Transportation Engineering

Course Code –CE-422

Contact Hours -3+3

Dr Hassan Mujtaba
 Roadway Alignment
• An ideal and most desirable roadway is one
that follows the existing natural alignment of
the country. This is the most economical type
of highway to construct.
• But certain aspects of the design that has to be
maintained may prevent the designer from
following this undulating surface without
making considerable adjustments in both the
vertical and horizontal directions.
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 Roadway Alignment
• The designer must produce an alignment in
which conditions are consistent and uniform to
help reduce problems related to driver
expectancy.
• Sudden changes in alignment should be
connected with long sweeping curves, and
short sharp curves should not be interspersed
with long curves of small curvature.

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 Roadway Alignment
• The ideal highway location is one with
consistent alignment, where both vertical grade
and horizontal curvature receive consideration
and are configured to satisfy limiting design
criteria.
• The optimal final alignment will be that in
which the best balance between grade and
curvature is achieved.

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 Terrain
• Terrain has considerable influence on the final
choice of alignment. Generally, the
topography of the surrounding area is fitted
into one of three classifications:
– Level
– Rolling
– Mountainous
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 Level Terrain
• In level country, the alignment is in general
limited by considerations other than grade, that
is, cost of right-of-way, land use, waterways
requiring expensive bridging, existing cross
roads, railroads, canals, power lines and sub-
grade conditions or the availability of suitable
borrow material.

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 Rolling Terrain
• In rolling country, grade and curvature must be
carefully considered and to a certain extent
balanced.
• Depths of cut and heights of fill, drainage
structures, and number of bridges will depend
on whether the route follows the ridges, the
valleys or cross drainage alignment.

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 Mountainous Terrain

• In mountainous country, grades provide the

greatest problem, and, in general, the
horizontal alignment or curvature is controlled
by maximum grade criteria.

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 Horizontal Alignment
• Horizontal alignment consists of a series of straight
sections of highway joined by suitable curves. It is
necessary to establish the proper relation between
design speed and curvature as well as relationship
with super-elevation and side friction.
• Horizontal curves are designated by their radius or by
the degree of the curve.
• The degree of a curve is the central angle sub tended
by an arc of 100 ft measured along the center of the
road.
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 SUPER-
ELEVATION

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 Superelevation
• A vehicle is forced radially outward by
centrifugal force when it moves in a circular
path.
• The vehicle weight component creates friction
between the road surface and tires to
counterbalance the centrifugal force.
• In addition, the superelevated section of a
highway offsets the tendency of the vehicle to
slide out­ward. 11
Superelevation

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Force Diagram for Superelevation

R- Radius
n- speed
w- weight of
vehicle
N1& N2 -
normal forces
F1& F2 - lateral
forces/ friction
forces
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 Force Diagram for superelevation

μ- coefficient of friction between tires and

roadway
 - angle of pavement cross slope

e = tan  = superelevation rate = cross slope of

the road way

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 Derivation of Superelevation equation

For Highway F1 and F2

are friction forces

F1  N 1 and
F2  N 2
Summing forces parallel to roadway

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 Derivation of Superelevation equation

Defining a factor f, side

friction factor so that
F
f 
N

Summing forces normal to roadway

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 Derivation of Superelevation equation

The equation can be rewritten as

Dividing by Wcos q leads to

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Derivation of Superelevation equation

tan q is the cross-slope of the roadway, which is

same as super-elevation rate e and can be
written as
or

The term ef is small and may be omitted so the

equation reduces to

or
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Derivation of Superelevation equation

A commonly used equation is

V is in km/hr and
R in m

Alternatively

or
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 Superelevation Equation (FPS System)
Where V is in miles/h, and R is V2
in feet R
15 (e  f )
• Studies show that the co-efficient of friction (µ)
between new tires and wet concrete pavements ranges
from about 0.5 at 20 mph (30 Km/h) to approximately
0.35 at 60 mph (100 Km/h).
• For normal, wet, concrete pavement and smooth tires,
the value is about 0.35 at 45 mph (70 Km/h).
However, curve design cannot be based entirely on
available co-efficient of friction (µ). Side friction
factor (f) is used in the design of curves.
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 Side Friction Factor f

• Values of f recommended by AASHTO are

conservative relative to actual friction between the
tires and road surface.
• Maximum rates of superelevation are limited by the
need to prevent
– slow moving vehicles from sliding to the inside of
the curve.
– to keep the parking lanes relatively level in urban
area
– to keep the difference in slope between roadway
and any street or driveways that intersect within
reasonable limits. 21
Side Friction Factor f (AASHTO)

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Minimum Radius of Curve (AASHTO)

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Minimum Radius
for Limiting
values of e and f
(AASHTO)

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 Superelevation
• Several factors dictate the maximum rates of
superelevation: climate conditions, terrain, location
(urban or rural), and frequency of very slow-moving
vehicles. No single maximum superelevation rate is
universally applicable.
• AASHTO recommends maximum superelevation rate
of 12% for rural roadways, 8% for rural roadway for
which snow or ice is present and 6% or 4% for urban
streets.
• To facilitate cross-drainage, a commonly used
superelevation rate is 0.12.
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 Relation between e and f
• A variety of methods are practiced in balancing e and
f. One such method uses superelevation at speeds
lower than the design speed.
• Average running speed, which is estimated as 80 to
100 percent of design speed, provides superelevation
design where all lateral acceleration is sustained by
superelevation of curves.
• For flatter curve more rate of superelevation has to be
provided to counteract lateral acceleration.

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 Relation between e and f (cont’d)
• Maximum superelevation is reached near the middle
of the curve.
• At average running speed, no side friction is needed
up to this curvature, and side friction increases
rapidly and in direct proportion for sharper curves.
• Considerable side friction is available for higher
speeds.
• An alternate method for sustaining centripetal
acceleration on curves is to maintain super-elevation
and side friction inversely proportional to the radius
of the curve. 27
 Minimum Radius

• The minimum radius is a limiting value of curvature

for a given design speed and is determined from the
maximum rate of superelevation and the maximum
side friction factor selected for design (limiting value
of f is used).
• Use of sharper curvature for the given design speed
would require superelevation beyond the limit
considered practicable or for operation with tire
friction and lateral acceleration beyond what is
considered comfortable by many drivers.

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 Minimum Radius (cont’d)

• Although based on a threshold of driver comfort,

rather than safety, the minimum radius of curvature is
a significant value in alignment design.
• The minimum radius of curvature is also an important
control value for determination of superelevation
rates for flatter curves.
• The minimum radius of curvature, Rmin can be
calculated directly from the simplified curve formula
for a given Side Friction Factor.

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 Minimum Radius

• The formula can be used to determine Rmin as

follows

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 Problem-1

• A roadway is designed for a speed of 120 km/hr. At

one horizontal curve, it is known that the
superelevation is 8.0% and side friction factor is 0.09.
Determine the minimum radius of the curve
(measured to the traveled path) that will provide safe
vehicle operating.

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 Problem-2

• What is the minimum radius of curvature allowable

for a roadway with a 100 km/hr design speed,
assuming allowable super elevation rate is 0.12.
Compare this with the minimum curve radius
recommended by AASHTO.
• What is the actual maximum super elevation rate
allowable under AASHTO recommended standards
for a 100 km/hr design speed, if the value of f is the
maximum allowed by AASHTO for this speed.

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 Problem-3

• Determine a proper superelevation rate for a low

volume, gravel surface road with a design speed of 50
mph and a degree of curvature of 8 degrees.

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 Problem-4

• Calculate the super elevation rates for a roadway with

a design speed of 100 km/hr that has a wide range of
curve radii; i.e R= 1750, 875, 585, 440, 350 and 295
m. These values corresponds to degrees of curve, D =
1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6. Use maximum super elevation rate
= 0.10. Compare the results obtained from figure.
• Assuming f is 0.12.

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35
 Attainment of Superelevation

• Superelevation transitions involve modification of the

roadway cross-section from normal crown to full
superelevation, at which point the entire roadway
width has a cross-slope of e.
• The manner in which this transition is accomplished
is expressed by a superelevation diagram, which is a
graph of superelevation (cross-slope) versus distance
measured in stations.
• As an alternative, the diagram may show the
difference in elevation between the profile grade and
the edge versus distance. 36
Attainment of Superelevation

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 Superelevation Transition

• Figure is an example
of superelevation
diagram, showing
the transition from
normal crown with 2
percent cross-slopes
to 6 percent
superelevation for a
roadway with a
spiral transition
curve.
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 Superelevation Transition

• Figure on next slide is the alternative form of the

diagram, assuming a two-lane highway with 3.6 m
lanes.
• Figure “c” on next slide presents an interpretation of
the superelevation diagram, showing the appearance
of the cross section at intervals through the transition.

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 Superelevation Transition

• Figure “b” on next slide is the alternative form of the

diagram, assuming a two-lane highway with 3.6 m
lanes.

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Superelevation Transition

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 Superelevation Runoff

• As shown in Figure “a”, the superelevation transition

is normally linear; that is, the rate of rotation of the
cross section is constant with respect to distance
through the transition.
• The distance marked L, which runs from the point at
which the outside half of the roadway (that is, the half
on the outside of the curve) is at zero cross-slope to
the full superelevation (or from the tangent -to-spiral
point TS to the spiral-to-curve point SC), is called
superelevation runoff
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 Tangent Runoff

• The distance from the point at which the

outside half of the roadway first begins to
rotate to the TS is referred to as tangent runoff.

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 Superelevation Transition
• The superelevation transition section consists of the
superelevation runoff and tangent runoff sections.
• Superelevation runoff section consists of the length of
roadway needed to accomplish a change in outside-
lane cross slope from zero (flat) to full
superelevation, or vice versa.
• Tangent runoff section consists of the length of
roadway needed to accomplish a change in outside-
lane cross slope from the normal cross slope rate to
zero (flat), or vice versa.
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 Superelevation Transition
• For reasons of safety and comfort, the pavement
rotation in the superelevation transition section
should be effected over a length that is sufficient to
make such rotation imperceptible to drivers. To be
pleasing in appearance, the pavement edges should
not appear distorted to the driver.

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 Example
• A two lane highway goes from 2% normal crown
to 6% superelevation. Sketch Superelevation
diagram for the following data:
Superelevation, e = 6%
L = 60 m
B = 7 m (two lane)
Cross slopes = 2%

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 Solution
• Elevation difference between C/L and edge at TS = 0
• Elevation difference between C/L and edge at SC
= De = (width of lane x e) = 3.5 x 0.06
= 0.21 m = 210 mm

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Superelevati
on Diagram

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 Determination of Length of Superelevation Runoff

• The length of the superelevation runoff L is

determined by either vehicle dynamics or appearance
criteria.
• More commonly, superelevation transition lengths for
highways are based on appearance or comfort criteria.
One such criterion is a rule that the difference in
longitudinal slope (grade) between the centerline and
edge of traveled way of a two-lane highway should
not exceed 1/200.
• .
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Determination of Length of Superelevation Runoff

• Figure on next slide illustrates the application

of this rule. L is measured from the TS to the
SC, as in the superelevation diagram.
• At the TS, the difference in elevation between
the centerline and edge is zero.
• At the SC, it is the superelevation rate e times
the distance D from the centerline to the edge.

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 Determination of Length of Superelevation Runoff

• Thus, the difference in grade

between the centerline and the
edge is

Since the criterion that the

difference in grade not exceed
1/200 implies that
De 1
 51
L 200
 Superelevation Transition

L is given by

L  200 De
L is normally rounded up to some convenient
length, such as a multiple of 20 m.

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 Superelevation Transition

• The transition from a tangent, normal crown section

to a curved superelevation section must be
accomplished without any appreciable reduction in
speed and in such a manner as to ensure safety and
comfort to the occupants of the traveling vehicle.
• In order to effect this change, the normal crown road
section will have to be tilted or banked as a whole to
provide superelevation cross section required for a
given design speed.

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 Attainment of Superelevation

• This attainment of superelevation is accomplished by

the following methods
– Rotate about the centerline of the pavement
– Rotate about the inner edge of the pavement
– Rotation about the outside edge of the pavement

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 Rotation about centerline Axis

• The effect of this rotation is to lower the inside edge

of pavement and, at the same time, to raise the
outside edge without changing the centerline grade.
Rotation about the centerline is most widely used
because the change in elevation of edge of the
pavement is made with less distortion than other
methods.
• However, for flat grades too much sag is created in
the ditch grades by this method.

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 Rotation about centerline Axis

• Used for highways with narrow medians and

moderate superelevation rates. Since large difference
in elevation can occur between extreme pavement
edges if median is wide.

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 Rotation about inner edge of the pavement

• Rotate about the inner edge of the pavement as an

axis so that the inner edge retains its normal grade but
the centerline grade is varied, or rotation may be
likewise about the outside edge.
• Half of the required change in cross slope is made by
raising center line profile with respect to inner edge
and other half by raising out side pavement edge with
respect to to the actual center line profile.

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 Rotation about inner edge of the pavement

• On grades below 2 percent, rotation about the inside

edge is preferred.
• Used for pavements with median width 30 ft. or less.

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 Rotation about outside edge of the pavement

• Same geometry as rotation about the inner

edge of the pavement except that the elevation
change is accomplished below the outside
edge profile instead of about the inside edge
profile.
• Used for pavements with median width 40 ft.
or greater.

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Rotation about outside edge of the pavement

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 Rotation about outside edge of the pavement

• Revolves the traveled way about the outside

edge profile.
• In this case, section is not crowned.
• This method is often used for two-lane one
way road where the axis of rotation coincides
with the edge of the road adjacent to the
highway median.

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Rotation about outside edge of the pavement

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Axis of Rotation for undivided highways
General Consideration for Attainment of Superelevation

• Regardless of which method is utilized, care should

be exercised to provide for drainage in ditch sections
and adjacent gutters all along the length in
superelevated areas.
• The roadway on full SE sections should be a uniform
inclined section perpendicular to the direction of
travel.
• When a crowned surface is rotated to the desired SE,
the change from a crowned section to a uniformly
inclined section would be accomplished gradually at
a consistent rate along a length measured along the64
centerline.