemical year’s content may be applied to phenomena they are already
reactions from atomic theory and the most relevant ideas presented familiar with in order to produce quantitative descriptions of these
by KMT. We also emphasise the fact that atoms are reordered in in future years.
chemical processes, when the bonds between them break and new
bonds are subsequently formed.
■■ Related tasks
Finally, we link the microscopic description to a macroscopic
In this unit, as in those before it, we recommend doing the practical
description by introducing the concept of amount of substance.
work set out in the ‘Hands-on work’ section. In this case, this
involves studying certain factors that influence the rate of a
chemical reaction.
Materials and resources
To assist you in presenting this unit, in addition to the Student’s ■■ Teaching values
Book, Teacher’s Guide and Teacher’s Resources, you will find it
Given that this unit lays the foundation for further study of
useful to consult the digital resources available on the Anaya
Chemistry, it is important to bear in mind and emphasise the need
website, as well as handbooks, encyclopaedias and the Internet.
to build upon existing knowledge, thereby fostering the learning
to learn competence.
General suggestions We recommend encouraging cooperative learning through group

and pair work, since this has a direct influence on social and civic
■■ Previous ideas and learning difficulties competence. Students learn how to work together and be tolerant
At this point in their education, students have already studied of the learning styles of other students. They work together to
confirming a chemical change, identifying it and even describing achieve common results and can also learn from their mistakes by
its characteristics. analysing how to correct them.
Unit outline
CHEMICAL REACTIONS
are fulfil the

are represented by
Chemical equations Changes Law of Law of

conservation definite
in which we find of mass proportions
in which
Stoichiometric Chemical formulas Molecules

coefficients
which tell us the of of
Proportion
Reagents Collide
between
with enough with the correct
Molecules and
Energy Orientation
and of
Moles Products producing
60
Notes
3
Chemical
reactions
What do we know about
chemical reactions?
From ancient times to the modern day, the need
to understand and be able to control chemical
reactions has given rise to many theories on the
characteristics and composition of matter.
However, the thoughts of Robert Boyle on the nature
of chemical elements, in his work The Sceptical
Chymist (1661), in addition to the conclusions
drawn by Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier (1743–1794)
on the conversion of mass in chemical reactions,
make these scientists the true founders of modern
chemistry.
In previous units, we focused on describing matter
and its structure. In this unit, we will learn how the
nature of substances is changed. These changes
are called chemical reactions.
FOCUS
on English
The word chemistry is derived from the
word alchemy, which in turn is thought
to come from the Arabic word al-kīmīā.
However, the true origin of the root
word, chem, is not clear. The most widely
accepted theory is that the word al-kīmīā
is derived from the ancient Egyptian name
for Egypt (khem, khame, or khmi, meaning
black earth, which contrasted with the
surrounding desert). The word alchemy
may therefore be defined as ‘Egyptian
art’. In pairs, look up the terms chemistry
and alchemy in the dictionary, then write
an explanation of the differences between
them.
■■ Methodological suggestions
• This section on change relates to a number of learning standards. It is
possible to assess whether or not some of them have been attained
through written activities, such as those that refer to the use of models
for interpreting chemical reactions (collision theory) or those focused on
checking the law of conservation of mass. Other standards are empirical
and experimental, for example, those that require students to recognise
chemical reactions in simple experiments. Given this variety, we
recommend combining experiments with explanations and written tasks
in each lesson covering the material in this unit.
• The concepts of amount of substance and moles are introduced in
this unit, as the usefulness of this quantity becomes clear in the
context of chemical reactions. However, although stoichiometric
calculations require using moles, the concept of amount of substance
is not introduced until the second-to-last section, and the law of
multiple proportions is used to introduce calculations for determining
the mass of reagents and products. Structuring the unit content in
this way enables students to make simple stoichiometric calculations
without moles, using the proportion of mass of the substances that
react.
■■ Focus on English
FOCUS
on English
In the Focus on English sections we select significant words and look at

their origin, meaning and usage. This promotes autonomous learning and
critical thinking as students think about how language is formed and
developed. Understanding how language works enables students to
improve their written skills and vocabulary as well as general linguistic
competence. Cooperative learning and entrepreneurial skills are
encouraged through pair and group work.
In this example, students develop linguistic competence by reflecting on
the origin and meaning of the word ‘chemistry’. This learning is extended
through dictionary work in pairs.
61
UNIT
1
31
Changes in nature 1.3 The characteristics of chemical changes

Chemical reactions have many interesting characteristics, in addition
to making new substances appear. For example:
Almost all natural phenomena occur as a result of various types of FOCUS • Energy is exchanged throughout the course of a chemical reaction.
changes. These changes may be as simple as a body changing position on English
Some chemical reactions require an energy supply in order to take
or as complex as the transformations produced in the substances
Calcium oxide (CaO), commonly place. In contrast, others, for example combustion reactions, release
found inside the human body.
known as quicklime or burnt a large amount of energy.
lime, is a widely used chemical
1.1 Physical and chemical changes compound. It is a white,
• Reversible and irreversible reactions. Most chemical reactions are
irreversible. In other words, once the reagents have combined to
As we saw in the initial unit on scientific knowledge, physics and caustic, alkaline and crystalline
create products, these products cannot be recombined to produce
chemistry study the transformations produced in material systems. solid at room temperature.
The more general term lime the original reagents. Nevertheless, some reactions can be reversed
There are two different types of transformations or changes, both of
connotes inorganic materials to return to the original reagents. These reactions are called reversible
which result in new substances.
containing calcium, in which reactions.
When we heat a piece of iron until it reaches melting point, which
calcium carbonates, oxides • The states of aggregation of reagents and products do not
causes it to change from a solid into a liquid, no new substances are and hydroxides, silicon, necessarily have to be the same. In other words, a reaction between
formed. We simply obtain melted iron. magnesium, aluminium, and a solid and a liquid could produce a gas. Many reactions take place
However, if we were to heat a piece of limestone (calcium carbonate), iron predominate. In contrast, in an aqueous solution. As you will see later on, we therefore usually
we would get quicklime (calcium oxide) and a certain amount of the term quicklime is specific to indicate whether one of the reagents or products is in an aqueous
carbon dioxide (CO2) would be released. In this case, new substances the chemical compound calcium solution.
are produced from the initial ingredients. oxide. Calcium oxide that may
be processed without reacting Chemical reactions are not only studied in laboratories. Rather, they
in building products such as can be studied in a variety of different contexts.
cement is called free lime.
Some everyday chemical reactions
In other words, chemical changes alter the nature of matter, since

they make certain substances appear and disappear. In contrast, in
physical changes, the properties of the system are merely transformed.
Chemical changes are also known as chemical reactions.
1.2 Reagents and products in a chemical reaction

No matter how complex a chemical reaction is, it is always possible
to determine which substances produced the change and which were
produced as a result. Many different chemical reactions take The main aim of some sectors in the The conservation of monuments
place inside living beings. They happen chemical and pharmaceutical industries implies using our knowledge of natural
• Reagents are the pure substances that are combined together in
constantly and are all interconnected. is to use chemical reactions to produce chemical processes and the factors
order to produce a chemical reaction. For example, digestion is a series of products that can be used in industry that could have medium-term or long-
• On the other hand, the products of a chemical reaction are the chemical reactions. and society as a whole. term impacts on the environment.
substances produced as a result of combining reagents in order to Producing quicklime
produce a chemical reaction.
In the previous example, in which limestone was converted into quicklime,
Understand, think, search
the reagent was limestone and the products of the reaction were 1 What do we mean when we say that the nature 4 The medicines produced by the
quicklime and carbon dioxide. This reaction may be written as follows: of matter is altered during a chemical reaction? pharmaceutical industry play a major role in
Limestone → quicklime + carbon dioxide In your own words, define what the term ‘nature modern day society. Research various drugs that
of matter’ means. have recently been created and find out what
2 Is sugar dissolving in water a physical or chemical they are used for.
Working with pictures change? What about when we heat sugar to
5 Which environmental problem is portrayed
Rocks are made up of one or more minerals, in addition to produce caramel? Explain your answers.
certain impurities. For example, limestone is not just made up of calcium in the third picture on this page? What can we
Quicklime is produced by transferring
carbonate. Taking this into account, do you think it would be possible to heat energy to limestone in order to 3 Find examples of reversible and irreversible do to prevent this? Does the solution require
convert the entire mass of limestone into quicklime and carbon dioxide? transform it. reactions and then describe them. knowledge of chemistry?
80 81
■■ Methodological suggestions ■■ Focus on English

FOCUS
on English
• In this unit the differences between physical and chemical changes will
Students develop linguistic and science competence by reflecting on the
now be studied systematically.
meaning and usage of the word ‘lime’ in different scientific contexts and
• Introduce this section by discussing the concept of chemical change in compound words. This activity promotes autonomous learning and critical
relation to the hypotheses of atomic theory and defining an elementary thinking.
substance as something that cannot be broken down into other, different
substances, in contrast to complex substances, which can. We suggest
emphasising the fact that in this unit, in addition to studying the breakdown ■■ Answer key
of compounds into elements and vice versa (synthesising compounds from Working with pictures
elements), we will also look at all kinds of chemical reactions.
If the entire mass of limestone is not calcium carbonate, its entire
• Cooking is a good example of physical processes –dissolving salt, mass will not react. As such, the sum of the masses of quicklime and
boiling water, making mayonnaise and filtering coffee in a coffee maker– carbon dioxide obtained will not be equal to the mass of the limestone,
and chemical processes – the browning of a casserole, toasting bread, but rather the mass of calcium carbonate the limestone contained.
making caramel and reactions that occur in marinades, etc. You might
emphasise that although it is not always easy to tell the difference Understand, think, search
between a physical and chemical change, we can always work it out by 1 This means that in a chemical reaction, the substances that make up
analysing the substances present before and after the change. the reacting system change. In this case, the nature of matter refers to
• This section shows students how to write a chemical reaction, having the substances that make up the reacting matter.
identified the reagents and products. You might take this opportunity to 2 Sugar dissolving in water is a physical change where no new
point out that if we study a reaction in quantitative terms, we must write substances are created, whereas when making caramel, the properties
the chemical formulas correctly. of the substances change, producing a new colour and taste.
• For the characteristics of chemical reactions, we suggest using anabolic 3 Reversible: the reactions involved in recharging rechargeable
processes as an additional example of reactions that require energy, and batteries, combining water and carbon dioxide to create carbonic
catabolic processes as an example of reactions that give off energy. acid and combining hydrogen and nitrogen to create ammonia.
• As for reversible reactions, or even those that are not strictly reversible, Irreversible: any precipitation reaction, combustion reaction or
it may be worth mentioning the destruction and regeneration of the reaction between sodium hydroxide and hydrochloric acid.
ozone layer, since from a global point of view, it is a reversible process. 4 Guide research towards new medicines for treating hepatitis C.
• The pictures on the right-hand page may be used to stress that chemical 5 The photograph shows the hole in the ozone layer. To prevent
reactions take place all the time, not just in the laboratory, and are not the ozone layer from deteriorating, the use of certain gasses (CFCs) such
always carried out by people. The aim here is to highlight the basic as propellants in pressurised containers has been banned. To combat
nature of the discipline, in addition to the need to master it in order to this problem, the role these gasses play within the framework of chemical
successfully tackle other areas such as health or environmental sciences. reactions that regenerate the ozone layer had to be understood.
62
UNIT
Studying chemical
2
31
reactions 2.3 Factors that influence the rate Working with pictures
of chemical reactions Discuss the following
question with your classmates:
Many factors affect the rate of chemical reactions.
2.1 Collision theory in chemical reactions FOCUS Why do we keep perishable food at
on English For example, a solid reagent reacts much quicker if it is broken down low temperatures?
One theory used to explain how and why chemical reactions occur into small pieces (for example, turned into powder or cut into small
is collision theory. In order to understand this theory, we must first The word rate has many
crystals). Larger pieces (such as a wooden log) take longer to react.
revise three key ideas studied in previous units: different meanings. When
used as a noun, it can mean The two of the factors that impact chemical reactions the most are
• According to kinetic molecular theory (KMT), the particles that temperature and the reagent concentration.
the speed at which something
make up matter do not stay still, but rather move around constantly.
moves, or the quantity or
As a result, they crash into one another. Temperature
frequency at which something
• A chemical reaction may be described as the reorganisation of happens: ‘My school has the In general, the higher the temperature, the faster the reaction. Kinetic
atoms. The atoms that were bound together to form reagents are best pass rate in the region’. molecular theory may be used to explain this:
regrouped in a different way, in order to produce new substances Or the price of something:
called products. ‘What is the rate for this
service?’ Or a charge that
• In order to do this, the atomic bonds between atoms in the reagents
must be paid: ‘Water rates
must be broken, in order to form new bonds that join different
are high for properties in
atoms together.
this area’. When used as a
verb, rate means to evaluate:
The concentration of reagents
‘The director will rate
your performance’ and to The concentration of a substance refers to the relationship between
numerically assess something the amount of substance and its volume. The higher the concentration,
such as a film, for example, the more substance per unit volume.
‘film critics rate films on a scale
from one to ten’.
The higher the number of molecules, the greater the number of possible collisions
Collision theory
New bonds are then

Molecules move They collide with formed, which produces
around constantly. enough energy. new substances.
If the concentration of reagents is very low, there will be In contrast, if the concentration of reagents is high, the
fewer collisions. The chemical reaction would therefore be number of collisions increases, thereby making the chemical
slow. reaction faster.
2.2 The rate of chemical reactions
Reactions are classified according to the time taken between the
reagents colliding with one another in a reaction and the formation of Understand, think, apply
products. Some reactions are extremely slow, whilst others are so
fast, they produce explosions! 9 Do you think the reaction rate between gaseous
6 Do all collisions between the molecules substances depends on the pressure at which
in reagents cause the bonds between them to
they are found? Explain your answer.
Other ways to measure break? Which factors influence the probability of
the rate of a reaction the collision being successful? 10 In which of the following situations would the
7 Draw a diagram to represent the key ideas combustion reaction be the fastest? Explain your
In chemistry and industry, it is essential that we be able to control the As already mentioned,
answer:
you need to understand about collision theory. Do
rate of a chemical reaction. As such, one aim of the chemical industry the rate of a reaction is often
not forget to include the ideas you have already a) Burning wood chips.
and associated fields is to accelerate reactions that produce products determined by measuring the
studied, for example kinetic molecular theory and
for social use. amount of product produced b) Burning a log.
Dalton’s atomic theory.
over time. Do you think there is
Being able to control the rate of a reaction also enables us to slow another way to measure the rate 8 Use KMT to explain why temperature usually 11 Do some research on catalysts. Why do we
some reactions down, in order to stop food from decomposing so of a reaction? increases the rate of a chemical reaction. use this kind of substance?
quickly, for example.
82 83
■■ Methodological suggestions ■■ Answer key

• Stoichiometric calculations are traditionally considered an essential part Working with pictures
of studying chemical reactions. However, these calculations require an
Reducing the temperature slows down the chemical processes
understanding of the phenomena that occur in a chemical reaction on a
that cause food to turn bad.
microscopic scale.
• One of the difficulties that may arise when studying collision theory is that
students may not ever have thought about the conditions under which 6 No. In order for a collision to be successful, it must have
bonds break and form in a chemical reaction. Highlight that chemical enough energy and be oriented correctly.
reactions only occur under certain conditions between certain reagents. 7 The diagram should link the following concepts:
Dispel the idea that chemical reactions are cumulative, in other words, – m atter is made up of atoms; different chemical elements have
that reagent molecules join together to form other, larger substances. different atoms;
• To explain collision theory in chemical reactions, first introduce the – chemical compounds are made up of atoms from different elements;
stochastic and dynamic nature of these reactions, describing them on a – the particles that make up matter move continuously and collide
microscopic scale. Introduce this non-deterministic behaviour, in which with one another;
not all collisions result in the formation of product molecules, and not all – chemical reactions take place when the molecules of reagents have
reagent molecules have the same energy value, but are rather distributed enough energy and are oriented correctly for the atoms to bond in a
around an average value. Although the link between the description of different way, creating new substances.
each element and the elements as a whole may seem remote, we feel this 8 When the temperature increases, the kinetic energy of the molecules
connection should be demonstrated to students. increases and with it, the number of effective collisions, increasing the
• Once you have used collision theory to analyse chemical reactions, rate of the chemical reaction.
taking the points mentioned above into account, students will see that it 9 When the pressure of a gas increases, but the volume does not, the
is easy to work out which factors affect the rate of a reaction. temperature increases, since the particles move more quickly,
increasing the number of effective collisions, and thus the rate of the
• To expand on the content, we suggest introducing the concept of
chemical reaction.
catalysts before doing activity 11.
10 The correct option is a), given that the surface area of the wood chips
• The answer to the question about quantifying the rate may be used to
is greater than that of the log.
introduce the concept of limiting reagents. Mention how certain physical
properties are measured to indicate the rate of a chemical reaction. 11 A catalyst is a substance that accelerates chemical reactions.
Catalysts act specifically on the activation energy of the molecules in
reagents, lowering it. This produces effective collisions at much lower
FOCUS
on English
values, forming bonds in product molecules.
Students develop linguistic competence by reflecting on the meaning and Catalysts are not used up in a chemical reaction and are recovered
usage of the word ‘rate’ in different contexts. afterwards.
63
UNIT
Writing chemical
3
31
reactions 3.2 Understanding chemical equations

Chemical equations give us information on:
• The pure substances (reagents and products) involved in the reaction,
If we put an aqueous solution of potassium iodide, KI, in contact with
which are represented using their respective chemical formulae.
another aqueous solution of lead nitrate, Pb(NO3)2, both of which
are transparent, the chemical reaction between them would cause • The amount of each substance involved, given in stoichiometric
two new substances to appear. These are lead iodide, PbI2 (which is coefficients.
yellow in colour) and potassium nitrate, KNO3. In order to better understand a chemical equation, let’s look at the
However, the chemical reaction described above is not explained in a example below, which shows how ammonia, NH3, is formed:
very practical way. In order to simplify it, we can use a chemical equation. N2 + 3 H2 → 2 NH3
This reaction is also represented in the picture below:
3.1 Chemical equations
A chemical equation tells us which substances formed part of the
reaction and which were formed as a result. This information is both +
qualitative and quantitative, since it also tells us the amount of each
substance involved in the reaction.
We can therefore conclude that:
A chemical equation consists of:

This information tells us:
• Two parts connected by an arrow which indicates in which direction
• How many fundamental units (atoms or molecules) of each reagent
the reaction is produced. To the left of the arrow, the chemical
and product involved in the reaction there are.
formulae of the reagents are given, while the chemical formulae of
the products appear on the right. • The number of atoms found in each element involved in the reaction.
• Numbers are placed in front of the chemical formula of each
substance involved in the reaction. These numbers are called
stoichiometric coefficients and tell us how many molecules there
are or how much of this substance was used (as we shall see later
on). If this number is one, it is not written.
• The state of aggregation of the substances is sometimes specified
using abbreviations written in brackets after each chemical formula.
For example, the formulae for solid substances are followed by (s), As you can see, the number of atoms in each chemical element is
while liquids are followed by (l ) and gases, (g). In addition, aqueous not altered. It is the same before and after a chemical reaction. We
Working with pictures
solutions are indicated using the abbreviation (aq). can use this information to correctly determine the stoichiometric
With the help of your
coefficients of these elements.
classmates, work out where the
chemical substances involved in the
Let’s write some chemical equations
reaction are in the picture.
reactions
The chemical change shown in the picture on the right was described at the
Understand, think, apply
start of this page. In order to write the chemical equation for this reaction, 12 Write the chemical equation for the following 14 When sodium (Na), in a solid state, reacts
we must: process: Four ammonia molecules react with with an aqueous sulfuric acid solution (H2SO4),
1 Identify the reagents and products and write down their chemical formulae: five dioxygen molecules to form four nitrogen the gas hydrogen (H2) is released, in addition
Reagents Products monoxide molecules and six water molecules. to producing sodium sulfate (Na2SO4) in an
KI + Pb (NO3)2 → PbI2 + KNO3 aqueous solution:
13 Write the chemical equation for the reaction a) Write out the chemical equation for this
2 We must then add information on their state of aggregation:
between hydrogen (H2) and oxygen (O2), which reaction, specifying the state of aggregation
KI (aq) + Pb(NO3)2 (aq) → PbI2 (s) + KNO3 (aq)
takes place in order to produce water (H2O): of each substance.
3 Finally, we must add their stoichiometric coefficients by balancing the
equation, as you will see in the next section: a) Can you work out the stoichiometric coefficients? b) Which substances are reagents and which are
2 Kl (aq) + Pb(NO3)2 (aq) → Pbl2 (s) + 2 KNO3 (aq) products?
b) Draw a picture to explain this reaction.
c) How many atoms are there in each chemical
Stoichiometric coefficients
c) Identify the reagents and the products. element on both sides of the chemical equation?
84 85
■■ Methodological suggestions • The meaning of chemical equations on a microscopic scale and their
representation in molecular ball diagrams facilitates understanding of
• Continuing with the study of chemical reactions, students will now learn
the quantitative information found in chemical reactions. This helps to
how to represent them symbolically in chemical equations.
develop the procedures needed for balancing.
• We begin with a description of the terms and symbols used in equations,
then go on to quantitatively interpret a chemical equation at the • We suggest working on this kind of representation using examples and
microscopic level. the activities on these pages and at the end of the unit.
• The next double-page spread in this section focuses entirely on

balancing chemical equations.
■■ Answer key
• Students can be expected have difficulty understanding the content and
carrying out the procedures involved. We suggest first emphasising the Working with pictures
fact that the dynamic process that takes place during a chemical reaction
This activity is designed to connect writing chemical reactions
is represented sequentially in chemical equations, separating the initial
sequentially to the physical location of reagents and products.
situation from the end result by means of an arrow.
• Be aware that some students may mistakenly confuse chemical As is the case with interpreting space-time graphs showing movement,
equations with algebraic equations, assuming that the initial and final when working with tools that represent phenomena, we tend to overlook
states of the chemical process correspond to the two halves of an or, in most cases, fail to pay sufficient attention to, the phenomena that
algebraic equation. these graphs or equations represent.
• For this reason, we have broken down the steps to writing a chemical Phenomena must be considered abstractly through graphical and
equation (not including balancing). You can use the outline to write mathematical tools in order to process information quickly and efficiently.
other chemical equations, such as the reaction between solid aluminium However, especially at the initial stages of studying Chemistry, it is also
and an aqueous hydrochloric acid solution in order to form solid advisable to highlight the relationship between the representation and the
aluminium chloride that gives off hydrogen gas. phenomenon represented (in this case, a precipitation reaction). This avoids
limiting learning to systematic, rote work with a code (in this case, the chemical
• Once students have practised using this outline, perform the process
equation), without thinking about the phenomenon this code represents.
backwards. In other words, learn to read a chemical equation and
analyse the information it contains. In the picture, the reagents (KI and Pb(NO 3)2) are separated into two
• You could use the examples of balancing chemical equations from the beakers. When they come into contact as the contents of one are poured
Teacher’s worksheets for fostering diversity. into the other, a reaction occurs, producing a yellow precipitate (Pbl2) and
potassium nitrate, KNO3.
• At this stage of studying chemical reactions, students should have
mastered chemical formulas and nomenclature. As such, we recommend
first doing the activities set out in the Formulation and nomenclature
appendix, if they have not already done so. 12 to 14 See the Answer Key included in the Teacher’s Resources.
64
UNIT
3 Writing chemical reactions
31
CH4 + 2 O2 CO2 + 2 H2O
3.3 Balancing chemical equations Burning methane
CH4 + 2 O2 CO2 + 2 H2O
FOCUS CH4 + 2 O2 CO2 + 2 H2O
on English
The word balance has several + +
meanings and is most generally
used to refer to our ability + +
to maintain equilibrium, for + +
So, the number of atoms in each chemical element does not change example, ‘alcohol affects a
during a chemical reaction. That is, new elements do not appear and person’s balance’. A balance is
the original elements are not destroyed. Rather, the molecules in also an instrument with which If we were to draw the reaction from the previous example at a microscopic
these elements are reorganised in order to form new substances. we can weigh objects, for level, we could easily check whether or not the equation is balanced:
When balancing chemical equations we must only modify the example ‘the jeweller weighed
stoichiometric coefficients (the amount of substance or number of the diamond on a balance’. We
molecules used). We must not alter the subscript of the chemical also use the term balance to Problem solved
formulae, as this would change the substances involved in the refer to the amount of money
1 Ammonia (NH3) reacts with oxygen (O2) to produce 5 Now we have the N and the H balanced, so we
reaction.
we have in a bank account.
nitrogen monoxide (NO) and water (H2O). Write only have to balance the O. We have two atoms
down the chemical equation for this reaction and of O in the two molecules of NO and three in the
An example of different chemical reactions use the trial and error method to balance it. three molecules of water; in total, five atoms of
H2 + O2 H2O H2 + O2 H2O2 1 Before being balanced, the chemical equation O in the products. To have this number in the
should read: reagents, we would have to put a 5/2 in front of
These substances are not the
Water same. We therefore have two Hydrogen peroxide the O2:
NH3 + O2 → NO + H2O
different chemical reactions.
2 NH3 + 5 O2 8 2 NO + 3 H2O
2 Since oxygen is an elementary substance, it must 2
be balanced last. The nitrogen has already been 6 As it is not possible to have half a molecule of
How to balance a chemical reaction balanced, since there is one nitrogen atom in the O2, we multiply all of the coefficients by two, so
We will use the trial and error method, trying different stoichiometric reagents and one in the products. that all of them are whole numbers:
coefficients until the equation is balanced. Remember:
3 In order to balance the hydrogen, we must focus 4 NH3 + 5 O2 8 4 NO + 6 H2O
on the number of atoms in the reagents (3) and 7 We must then check whether or not there are
products (2). We must therefore put a 2 before the same number of atoms in the reagents as
NH3 ( 2 · 3 = 6) and a 3 before H2O ( 3 · 2 = 6). there are in the products.
2 NH3 + O2 → NO + 3 H2O
Element Reagents Products
4 In doing this, the nitrogen is no longer balanced,
as there are now two atoms in the reagents and N 4 ∙1=4 4 ∙1=4
one in the products. We balance it by putting a
An example of how to balance a chemical equation: burning methane H 4 ∙ 3 = 12 6 ∙ 2 = 12
2 in front of the NO:
1 We must first write down the formulae of the reagents and products CH4 + O2 → CO2 + H2O
O 5 ∙ 2 = 10 4 ∙ 1 + 6 ∙ 1 = 10
and count the number of atoms in each element on both sides of the 2 NH3 + O2 8 2 NO + 3 H2O
1 C atom 1 C atom
arrow.
4 H atoms 2 H atoms
2 O atoms 3 O atoms
2 We must then choose the coefficient of a compound that does not We place a 2 before H2O so the Hs are balanced: Understand, think, search
modify the remaining elements too much.
CH4 + O2 → CO2 + 2 H2O 15 Decide whether the following sentence is true or 17 Balance the following chemical equations:
false. Then give an example to justify your answer. a) Al + O2 → Al2O3
3 We then select the coefficient of the elementary substances. We place a 2 before O2 so the Os are balanced:
‘In a chemical reaction, the number of molecules b) NH3 + H2SO4 → (NH4)2SO4
CH4 + 2 O2 → CO2 + 2 H2O in the reagents is always equal to the number of c) SO2 + O2 → SO3
molecules in the products.’.
d) Fe2O3 + H2 → Fe + H2O
4 We must then check whether or not there is the same number of Reagents Element Products
atoms in the reagents as there are in the products. 16 A student balances the following chemical 18 Decide whether the equations below are correct
1·1=1 C 1·1=1
equation: NO + O2 → NO2 and explain why:
1·4=4 H 2 ·2=4 In this way: NO + O2 → NO3 2 C3H8 + 10 O2 → 6 CO2 + 8 H2O
2 ·2=4 O 1·2+ 2 ·1=4 Has this been done correctly? Why? 4 C3H8 + 20 O2 → 12 CO2 + 16 H2O
86 87
■■ Methodological suggestions elements involved. We therefore suggest using the synthesis of

ammonia already studied as an introductory example.
• The procedure for balancing chemical equations is an essential part of
Chemistry, since it is necessary to be able to quantitatively link the • You could then continue with the combustion of a simple hydrocarbon
amount of reagents to the amount of products. and structure the balancing as suggested.
• One difficulty in this context is the belief that false laws of conservation • Finally, you could use examples in which groups of atoms are involved,
of the number of molecules, or fundamental units, must be fulfilled by for example, sulfate or carbonate ions, so that students learn to identify
reagents and products. This is directly related to an erroneous link these groups of atoms in the formulation of salts, helping them to
between chemical equations and algebraic equations. We recommend balance substitution reactions.
using activity 15 to overcome this difficulty.
FOCUS
• Another difficulty is differentiating between stoichiometric coefficients on English
and subscripts, indicating a faulty link between the symbolic language Students develop linguistic competence by reflecting on the meaning and
of Chemistry and the meaning of the microscopic level, both in the usage of the word ‘balance’ in different contexts.
formula of a compound and the chemical reaction itself. We have
highlighted this confusion in the example of ‘different chemical
reactions’ and set activity 16 in anticipation of this common error. ■■ Answer key
• We therefore recommend reviewing the content on the meaning of Understand, think, search
chemical formulas and microscopic interpretation of reactions as often 15 This sentence is false. In a chemical reaction, the law of conservation
as necessary. that is fulfilled, in addition to the law of conservation of mass, means
• You may tackle the topic of balancing chemical equations by proposing that the number of atoms of each chemical element present is equal
a simple system of linear equations. However, we have chosen a trial and in both reagents and products of the reaction. A chemical reaction
error method for the following reasons: may therefore be described as the reordering of atoms.
–– To practise mental arithmetic. 16 The equation is not balanced correctly, since the substances involved in
the chemical reaction have been changed, forming a different nitrogen
–– To help students to internalise the formulas of the chemical oxide. The correct balanced equation should be: two NO molecules
compounds most commonly used. combine with one O2 molecule to produce two NO2 molecules.
–– It requires us to consider the chemical equation at all times, meaning 17 See the Answer Key included in the Teacher’s Resources.
students will not lose sight of what they are doing.
18 Both cases fulfil the rule that the number of atoms of each element is
–– It helps students relate information on an atomic and macroscopic the same in both reagents and products. However, the stoichiometric
scale. coefficients are not the lowest possible, since in both cases there is a
• To ensure the method is learned successfully, we recommend beginning common denominator: two for the first reaction and four for the
with the simplest case possible. When balancing chemical equations, second. The coefficients of each reaction would need to be divided by
the level of complexity varies depending on the number of chemical the common denominator.
65
UNIT
Fundamental laws
4
31
in chemical reactions The mass of reagents and products in some chemical reactions
3 H2 + N2 8 2 NH 3 CH 4 + 2 O 2 8 2 H 2 O + CO 2
When a chemical reaction takes place, the fundamental laws of FOCUS
chemical reactions are fulfilled. on English
Mass of reagents (g) Mass of products (g) Mass of reagents (g) Mass of products (g)
Many scientific words
4.1 The law of conservation of mass
have ancient Greek roots,
H2 N2 NH3 CH4 O2 H2O CO2
for example the word
stoichiometry, which refers
6.06 g 28.02 g 34.08 g 16.05 g 64.00 g 36.04 g 44.01 g
to the calculation of relative
quantities of reagents and
products in chemical reactions, 3 Cl 2 + 2 Fe 8 2 FeCl 3 2 C 4 H 10 + 13 O 2 8 10 H 2 O + 8 CO 2
is derived from the Greek
In chemical reactions written in the following way: words stoicheion, meaning
element, and metron, meaning Mass of reagents (g) Mass of products (g) Mass of reagents (g) Mass of products (g)
aA+bB → cC+dD
measure. Furthermore, Antoine
where the capital letters represent chemical substances, and the Lavoisier named the element Cl2 Fe FeCl3 C4H10 O2 H2O CO2
lower-case letters represent their corresponding stoichiometric hydrogen, with chemical
coefficients, we get: symbol H and atomic number 212.7 g 111.7 g 324.4 g 116.28 g 416.00 g 180.20 g 352.08 g
mA + mB = mC + mD 1, according to the Greek word
We can use this information to calculate the mass of a reagent or hydro, meaning water, and
product in a chemical reaction, provided that we know the mass of genes, meaning creator, when
the remaining substances involved in the reaction.
he and Laplace reproduced Problem solved
Cavendish’s finding that water
2 When 150 g of calcium carbonate is broken down, Therefore:
4.2 Definite proportions is produced when hydrogen is
we get 84 g of calcium oxide, in addition to a m CO 2 = m CaCO 3 – m CaO = 150 g – 84 g = 66 g
burnt.
When two chemical elements react to form a compound, the certain amount of carbon dioxide:
proportion of both elements by mass remains constant. However, this a) How much carbon dioxide by mass would be The proportion by mass of limestone and calcium
phenomenon is not limited to reactions in which chemical compounds released? oxide is constant. We therefore get the equation:
are formed. Rather, it may be applied to all chemical reactions. m CaCO 3 150 g 75 g
b) If 75 g of limestone was broken down, how = =
much quicklime by mass would be produced? m CaO 84 g mlCaO
According to the law of conservation of mass: Simplifying, the mass of quicklime would be:
m CaCO 3 = m CaO + m CO 2 mlCaO = 42 g
In chemistry, the proportion by mass of the reagents and products in a Understand, think, search
chemical reaction is often referred to as the stoichiometric proportion. 19 Calculate how much ammonia by mass could be 21 Both methane (CH4) and butane (C4H10) are burnt
obtained if 7.878 g of hydrogen were to react in heating systems as a result of the combustion
Proportions by mass in a chemical reaction
completely. Use the law of conservation of mass reaction with the oxygen in the air:
to calculate the amount of nitrogen needed in
+ 8 the reaction. a) How much carbon dioxide by mass would be
produced if we burnt one gram of each of
10 g of Cu 10 g of S 20 g of CuS Answer: 44.304 g NH3 and 36.426 g N2 these fuels?
20 We want to make 531.75 g of chlorine (Cl2) react b) Why do you think butane gas is being
+ 8 with 300 g of iron: replaced by natural gas (methane)? Share
a) Are these quantities stoichiometrically your conclusions with your classmates.
10 g of Cu 5.04 g of S 15.04 g of CuS proportional? Answer: 2.74 g of CO2 for methane and 3.03 g of CO2
b) How much of the iron would react? for butane
If we apply the law of conservation of mass to the reagents (sulfur and copper)
shown in the picture, we might mistakenly conclude that they would produce
Working with pictures
c) How much FeCl3 would be produced? 22 For the chemical reactions shown in the tables
20 g of CuS, as shown in the first row. However, it is important to consider the Calculate the stoichiometric proportion
of copper and sulfur, mCu/mS and Answer: b) mFe = 279.25 g of Fe above, check that the law of conservation of
proportion of the reagents that will actually react. For example, in this first
case, only 5.04 g of the 10 g of sulfur will actually react. sulfur and copper sulfide, mS/mCuS. c) mFeCl3 = 811 g of FeCl3 mass has been fulfilled.
88 89
■■ Methodological suggestions • However, given the modular design of the final sections of this unit, you
have three options: the proposed outline (section 4 followed by section 5);
• In the fourth section of the unit, we present a method for calculating the
limiting the unit content to that strictly required by the curriculum (section
mass of substances involved in a chemical reaction using the laws of
4 only, omitting section 5); or placing no emphasis on how calculating
conservation of mass and multiple proportions.
substances in chemical reactions evolved, going straight to section 5.
• The link between the description of a chemical reaction on a microscopic
and macroscopic scale must be explained by the fact that the atoms of If you choose the third option, bear in mind that the law of conservation
each element have a different mass, and so the fundamental units of the of mass will only be used to check that the stoichiometric calculations
different substances do too. have been done correctly.
• This makes it necessary to introduce the concept of amount of substance • In order to calculate the mass of the reagents and products in a chemical
as a quantity and the unit used to measure this quantity (mole). However, reaction without using amount of substance, we must know the
for the moment, we can use the law of multiple proportions to calculate proportion of the masses of the substances that react and form. The
the mass of reagents and products. activities in this section are thus limited to chemical reactions for which
the proportion by mass is shown on the right-hand page.
• We have chosen to include this intermediate step for various reasons.
Firstly, many Chemistry curricula advise against introducing the concept • Although the calculations needed to complete these activities are
of moles at this stage, while requiring students to perform simple simple, involving only proportions, addition and subtraction, we
stoichiometric calculations. To do these calculations without using recommend emphasising the need to come up with a problem-solving
amount of substance as a quantity, we must apply the law of multiple strategy. Although the strategy for these activities is simple and may be
proportions, given that we know the proportions by mass of reagents unnecessary for some students, this method of working lays the
and products. foundations for tackling more complex problems, such as those in the
• We also believe that when studying science, not only is it important to following section or in future years.
learn science, but also how to do science and about science. Rather
than simply showing how quantitative studies of chemical reactions are
FOCUS
done today, we also show how they were carried out when the discipline on English
first emerged, using the basic laws of chemistry.

Students develop linguistic and science competence by reflecting on
• This approach was used to present the different atomic models, with the meaning and the Greek roots of different scientific words. This activity
fundamental laws of chemistry as experimental evidence that led to the promotes autonomous learning and critical thinking.
development of atomic theory.
• As students are familiar with these events, we find it helpful to revisit
this evidence in the unit on chemical reactions, repeating the same ■■ Answer key
structure: experimental evidence and model, highlighting the use of
atomic theory and knowledge of atoms in the quantitative study of
chemical reactions. 19 to 22 See the Answer Key included in the Teacher’s Resources.
66
UNIT
Amount of substance
5
31
and chemical reactions 5.2 Molar mass

Mole is concerned with the number of particles. However, we usually
work with a different quantity: mass. As such, we must be able to link
As we have seen, chemical reactions occur atom to atom, and, on Amedeo Avogadro mass to the amount of substance. As such, scientists invented a new
a macroscopic scale, this means that the mass of the reagents and quantity called molar mass.
products involved is fixed, or in other words, that there is a definite
proportion of each substance by mass in the reaction. As such,
we must be able to link the mass of a substance to the number of
molecules or atoms it contains.
In other words, we must ‘count’ the number of molecules, or atoms, in It is very easy to calculate the molar mass of a substance, since it is
a certain mass of substance. A new quantity is therefore defined: the the same as the atomic or molecular mass of the formula unit.
amount of substance.
For example, the molecular mass of nitrogen dioxide, NO2 is 46 u. As
such, its molar mass would be 46 g/mol.
5.1 The amount of substance in mole
Although the term Avogadro number
came about in honour of this Italian
Mass, amount of substance and the number of fundamental units
physicist and chemist (1776–1856), he
did not actually invent the concept Using the formula of a compound, in this case, We can work out the molar masses of the
himself. Rather, it was determined by ethanol (C2H6O)– and the atomic masses of the elements by using their atomic masses (MC = 12 g/mole,
J. Perrin in 1909 and R. Millikan in 1911,
elements from which it is composed (mC = 12 u, MH = 1 g/mole, MO = 16 g/mole).
amongst others. The Avogadro number
Since atoms and molecules are incredibly tiny, there will always be an mH = 1 u and mO = 16 u), we can calculate the mass of
enables us to calculate how many units
incredibly high number of units in a substance, no matter how small there are in one mole of substance. each element and the number of atoms it contains, We then do the same for the compound:
the portion we decide to observe. The amount of substance in mole in addition to the mass and number of molecules in
will therefore be a large number. the compound formed. MC2H6O = 2 · 12 + 6 · 1 + 16 · 1 = 46 g/mole
FOCUS
on English 46 g of C2H6O 1 mol of C2H6O 6.022 · 1023 molecules
Carbon is a non-metallic
In 1 mol of C2H6O
element with the symbol C and 24 g of C 1.204 · 1024 C atoms
there are 2 mole of C
atomic number 6. But what
As we already know, the mass of a carbon -12 atom is approximately is the carbon footprint? It Multiplied In 1 mol of C2H6O Multiplied
12 u. Using the equivalence between the atomic mass unit and the is the sum of all CO2 (carbon 6 g of H 3.613 · 1024 H atoms
by M (g/mole) there are 6 mole of H by NA
kilogram, we can calculate the number of carbon -12 atoms in a dioxide) emissions caused by
0.012 kg sample of this carbon isotope, as shown in the figure below. the activities carried out in a In 1 mol of C2H6O
16 g of O 6.022 · 1023 O atoms
given time frame, usually over there are 1 mole of O
Mole and the Avogadro number a period of one year.

NaCl
Cu Al
Working with pictures Understand, think, search
58. 44 g 63.54 g 26.98 g Look at the picture and
There are 6.022 · 1023 (the Avogadro The picture above shows the check that the mass of each of 26 Calculate the amount of substance found 28 Which has the most mass: 5 mole of ethanol
number, NA) atoms in 0.012 kg of mass of various substances that the substances shown corresponds in 350 g of the following substances: (C2H6O) or 2.5 mole of dioxygen (O2)? Which of
carbon -12. corresponds to one mole. to the mass indicated. the two contains the most oxygen atoms?
a) Potassium chloride, KCl
b) Iron 29 How many atoms and molecules are there in the
following samples?
Understand, think, search c) Sucrose, C12H22O11
a) 18 g of water.
23 How many electrons are there in 1 mole of d) Ozone, O3
25 Calculate the number of atoms in 0.012 kg b) 88 g of carbon dioxide.
electrons? Find information about the Avogadro Answer: a) 4.69 mole b) 6.27 mole
of carbon. Use the information below to help c) 81 g of aluminium.
number and Millikan’s experiment. you: c) 1.02 mole d) 7.29 mole
Answer:
24 Use the Internet to find out approximately 1 u = 1.66 · 10–27 kg ; mC = 12 u 27 Calculate the number of iron and oxygen atoms
a) 1.807 · 1024 atoms in total and 6.022 · 1023 water
What conclusion can you draw from the result? in questions b) and d) from the activity above.
how many inhabitants there are on Earth. How molecules. b) 3.613 · 1024 atoms in total and 1.204 · 1024
many ‘mole’ would this amount to? Answer: 6.022 · 1023 atoms Answer: 3.777 · 1024 iron atoms; 4.391 · 1024 oxygen atoms carbon dioxide molecules. c) 1.807 · 1024 atoms.
90 91
■■ Methodological suggestions • In order to expand on existing content, you could use the data in the
box on the right-hand page to establish the centesimal composition of
• Here we first introduce the concept of moles as a unit for measuring
the substance in the example, checking that this proportion does not
amount of substance. This quantity links the interpretation of a chemical
correspond to the subscripts in the chemical formula, in order to prove
reaction on a microscopic and macroscopic scale.
that the mass of the same elementary units of different chemical
• Students must therefore master the concept of amount of substance elements is different.
and the value of the number of units that make up a mole (the Avogadro
number), while bearing in mind that the same number of moles of
FOCUS
on English
different substances corresponds to different mass values. In other
words, they must know how to calculate molar mass. Students develop linguistic and science competence by reflecting on the
meaning and usage of the word ‘carbon’ in different contexts. This activity
• The first two-page spread in this section therefore focuses on amount of
also promotes social and civic competence.
substance, moles, the Avogadro number and molar mass.
• Moles are intrinsically difficult to understand. Firstly, students tend to
confuse this unit of a quantity (amount of substance) with mass, given
■■ Answer key
that they tend to quantify the amount of matter in terms of mass (or Working with pictures
volume, in the case of liquids and solids). Furthermore, the magnitude The aim here is to calculate the molar mass and the mass of one
of the Avogadro number makes it necessary to use scientific notation, mole of the substances in the picture. In order to check the values, take
causing additional difficulty, along with its value. the average atomic masses of the elements present: Na, 22.99 u; Cl, 35.45
• We suggest comparing the definition of a mole to the definition of a u. This means that the mass of the formula unit of NaCl would be 58.44 u.
unit of atomic mass, in order to make it clear to students that we are From there, we can work out that the molar mass is 58.44 g/mole and that
comparing the number of units (in this case, atoms) to the mass they the mass value for one mole of NaCl is 58.44 g. The same procedure can
represent, referring to 0.012 kg of a carbon isotope. be used to obtain the molar mass of the elementary substances copper
and aluminium shown in the picture.
• We then give another definition of a mole, based on the Avogadro
number. As already mentioned, the value of this constant is not very Understand, think, search
intuitive and it is difficult to grasp the amount it represents. To give this 23 There are 6.022 · 1023 electrons in 1 mole of electrons. The
constant meaning, you could use examples illustrating its magnitude: Avogadro number was determined in Millikan’s experiment once
the value of the world’s population multiplied by ten thousand. the electrical charge of an electron had been discovered, which was
• Finally, we introduce the concept of molar mass. Once students have the main aim of this experiment. Millikan simply divided the
understood the meaning of a mole, it is fairly easy to conclude that constant of one Faraday (the electrical charge of one mole, known
moles of different substances have different amounts of mass. from measurements in electrolysis experiments) by the charge
• It is advisable to review the concept of average atomic mass before of one electron, obtaining the number of electrons in 1 mole of
continuing on to the concept of the molar mass of a chemical element electrons.
and substance. 24 to 29 See the Answer Key included in the Teacher’s Resources.
67
UNIT
5 Amount of substance and chemical reactions
31
5.3 Chemical reactions and amount The law of conservation of mass and stoichiometric
calculations
of substance One way of checking whether stoichiometric calculations have been
When we do calculations related to chemical reactions, we generally done correctly is by checking that the law of conservation of mass
want to know the masses of the products in the reaction, using the has been fulfilled.
mass of one of the reagents. As we have seen, we must link the mass In order to do so, we must calculate the mass of the reagents and
to the amount of substance of each of the reagents and products in products in the chemical reaction, by following the steps set out in
order to do so. We can do this using the molar mass of all of the the previous diagram.
substances involved in the reaction.
Problem solved
3 Check whether or not the law of conservation of 3 Calculate the masses that correspond to
mass was fulfilled in the reaction on the previous the amount of each substance found in the
page. balanced chemical reaction:
1 Begin by taking the balanced chemical equation: g
Stoichiometric calculations in mass units 4 moleNH3 ∙ 17 = 68 g of NH3
4 NH3 + 5 O2 8 4 NO + 6 H2O mole
In order to calculate the mass of a reagent or product involved in a
g
chemical reaction, we must know the mass of one of these substances, 2 Then, calculate the molar masses of the 5 moleNH3 ∙ 32 = 160 g of O2
mole
in addition to having the balanced chemical equation. reagents and products, using the molar masses
of the elements: g
The example below sets out the steps to be followed in order to do 4 moleNH3 ∙ 30 = 120 g of NO
mole
such calculations: MN = 14 g/mole ; MH = 1 g/mole ; MO = 16 g/mole
g
MNH3 = 1 ∙ 14 + 3 ∙ 1 = 17 g/mole 6 moleNH3 ∙ 18 = 108 g of H2O
mole
MO2 = 2 ∙ 16 = 32 g/mole 4 Finally, ensure that the law of conservation of
Ammonia (NH3) reacts with oxygen (O2) in order to produce nitric oxide (NO) and water.
MNO = 1 ∙ 14 + 1 ∙ 16 = 30 g/mole mass has been fulfilled.
Calculate the amount of water by mass we could produce using 60 g of ammonia.
MH2O = 2 ∙ 1 + 16 = 18 g/mole 68 g + 160 g = 228 g = 120 g + 108 g
1 We must first identify the reagents and products. Reagents: ammonia and oxygen.
Products: nitric oxide and water.
2 We then write the un-balanced version of the chemical NH3 + O2 8 NO + H2O 30 Chlorine (Cl2) can be obtained in 34 Use the following, unbalanced chemical equation
equation. laboratories using the following unbalanced to decide whether the statements below are true
reaction: or false:
3 Following this, we must balance the equation. 4 NH3 + 5 O2 8 2 NO + 6 H2O HCl + MnO2 8 MnCl2 + H2O + Cl2 N2 (g) + H2 (g) 8 NH3 (g)
Make sure you explain your answers:
Calculate the amount of manganese dioxide
4 There are two pure substances of particular interest in this (MnO2) by mass needed to produce 5 g of a) 1 g of N2 reacts with 3 g of H2.
• We have the data we need for ammonia.
chemical equation. We already have the numerical data we
chlorine. b) 1 mole of N2 reacts with 1 mole of H2.
need for one of them, while for the other, we must find this
• We must find the ‘unknown’ data for water. c) 1 mole of N2 requires three times the quantity
data. Answer: m = 6.13 g of MnO2
(in mole) of H2.
31 How much manganese chloride (II), MnCl2, by d) 28 g of N2 react with 2 g of H2, in order to form
5 We must now give the molar proportion of the ammonia 4 mole NH 3 2 mole NH 3 50 g of NH3 in this mass ratio.
8 mass would have been formed in the previous
and water amounts indicated in the chemical equation. 6 mole H 2 O 3 mole H 2 O reaction?
35 Dichlorine reacts with iron to form iron trichloride.
Answer: m = 8.87 g of MnCl2 This chemical reaction was used as an example
6 Then, we calculate the mass of both NH3 and H2O. This mass M (NH3) = 17.0 g/mole 8 m (2 mole NH3) = 34.0 g
should correspond to the amount of these substances given in the previous section:
32 Butane (C4H10) is a common domestic fuel
in the previous molar proportion, through the respective a) Write down the balanced chemical equation
molar masses.
M (H2O) = 18.0 g/mole 8 m (3 mole H2O) = 54.0 g sold in 12.5 kg cylinders. When it is burnt, it
produces carbon dioxide and water. How much for this reaction.
carbon dioxide by mass would be given off if b) Check the masses given in the table from the
7 We must then substitute the molar ratio above with the 2 mole NH 3 34.0 g of NH 3 previous section. In order to do so, begin with
8 100 cylinders of butane were burnt?
proportions by mass we have obtained. 3 mole H 2 O 54.0 g of H 2 O three mole of dichloride and calculate the
Answer: m = 3 784.83 kg of CO2
mass of each substance.
8 Finally, we establish a direct proportion between the data in 34.0 g of NH 3 60 g of NH 3 33
this exercise. = ; 95.3 g of H 2 O Use your answer to the previous exercise c) Check your answers to the questions in the
54.0 g of H 2 O m to explain whether or not the fuel butane previous section by ensuring that the law of
contributes to the greenhouse effect. conservation of mass has been fulfilled.
92 93
■■ Methodological suggestions another reagent. Secondly, we can obtain enough data to check the law
of conservation of mass, thereby validating our results. We thus
• The second double-page spread in this section essentially focuses on recommend doing the ‘Problem solved’ activity.
the procedure for stoichiometric calculations.
• We believe it is important to stress that students should plan their own
• As already mentioned, this can be considered an essential aspect of
problem-solving strategy. This will prevent the use of ‘recipes’ that
studying Chemistry, as a large part of this discipline involves learning to
hamper students’ ability to think through what they are doing, and help
predict the amount of reagents and products. Furthermore,
them develop problem-solving skills, a key aspect of competence in
stoichiometry has many different uses, for example, in quantitative
science and mathematics.
analytical chemistry and in synthesising substances.
• As mentioned earlier, using the amount of substance will help students

make the leap from microscopic interpretation of a chemical reaction to ■■ Answer key
macroscopic interpretation. In order to highlight this, we suggest
beginning with the microscopic interpretation of a chemical reaction Understand, think, search
from the box, inviting the group to talk about this description. Then ask 30 to 32 See the Answer Key included in the Teacher’s Resources.
the group how many oxygen molecules are needed in order for a
reaction to take place between four moles of ammonia, rather than the 33 As indicated above, when butane is burnt, four moles of
four molecules of ammonia shown in the microscopic interpretation. carbon dioxide are generated for each mole of fuel. This gas
This activity both helps students make the transition between contributes to the greenhouse effect, which is considered anomalous
microscopic and macroscopic interpretation and provides an when it occurs on such a scale as to cause the progressive warming of
opportunity to highlight the fact that a false law of conservation need our planet, rather than simply maintaining a temperature suitable for
not be fulfilled for the amount of material, since, in the example, there life. The high concentration of greenhouse gasses in the atmosphere
are nine moles in the reagents and eight in the products. is responsible for this anomaly. As such, we can conclude that burning
butane contributes to this greenhouse effect, since it is not a natural
• Once you have introduced the previous activity, we suggest going
way of generating carbon dioxide.
through the procedure on the left-hand page step by step, as shown in
the text. Bear in mind that we are looking for the proportion between 34 Once the chemical reaction has been balanced, we can conclude that
the mass of water (problem or hidden substance) and the mass of the statements are:
ammonia (given substance). We can use this proportion to calculate the
amount of water obtained from any amount of ammonia. To reinforce a) False. The proportion by mass does not correspond to those that
this idea, once you have finished this problem, ask the group how much reacted, two moles of nitrogen and three moles of hydrogen. b) False.
water would be obtained when 120 g of ammonia react completely. Two moles of nitrogen react for every three moles of hydrogen. c)
True. d) False. 28 g of nitrogen react with 6 g of hydrogen and produce
• We suggest solving the problem by calculating the remaining masses of 34 g of ammonia.
the reagents. This serves a dual purpose: Firstly, it highlights the fact
that we can use the amount of one reagent to calculate the amount of 35 See the Answer Key included in the Teacher’s Resources.
68
UNIT
Chemical reactions
6
31
in society Some relevant environmental problems

The anomalous greenhouse effect
The Earth’s atmosphere retains some of the energy emitted
Over the past century, society’s way of life has been transformed by from the ground after having been heated by the Sun’s rays
technological advances that enable chemical reactions to be used Working with pictures
but lets the rest pass though. This phenomenon, known as
efficiently to transform raw materials into consumer products. There are many different the greenhouse effect, keeps the temperature of our planet
types of polymers. When synthetic within limits that are acceptable for life.
polymers are manufactured,
Increased levels of carbon dioxide (CO2) in the atmosphere,
polymerisation reactions are used,
caused by the use of fossil fuels, are nevertheless increasing
which result in the chemical bonding
the amount of heat retained. This phenomenon is known
of monomers. as the anomalous greenhouse effect and causes global
warming, the consequences of which may be catastrophic.
Monomer
The chemical industry is very diverse. Three of the most relevant
sectors are:
Reduction of the ozone layer
The oil industry and polymers In the higher layers of the atmosphere, at between 25 and
35 km in altitude, a gas called ozone, O3, can be found. This
The raw material used in this industry is petroleum oil. Almost 87 %
gas absorbs most of the ultraviolet (UV) radiation reaching
of the oil obtained is used for fuel. Oil is non-renewable, so this raw the Earth from outer space. This radiation can cause serious
material, necessary for manufacturing products such as plastics, harm to human beings.
solvents, detergents, etc., may run out and will need to be substituted Polymer Nevertheless, some gases, such as CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons),
in the future. found in many sprays and cooling systems, destroy the ozone,
Find out which monomer is shown
which has created the so-called hole in the ozone layer.
The polymer industry is of particular interest within the oil industry. in the picture and what type of
Polymers form an essential part of our day-to-day lives. Bottles, polymer is made with it.
carpets, hoses, pipes, toys, textile fibres, along with a whole host of Photochemical smog
other objects, are materials made up of different types of polymers.
As a result of burning fuel in engines and boilers, a set
of gaseous substances are produced, such as nitrogen
oxides (NOx), which react with one another and with other
components. This forms what is known as photochemical
smog, which causes severe environmental problems in large
cities. Reducing the emission of pollutants is crucial, since
they have a negative impact on peoples’ health, as well as
The pharmaceutical industry being an environmental problem.
Producing medicines has been one of chemistry’s greatest

contributions to society. First, they are designed and synthesised
Acid rain
in the laboratory and then, they are produced on a mass scale in
industrial factories so that they can be distributed and sold. Acid rain is caused by the gases that come from sulfur oxide
(SO2) and nitrogen oxide (NOx) emissions reacting with
Environmental problems and chemical reactions water vapour in the atmosphere and forming corrosive acids,
such as sulfuric acid (H2SO4) and nitric acid (HNO3). When
Chemistry enables humans to obtain better materials and more
this water falls in the form of rain, called acid rain, it causes:
efficient energy sources. However, some chemical reactions produce
unwanted substances that are harmful to the environment.
• Acidification of forests, rivers and lakes, which has a
harmful effect on the flora and fauna that inhabit them.
• Destruction of facade and sculptures.
36 Synthetic polymers are made up of 39 In small groups, debate the fact that
macromolecules. Do you know another type of the pharmaceutical industry imposes different
macromolecule that has not been synthesised in prices on different countries and denies people Accumulation of plastic in the sea
a laboratory? Give an example. access to medicines if they cannot afford them.
Synthetic polymers, specifically plastics, have been very
37 Pharmaceutical laboratories must carry widely used over the last fifty years. The majority of products
40 Write a report on the big environmental we buy, as well as being made with them, are also wrapped
out a number of tests on animals and humans problems that affect the planet on a global scale. in packaging made using these materials. The life of these
before medicine can be sold. Why? products is limited, but the material they are made from does
State which are currently being resolved and
not degrade easily or naturally. As a result, many of them
38 What measures are taken in big cities to which you think will be the subject of research
reach the oceans, where they accumulate and endanger sea
reduce photochemical smog? or will provide solutions in the coming decades. life.
94 95
■■ Methodological suggestions ■■ Answer key

• The chemical reactions unit ends with a few examples of chemical Working with pictures
processes in society, presented in the context of science, technology, The monomer is ethylene, C2H4, and the polymer is polyethylene,
society and the environment. (C2H4)n. It is used to make plastic shopping bags, for example.
• We have selected three of the many examples of how chemistry and Understand, think, search
society are related, namely: the oil industry and polymer manufacturing, 36 E x a m p l e s o f m a c ro m o l e c u l e s i n c l u d e b i o l o g i c a l
the pharmaceutical industry, and knowledge of a few environmental macromolecules, such as proteins or nucleic acids.
problems.
37 The main aim of clinical trials is to test the efficacy of new
• Third year Secondary Education students are more than aware of the medicines, as well as their potential side effects. In order to ensure
use of oil and its by-products as fuel. However, they are not so familiar students have thought their opinions through, we suggest
with its use as a raw material. We wanted to focus on this use of oil, emphasising the fact that clinical trials are usually conducted using
amongst other reasons, to highlight the need to find alternative energy volunteers. However, throughout the history of pharmaceutical
sources. In addition to the fact that burning oil by-products is a direct innovation, many suspicious clinical trials have been covered up and
cause of the anomalous greenhouse effect, using other energy sources kept secret in less-developed countries.
would also prolong our access to this raw material. 38 The measures taken to reduce photochemical smog include:
• However, polymers that are synthesised from oil are presented in both a limiting traffic circulation; replacing heating systems with newer, less
positive and negative light, as they also constitute a long-term polluting versions; and requiring solar heating systems in new buildings.
environmental problem, as shown on the right-hand page. This is 39 We recommend first doing an information search, in order to
intended to make students more aware and responsible consumers who ensure that the opinions put forward in the debate are well
engage with sustainable development. documented. We suggest reading this article from the SINC agency
(FECYT) http://www.agenciasinc.es/Opinion/El-caso-Glivec-
• The other environmental problems included in the box largely derive
paradigma-del-debate-sobre-las-patentes-farmaceuticas-en-paises-
from urban lifestyles and the concentration of population in large cities.
en-vias-de-desarrollo.
• We recommend presenting acid rain as an environmental problem with 40 Open answer.
non-local consequences, which has now largely been overcome by
eliminating sulfur emissions through the desulfurization of fuel. Notes
• Finally, with regard to the pharmaceutical industry, we suggest that you
avoid presenting this industry through an assessment of the advantages
it brings to society or the disadvantages of patent exploitation. Instead,
present neutral facts and allow students to use their own critical thinking
skills. This will help them develop social and civic competence.
69
UNIT
3
1
Working with what you know

6 The amount of two substances is measured using 10 Explain how the concentration of reagents affects 16 Iron disulfide, in a solid state, is mixed with oxygen
Physical and chemical changes a beaker in which a chemical reaction is occurring. the rate of a chemical reaction. In order to do so, use and produces sulfur dioxide and di-iron trioxide
1 When a whole egg is put in vinegar, gas is released These quantities are shown in the table: the picture below. (solid). Write the balanced chemical equation for
from its shell. Is this process physical or chemical? this process, indicating the state of aggregation in
Search for information on which gas it releases. Mass A (g) 7.5 4.80 3.40 3.00 which all the substances are found.
17 When hydrocarbons are burnt, the amount of
carbon dioxide they release is directly related to the
Mass B (g) 1.7 4.4 5.8 6.2
number of carbon atoms found in the hydrocarbon
molecule.
Time (min) 1 2 3 4 In your notebook, balance the following chemical
equations, which represent the combustion of
a) Are substances A and B reagents or products of methane, ethane, propane and butane:
the reaction? Explain your answer. a) CH4 + O2 → CO2 + H2O
b) Draw a graph to show how mass changes
over time, and state whether there is a linear
Writing chemical reactions b) C2H6 + O2 → CO2 + H2O
c) C3H8 + O2 → CO2 + H2O
relationship between these two. 11 Explain what balancing a chemical reaction consists
of and which law is always fulfilled in balanced d) C4H10 + O2 → CO2 + H2O
7 Using the graph you drew in section b) of the exercise
chemical equations. Establish a relationship between the number of
2 When vinegar and bicarbonate of soda are mixed above, state in which time interval the fastest rate
together, a gas, carbon dioxide, is released and of chemical reaction occurs. Explain what you have 12 Write down all the information you can get from the carbon atoms in the fuel molecule and the amount
based your answer on. Can you link this observation following balanced chemical equation: of carbon dioxide.
a substance called sodium acetate is formed, in
addition to water: to collision theory? 3 Cl2 (g) + 2 Fe (s) → 2 FeCl3 (s)
a) State which substances are the reagents of the 8 Explain how temperature affects the rate of a
chemical reaction.
13 Use this table to check that the reaction in the Fundamental laws
reaction. exercise above is balanced. and chemical reactions
b) State the number of products in this reaction.
In order to do so, use collision theory and the ideas Element
Atoms in Atoms in 18 If, in a reaction between acetic acid (vinegar) and
i
3 Decide whether the following sentences are true or of kinetic molecular theory on temperature and the reagents products bicarbonate of soda (baking powder), we knew
average kinetic energy of molecules.
false and explain why: the masses of acetic acid and bicarbonate of soda
Cl
that were reacting, as well as the masses of water
a) Energy is released in all chemical reactions. 9 Explain what the picture below represents, giving as
and salt that were formed, could we calculate the
b) Chemical reactions only occur naturally in living much detail as possible. Fe mass of carbon dioxide released? Which law is your
organisms. answer based on?
14 Using the illustration, where black is used for carbon
c) Reagents and products in a chemical reaction 19 When we heat 50 g of calcium carbonate, 28 g of
atoms, white for hydrogen and red for oxygen:
can be in a different state of aggregation. calcium oxide are produced, in addition to a certain
d) Chemical reactions that exist in nature constitute amount of carbon dioxide:
+
an environmental problem. a) What mass of carbon dioxide would this reaction
produce?
e) An irreversible reaction occurs when the
products of the reaction recombine to produce b) How much calcium oxide is formed from 150 g of
the reagents. calcium carbonate?
4 Some chemical reactions are mainly used for energy Answer:

purposes, given that a large amount of energy is What conclusion can you come to using the second
a) 22 g of carbon dioxide
released during the reaction. Write an example of picture below?
b) 84 g calcium oxide
this type of chemical reaction. What environmental a) Interpret the reaction at an atomic-molecular
problem is it linked to? Explain it. scale and at a molar scale. 20 Using the data from the exercise above, find the
proportion by mass with which calcium carbonate
b) Write out the balanced chemical equation.
and calcium oxide react. Could we get 56 g of
Studying chemical reactions 15 In your notebook, balance the following chemical calcium oxide from 60 g of calcium carbonate?
reactions: Which law did you use to answer this question?
5 Are collision theory and the law of conservation of a) Fe + CI2 → FeCI3
mass compatible? Both theories offer an explanation Answer:
for certain aspects of chemical reactions, but do b) C3H6 + O2 → CO2 + H2O mcarbonate/moxide = 1.79. No, you can only get 33.6 g.
they offer it at the same scale? Explain your answers. c) KIO3 + KCI + O2
96 96 97 97
■■ Answer key did not react, either because collisions were ineffective or the amount
of one reagent was limited, is subtracted from this balance.
Below are the answers to the activities presented in the ‘Working with
what you know’ section. Complete answers to questions involving 6 and 7 See the Answer Key included in the Teacher’s Resources.
calculations and graphs can be found in the answer key included in the 8 When the temperature increases, the molecules in the reagents move
Teacher’s Resources. faster. The number of collisions with enough energy to break and form
new bonds therefore increases, producing more product molecules
■■ Physical and chemical changes per unit of time as a result.
1 The eggshell contains calcium carbonate, which reacts with the acetic 9 The first picture shows a collision, which is correctly oriented in order
acid in the vinegar, producing calcium acetate, carbon dioxide and for the molecules in the reaction products to form. Meanwhile, in the
water. The gas released is carbon dioxide. collision in the second picture, the orientation is not correct, which is
why no chemical change occurs.
2 The answer to this activity can be found in the answer key.
10 When the concentration of reagents increases, the number of
3 a) False. In some chemical reactions, inverse energy exchanges occur. molecules per unit of volume in these reagents is higher. The number
b) False. Chemical reactions also occur in an inert environment, for of collisions between them per unit of time is therefore also higher,
example the precipitation of salts. causing an increase in the reaction rate.
c) True.
d) False. Many chemical reactions that occur in nature contribute to its ■■ Writing chemical reactions
balance. 11 In order to balance a chemical reaction, the stoichiometric coefficient
e) False. The description is that of a reversible reaction. values must firstly be selected, in order to ensure that there are the
same number of atoms in each element in the reagents and products.
4 Burning fossil fuels, such as methane (natural gas) and butane. This If this is the case, the law of conservation of mass has been fulfilled.
gives off carbon dioxide, which contributes to the anomalous
greenhouse effect and thus to global warming and climate change. 12 Three moles of chlorine gas combine with two moles of solid iron to
produce two moles of solid iron trichloride.
13 The law of conservation of mass is fulfilled, since there are six chlorine
■■ Studying chemical reactions atoms and two iron atoms in the reagents and products.
5 The two theories are compatible, since they cover different aspects of
the chemical reaction and are not contradictory. Collision theory 14 a) The molecular scale interpretation is: two C2H2 molecules combine
explains chemical reactions from a microscopic point of view, in which with five O2 molecules to produce four CO 2 molecules and two
not all collisions between the molecules of reagents produce reaction water molecules. The interpretation is the same at a molar scale.
products. Meanwhile, the law of conservation of mass states that the However, the word ‘molecule’ should be replaced with the phrase
sum of the masses of the reagents that have reacted is equal to the ‘mole of molecules’.
sum of the mass of the products formed. The amount of reagents that b) 2 C2H2 + 5 O2 → 4 CO2 + 2 H2O
70
UNIT
31
Working with what you know
21 Carbon monoxide is a very toxic gas that forms during 26 Decide whether the following statements about
Learning
acting
29 Hydrochloric acid (HCl) is combined with sodium
and
the incomplete combustion of carbon (combustion the reaction for forming ammonia are true or false. hydroxide (NaOH) to produce sodium chloride
reaction that results in carbon monoxide rather than Explain your answer and correct the false ones:
carbon dioxide): N2 + 3 H2 → 2 NH3
(NaCl) and water:
a) Write and balance the chemical equation.
Everyday chemistry
a) Write and balance the chemical equation. b) Check that the law of conservation of mass is
a) 1 mole of N2 requires 2 mole of H2.
b) Calculate the mass of the gas that can be fulfilled by calculating the mass of HCl needed More or less vitamin C?
b) For every 4 mole of NH3 that are formed, 2 mole in order for 103.5 g of NaOH to react completely,
formed from 5 g of carbon, knowing that the Vitamin C is essential for normal growth and
of N2 and 5 mole of H2 are needed. and the mass of sodium chloride and water
stoichiometric ratio by mass is: mCO / mC = 2.3. development. Since it is water-soluble, it is expelled
c) For every 3 g of H2 that react, 1 g of N2 is needed. produced.
Answer: m = 11.5 g of CO in urine and must be taken in through what we eat.
d) To get 34 g of NH3, 34 g of N2 were needed. 30 When hydrochloric acid reacts with zinc, zinc
22 Ethanol, C2H6O, is a substance that is used as a In addition to other effects, vitamin C helps our
dichloride and dihydrogen are produced:
biofuel. During its combustion reaction, carbon e) The sum of the amount of substances of the bodies to absorb iron and shortens the duration of
a) Write and balance the chemical equation of the colds.
dioxide and water are produced. Calculate the reagents is 4 mole, and that of the products is
process.
amount of CO2, in tons, that is emitted into the 2 mole. Therefore, in this case it does not fulfil Many of the drinks we consume advertise the fact that
the law of conservation of mass. b) Calculate the amount of substance of hydrogen
atmosphere during the combustion of 25 000 L of they contain vitamin C on their labels. A qualitative
obtained when 3 mole of HCl are made to react.
ethanol, knowing that the stoichiometric ratio by way of determining whether vitamin C is present is
27 The illustration represents a dichloromethane (CH2Cl2)
mass is: mbioethanol/mCO2 = 0.52. c) Calculate the mass of HCl that corresponds to 3 to make it react with an indicator solution known as
molecule.
mole. Lugol’s solution. Lugol’s solution contains a mixture
Data: Ethanol density = 0.789 kg/l.
d) Calculate the mass of hydrogen obtained when of chemical substances known as an iodine-starch
Answer: m = 37.9 tons of CO2 the 3 mole of HCl from the section above are complex, which is a purple-blue colour.
made to react. This complex reacts with the vitamin C and loses its
colour. Therefore, we can compare the vitamin C
Amount of substance and chemical Answer: b) 1.5 mole. c) 109.4 g. d) 3 g
content of several drinks by looking at the more or
reactions 31 A 5 g iron nail was left outside. After a certain period
of time, part of the nail rusted, forming 5 g of ferric
less intense shade of blue when a few drops of the
23 Complete the table below in your notebook: drink react with Lugol’s solution. The more intense
oxide or di-iron trioxide:
the colour blue, the less vitamin C there is.
Amount of a) How much iron reacted?
Total no. of
Substance Mass (g) substance b) How much iron did not react? What percentage
O atoms
(mole)
of the nail’s mass represents the part that did
Water 54 a) Calculate the amount of substance of not react?
dichloromethane found in a sample of 127.5
Ozone 3.16·1024
grams of this substance. Answer: a) mFe = 3.5 g. b) 1.5 g, which is 30 %
Carbon
2.5 b) Calculate the amount of substance of each 32 A person who has excess hydrochloric acid in their
dioxide
element (C, H and Cl) in the sample above of gastric juices takes a medicine that neutralises this
Answer: first row: 3, 1.80 · 1024; second row, 83.96, 1.75; dichloromethane (127.5 g). excess, containing 1.85 g of aluminium hydroxide
third row: 110, 3.01 · 1024 for every 25 mL of the medicine. The reaction that
c) Calculate the mass of each of the elements (C, H occurs (without balancing) is as follows:
24 Put the masses of the following quantities in order from
smallest to largest: a) 0.25 mole of lead tetrachloride;
and Cl) in the sample above of dichloromethane
(127.5 g).
HCl + Al(OH)3 → AlCl3 + H2O ICT skills

b) 5 mole of water; c) 1 mole of sulfuric acid. Assuming that the stomach produces 3 L of gastric • You can make a solution similar to Lugol’s solution
Data: MC = 12 g/mole, MH = 1 g/mole, MCl = 35.5 g/mole. juices a day, with a hydrochloric acid concentration using everyday products (corn flour, iodine for
Answer: m H 2 SO 4 > m H 2 O > m PbCl 4 of 0.075 mole/L, calculate:
Answer: a) 1.5 mole. b) 1.5 mole of C, 3 mole of H, disinfecting wounds and water). Do some research
25 A cube with 1.5 dm edges is filled with water. Calculate 3 mole of Cl. c) 18 g of C, 3 g of H, 106.4 g of Cl a) The daily amount of substance of hydrochloric to find out how to prepare this solution.
the number of molecules of substance there are in acid produced in the stomach and the aluminium • Use the solution above to compare the amount
28 In the past, a certain compound was known as ‘lapis
the cube. hydroxide needed to completely neutralise it. of vitamin C in soft drinks and different brands of
infernalis’, from the Latin ‘stone of hell’. You must
Data: d (water) = 1 g/cm3 identify this compound. In order to do so, you have b) The mass of Al (OH)3 and the mL of medicine commercial orange juices.
the following data: that this person should take per day. • Search for information about the recommended
• Its molar mass is 169.9 g/mole. Answer: a) 0.225 mole of HCl; 0.075 mole of Al (OH)3. daily amount of vitamin C, its presence in food and
b) 5.85 g of Al (OH)3 and 79 mL of medicine whether or not our diet should be supplemented
• Its chemical formula consists of a silver atom, three with vitamin C.
oxygen atoms and an atom of another element
On the Web
1.5 dm that is in the second period of the Periodic Table.
There is an interactive self-assessment
Which compound is it? activity on the Anaya website.
Answer: no. molecules = 1.13 · 1026 molecules of water
98 98 99 99
15 to 17 See the Answer Key included in the Teacher’s Resources.

■■ Everyday chemistry. More or less vitamin C?
The content of this reading activity and the activities set at the end of the
■■ Fundamental laws and chemical reactions text may be used to teach responsible consumption and a healthy lifestyle.
They are designed to make students think about the need for a balanced
18 Yes, we can obtain the missing mass of the product by applying the diet, and to help them develop critical thinking skills with which to analyse
law of conservation of mass, subtracting the mass of the other two how the characteristics of food products are advertised.
products from the sum of the masses of the reagents.
The research activity is simple and may be completed as a classroom
19 to 22 See the Answer Key included in the Teacher’s Resources. experiment. The easiest method is to use Lugol’s solution (5 % iodine and
10 % potassium iodide in water), sold by most chemical reagent suppliers.
If you cannot obtain this reagent, you can make a homemade version by
■■ Amount of substance and chemical reactions following the steps below:
1 Mix one spoonful of cornflour with enough water to form a paste.
2 Add 250 mL of water to the paste. Boil for 5 minutes.
26 a) False. 1 mole of nitrogen requires 3 moles of hydrogen, not 2, as 3 Add ten drops of the cornflour solution to 75 mL of water.
indicated in the question heading.
4 Add enough iodine solution to turn it a dark purple-blue colour.
b) False. You need 6 moles of hydrogen. The recommended daily amount of vitamin C for adolescents is 65 to
75 mg (http://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/VitaminC-HealthProfessional/),
c) False. The numerical ratio given refers to the amount of substance, which may be consumed through raw foods rich in vitamin C (since cooking
not the mass. For every 3 grams of hydrogen (1.5 moles), you need them denatures this vitamin).
0.5 mole of nitrogen (14 g).
d) False. To obtain 34 g of ammonia (2 moles), you need 1 mole of

nitrogen (28 g). Notes
e) False. The law of conservation of mass is fulfilled – there is no law of
conservation for amount of substance.
27 See the Answer Key included in the Teacher’s Resources. We

recommend taking advantage of this question to explain the
centesimal composition of a chemical compound.
71
Notes
An experimental study Hands-on work
of changes in state
– Do the chemical reactions described in this new
Proposed problem arrangement. To do so, place the metal in the flask
and pour hydrochloric acid through the thistle tube.
Recognise that in a chemical reaction, new
substances appear and that there is an exchange – Study how the size of the reagents affects the rate of
of energy with the outside environment. Evaluate the chemical reaction. To do this, use the different-
some of the factors that affect the rate of this sized pieces, powder and chips of metal.
change. – Do activities 3 and 4.
You will need HCl (aq)

Rack with test tubes • Crystallising dish • Beaker
• Pipette • Rubber bulb for the pipette • Conical
flask • Thistle tube • Rubber stopper (two holes)
• Bent glass tube • Hydrochloric acid • Chips, H2 (g)
powder and different-sized pieces of zinc,
aluminium and copper.
Method
Safety measures
– Search for information on the precautions that must Al (s) Water
be taken when handling hydrochloric acid.
Experiment 1. Recognising a chemical change In your lab report, draw a picture of the experiment
set-up and label the names of the laboratory apparatuses.
– Place three test tubes in a rack and put a small chip
of metal in each one. Mark the tubes to show which
metal you have put in each one. Understand, think, search
– With the help of the rubber bulb, fill the pipette with 1 Does a chemical change occur when the metal
20 mL of hydrochloric acid and add 5 mL of this acid comes into contact with hydrochloric acid?
to each tube. Make a note of all the phenomena you Based on the observations made, is it possible to
see (new substances, temperature changes, etc.). In conclude that energy is exchanged in a chemical
order to do this, draw a table and fill it in.
reaction? Why?
– Do activities 1 and 2 of the ‘Understand, think, search’
2 We know that the chemical reaction between
section.
zinc (Zn) and hydrochloric acid (HCl) produces
Experiment 2. Rate of chemical reactions zinc chloride (ZnCl2) and hydrogen (H2).
– To get an idea of the rate at which chemical reactions • Write and balance this chemical reaction.
occur in the test tubes, we are going to make the gas
• Write and balance the chemical reactions that
obtained form bubbles in the water (figure on the
right). The rate at which the bubbles rise and how
may take place in the other test tubes.
many there are will give us an idea of the rate of the 3 Design and develop a table that enables you to
chemical process. conclude whether or not the rate of chemical
– In order to collect the gas, the test tube is filled with reaction changes (slower/faster) when the metal
water and covered. It is then turned upside-down –do not and its size (powder, chips and different-sized
spill any of the water– and the open end is submerged pieces) are changed.
in the crystallising dish.
4 Explain why these changes occur, if there are
– In order to prevent the gas from being lost through any. Would we see a similar effect in a reaction
the holes of the rubber stopper, they must be sealed
between liquid reagents?
using paraffin wax or plasticine.
100
■■ Hands-on work
The proposed hands-on lab work provides general instructions on how to
set up an experiment and the procedure to be followed. However, they do
not include a detailed sequence of the steps or conclusions, which each
student must determine.
This assignment is designed to allow each group to design experiments
and control variables itself.
In the activities in the ‘Understand, think, search’ section, students are
asked to design the experiments and plan how they would control
variables. In this case, these variables are the size of the solid particle and
the metal with which the chemical reaction is produced.
We suggest reading the statements in activities 3 and 4 before conducting
experiment 2.
We recommend preparing the reagents in advance in order to reduce the
preparation time. The lab work may also be divided into two sections,
conducting experiment 1 in one session and preparing experiment 2 in
the classroom, then conducting the second experiment in another
laboratory session.
■■ Answer key
1 The appearance of hydrogen gas, a new substance that was not
present before the chemical change, indicates that a chemical reaction
is taking place. In order to answer the second question in this activity,
we suggest looking at changes in the temperature of the reaction
system.
2 See the Answer Key included in the Teacher’s Resources.
3 It is important to emphasise that this is a qualitative study and that we
expect to conclude that the reaction rate essentially depends on the
size of the pieces of metal.
4 Open answer.
72
Notes
73

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3 Chemical reactions

Unit presentation We therefore expect students to be able to identify changes easily.

General suggestions We recommend encouraging cooperative learning through group

are fulfil the

Chemical equations Changes Law of Law of

Stoichiometric Chemical formulas Molecules

which tell us the of of

Moles Products producing

In the Focus on English sections we select significant words and look at

Changes in nature 1.3 The characteristics of chemical changes

In other words, chemical changes alter the nature of matter, since

1.2 Reagents and products in a chemical reaction

■■ Methodological suggestions ■■ Focus on English

New bonds are then

■■ Methodological suggestions ■■ Answer key

reactions 3.2 Understanding chemical equations

A chemical equation consists of:

• The next double-page spread in this section focuses entirely on

■■ Methodological suggestions elements involved. We therefore suggest using the synthesis of

first emerged, using the basic laws of chemistry.

and chemical reactions 5.2 Molar mass

Mole and the Avogadro number a period of one year.

• As mentioned earlier, using the amount of substance will help students

in society Some relevant environmental problems

Producing medicines has been one of chemistry’s greatest

■■ Methodological suggestions ■■ Answer key

Working with what you know

4 Some chemical reactions are mainly used for energy Answer:

15 to 17 See the Answer Key included in the Teacher’s Resources.

d) False. To obtain 34 g of ammonia (2 moles), you need 1 mole of

27 See the Answer Key included in the Teacher’s Resources. We

28 to 32 See the Answer Key included in the Teacher’s Resources.

You will need HCl (aq)

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d) False. To obtain 34 g of ammonia (2 moles), you need 1 mole of