EXPERIMENT NO.

9
RESISTANCE OF GALVANOMETER BY KELVIN'S METHOD
Aim : To determinethe resistanceof a galvanometerby Kelvin's method using Wheatstone's
meter bridge
a
kpptij•otus : Wheatstone's meter bridge, a rheostat, a cell? a galvanometer, a resistance box,
jockey, connecting wires, a cell or battery, a plug key etc.
formula :
where = length of the bridge wire corresponding to G
= length of the bridge wire corresponding to R
G — resistance of Galvanometer
R — resistance introduced in R.B

lg Ir
c
O (cm) Metre scale 100

l. Connect the circuit as shown in figure

2. The galvanometer,whose resistanceG is to be determinedis connectedin one arm and a
resistance box is connected in the other arm of the Wheatstone's meterbridge. A jockey is
directly connected from point B. A suitable resistance is introduced in the resistance box.
3. The circuit is closed and the galvanometer deflection is noted. The rheostat is adjusted so that
the galvanometer shows nearly half the full scale deflection.
4. When the jockey is touched on the wire, the galvanometer deflection either increases or
decreases. Move the jockey along the wire till the galvanometer deflection is restored to the
original value. This is the null point or balance point. Thus in this position, the null point is
constant when the jockey is touched or removed from the wire. Adjust R so that the balance
point is between 30 cm and 70 cm, preferably one reading near or in the middle of the bridge
wire. Measure 8Gand cR
5. Take three more readings by changing the values of R
6. Interchange the position of G and R and take four readings by adjusting R. calculate the value
of G in each case. Find mean G.

71
()bservution table :
l) Galvanometer in left gap
Obso No. R ohm •eG cm Mean G ohm
cm -L ohm

2
loo 59 )LT5
[2-0
3
4
150 14 09 •G

2) Galvanometer in right gap

Obs•.No. R ohm cm cm Mean G ohm
G -R —L ohm

2
too 55 45 122
120 10 6<9
3
1

4
150 .8

Log calculation table G R G

1) Galvanometer in left gap
Obs. No. 2 3 4
log R = a 2-176
log b
a+b=c
loge = d +70
c—d=e 07
antilog e = G
2) Galvanometer in right gap
Obs. No. 2 3 4
log R = a 2 •OOC 2-073 2./7C
log e b -+71/0 pc 72
a+b=c g .73 g
log =d V-653 740
c—d=e 2, 018
antilog e = G J 06 •

the resistance of the galvanometer

mean G (of left gap) + mean G (of right gap) +1/0.9

2

72
Result :
The resistance of the galvanometer
G = _ l] Q l-$_ Q
Precautions :
1. Make all connections and the keys
in the resistance box tight
2. Adjust the resistance R such
that the point lies in the middle one third of the meterbridge wire
or between 30 cm and 70 cm,
preferably one reading near or on the mid of the bridge wire
3. Keep the circuit on only at the time
of observation
4. Do not slide the jockey on the wire
but tap it gently to get the exact null point

Questions
l. What is a balance point?

da(VAnome+er ø--koce G be Jeter. mt;ed

./g. .Cannec4-ed on 4k)e. meter.. A
Lox n . . A.. rest..$ are,cz
R .1Å.. 04her. p.. 7he.
a-f and .4 e...y:es.cs.
Cohn cm Pen.cö.l j o .

2. What will happen if the cell and galvanometer are interchanged?

-G dal and . cell. are. (hterc/arved

ba lance . Ohdarted Hence,
—the a/ vanome{ew not S boa) an anc/¯/here

Le owl/ def/ectco'o
3. Can you use a shunt for the galvanometer?Explain

O&dev me*-er..
DD. cC.. .(S..CooneclcÅ f.n..paya Ile(
daftlanome{ef known. as. e ctnal(

Remark and sign of teacher

73
 EXPERIMENT NO. 10
El/E2 USING POTENTIOMETER
Ainu To compare e. m. f. of the two given cells using a potentiometer.
Apporotlis: A potentiometer, a plug key, a rheostat, two cells, jockey, four way key, battery
galvanometer, connectingwires etc.

.1 3

2001 100 :

-x 400
200
3do
K
—-.--.....-...-....4
*.2....--...0 (Sum)
(El+E2)
0................-±4E........................*
1.±-.-..........-0
(Difference)
(E,-E2)

1) Individual cell method or Separate cell method —

El-Ll

Where, Ll is the balancing length when cell El is in the circuit and 102is the balancing lengthwhen
cell E2 is in the circuit.
2) Sum and difference method
El+E2 Ll
El-E2
Where, Ll is the balancing length when both cells assist each other i.e. E + E2 (sum method)and
L2 is the balancing length when both cells oppose each other i.e. El- E2 (difference
method)•
l)roeeut;
Part I (Individual cell Method or Separate cell method)
1. Measure the e.m.f. (Es) of the battery and the e.m.fs. (El and E2) of the cells. See that
Es> El
and also Es > E
2. Connect the circuit as shown in fig.(i). Close the key K to bring the
circuit in workingas
current will start flowing. Adjust the rheostat at minimum resistance
for maximum currentin
the circuit.
3. Take the cell El in the circuit by closing key Kr Then touch the
jockey at zero end Ofthe
potentiometer wire and note the direction of deflection in
the galvanometer. Touch the jockey
at the other end of the potentiometerwire. If the direction of
deflection is opposite to thatin
the first case, the connections are correct. (If the deflection is
in the same direction then either

76
 connectionsare wrong or e.m.f. of
the cell used is less). Starting from the point A touch the
jockey on the wire at
various points and obtain the null point Pt. Note the length L! of the
potentiometer wire between the
point A and Pt.
4. Now disconnect the
cell El by opening key Kr And connectthe cell E2byclosing key
Obtain the null point
P2 and note the length 102of the potentiometerwire between the points A
& p . Make sure
that rheostat position is same as in step 2.
5. Repeat the
observations alternately for each cell again by adjustingthe rheostat at different
positions.

Part —Il(Sum and difference method)

1. Measure the e.m.f.
(Es) of the battery and the e.m.fs. (El and E2)of the cells. See that
>
Es El+E2, Es > and El .
2. Connect the circuit
as shown in fig.(ii) such that the positive terminal of El is connected to the
negative terminal of Er In this case
both cells assist each other i.e. sum method. Close the key
K to bring the circuit in working,
as current will start flowing. Adjust the rheostat at minimum
resistance for maximum current in the circuit.
3. Then touch the jockey at zero end of
the potentiometer wire and note the direction ofdeflection
in the galvanometer. Touch the jockey at the other end of the potentiometerwire. If the
direction of deflection is opposite to that in the first case, the connections are correct. (If the
deflection is in the same direction then either connections are wrong or e.m.f. of the cell used
is less). Starting from the point A touch the jockey on the wire at various points and obtain the
null point Pr Note the length Ll of the potentiometer wire between the point A and Pl.
4. Now connect cells, such that the negative terminal of El is connected to the negative terminal
of Er In this case both cells oppose each other i.e. difference method. Obtain the null point P2
and note the length L2 of the potentiometerwire between the points A & Make sure that
rheostat position is same as in step 2.
5. Repeat the observations for each sum and difference method by adjusting the rheostat at
different positions.

Observations :
E.M.F. ofbattery, Li V
E.M.F. of cell, El -
E.M.F. of cell, E2-
Part —I (Individual cell Method or Separate cell method)

Balancing length when Balancing length when

Obs. No. El is in the circuit E2 is in the circuit
L (cm) L (cm)
1.
2.
3. f. 29
4. o
Mean
3
9
77
Port li (Sum method and difference method) ( No
when
Balancing lengthwhen Balancing length
each
Obs, No, cells assist (Ei+E2) cells oppose (Et-E2)
each other in the circuit other in the circuit 2
Li (em) (cm)
1.

3.
4.

Mean
Calculations:

Result:
1) Ei/E2 using separate or individual cell method =
2) El/E2 using sum and differencemethod=..
Precautions:
l. All the connections and plug keys should be tight.
2. In part— I, see that Es > El and Es > Er
3. In part —Il, see that Es > El+E2, Es > Et-E2 and El > E
4. For a given set, the setting of the rheostat shouldbe the same while
determiningthebalanc
point Pi and
5. The balancing lengths should be measured from the point A.
 Questions
1. What is an EMF ofa cell?

E MF. 46. .4.Æ.elt -/he mayj.'mum. A.'.'ßecnce.—

LehWeen -flop.. e.!ecfrroc/e$. 04. Q cell . ear, a).$o be.

a S Qhe 01/cffev.eo.ce.,.acroSS

Ofa Celt ho.. .CUYven-[ is.

2. What is potentiometer?

measure
e Iectro cav -:fge

L passb
pö.ocluce.c(
Cuyvera a .VQöa.bje.. yes& elance

3. On what principle does the potentiometer work?

-the a d men. (4. a 1.0

i
Of -Sectcon... a. Conse&anæ

Reinark and sign of teacher

81
 EXPERIMENT No.
STUDY OF 14
LOGIC GATES
To identify given
IC's and to
fl'heory: Gate is a logic verify the truth
table for each type of logic gate.
circuit with one
are digital circuits or more input signals,
because the input but only one output signal. Gates
u.uth table shows all and outputsignals
input and output are either low (0) or high (l) voltages. A
is 2n variables the possibilities for a logic
number of inputs. circuit. Total number ofcombinations
are derived gate the OR OR, AND and
get has a high NOT are the basic gates, NAND and NOR
output only when all inputs output if any input is high. The
are high. For Not AND gate provide a high
light output when its input gate output is always
is low The NAND opposite the input. it provides
is low. The NAND gate has gate has a high output when at least one of its inputs
a high output when
The ICs 7400, 7402, 7404, all inputs are low.
7408, 7432 are from
voltage from 0 to 0.8 V is standard family. For devices, any
consideredlow input and
input. Any voltage from 0 any voltage from 2 to 5V is consider high
to 0.4 V is low output
For 7400 series supply voltage and any voltage from 2.4 to 3.9 V is high output.
rage is 4.75 to 5.25 V over
Logic gates can be used to a temperature range of 00 C to 700C.
build flip-flops, digital
counters etc. which can be used calculators,
computers and other digital systems.
\pparatus : 5V DC power supply, IC
block ,probes,digital multimeter.IC7408 (AND Gate),
IC 7432 (OR Gate), IC 7402
(NOT Gate), IC 7400 (NAND Gate), IC 7404 (NOT
Gate)
Proced u re:
l. Mount the IC to be tested on the IC block.
2. Connect the positive of the supply to pin 14 and
negative to the 7thpin of the IC.
3. Consider any one of its gate out of four gates.
4. Give different combinations of input from 0 to l. Here 0 indicates
zero voltage and I
indicate +5V.
5. Connect a voltmeter across the output terminal of IC and the ground terminal to
pin no.7.
6. Measure the output voltage, which will be zero for 0 and around +5V for I state.
7. Repeat the same procedure to test the other gates.
8. Verify the truth table and observation table for different input combinations.
9. Repeat the above procedure to test the other IC's i.e. 7408, 7404, 7400,7432 etc.
Pin Diagram and observations :
(l) Quad dual ---Input OR gate IC .

14 13 12

vcc
7432 Quad 2 Input OR

GND
3 4 5 6 7
I 2

102
Fot OR Gate no. l,pin nos.
I and 2 are inputs and pin no. 3 is output.
7432 (OR GATE)
Logie Equation

Truth table Observation table

INPUT OUT PUT INPUT OUT PUT

2) Quad dual input AND

gate IC

vcc

7408 Quad 2 Input AND

GND

IC 7408 (AND GATE)

Logic Equation
Y = AB

Truth table Observationtable

INPUT OUT PUT INPUT OUT PUT

3) Quad- dual- input NAND gate IC

14 13 12 10
vcc

7400 Quad 2 Input NAND

GND

103
 (NANO

Obncrvationtable
iT PUT OUT ptrr
INPUT

4) input OuteIC

vcc

7402 Quod 2 Input NOR

GND

(NOR GATE)

Troth tablc Observationtable

our titrr INPUT OUT PUT

(SOT Ggtc)

V CC 6 Y6 A4 Y4

7404 ilex inverter

GND
lc 7404 (HEX NVERTER) NOT GATE
Logic Equation

Truth table Observation table

INPUT OUT PUT INPUT OUTPUT

1 1 t5L
1

1 1

Precautions :
1. Input voltage must be 5 volts.
2. Connections should be joined correctly.
3. Grounding should be proper for input, O' volt.
4. Connections must be tight.
Result: The different given logic IC's are tested and their tuth table is verified.

Questions
1. Explain what are the basic logic elements?
r/.UnJarn«ntÄl...eleto.en-Ls
A.c.-.eiccuR.c. and. d.iscyæ... ma-l.c.
of. .(offc.e.J.em.enE...C.onca-b
OR. and. K)oT- eJemerÆ<..cAQ..execGes...a..h.umber
2. What are the applications of logic gates?
. axe.. .
.
..ave...useJ...in....pusk .•Doo.r...EelL:
guy. Iqva)Qv.ms...arA evS,..,..
usec).jh..4he.
3. NAND ate is combination of which two basic Gates

8.a4e 1k... corn.bönaåu;n.

06... NOT....and. AND"

4. NOR Gate is combination of which two basic Gates?

of NOT." 3Q{es.t..

Remark and sign (If teacher

105