CHAPTER 11

The Quantum Mechanical

Model of Atom

Models of Atomic Structure

The Four Quantum Numbers that Describe Electrons
Electron Configuration of Atoms
 Models
It is used to provide mental images of things that we cannot
usually see.

Electron Configuration
It gives the representation of how the electrons are distributed
in an atom

Models of Atoms
Electron
Thomson's Plum Pudding Model Positive charged
particles

Joseph John Thomson

1904
Atoms are composed of electrons embedded
throughout a spherical cloud of a positive
charge.

Proton Rutherford's Nuclear Model

Neutron
Ernest Rutherford
1911
Electron
Atoms having a small nucleus where the
positive charge and mass of the atom is
Orbit concentrated.
Nucleus
 Electron Orbits
Bohr's Planetary Model
Neils Bohr Electron
1913
Electrons move around the nucleus in
Proton
orbits of fixed radii and energies.

Each orbit is assigned an integer quantum

number, n Ground State
- Electron is in the lowest energy
The bigger the orbit, the farther the electron is level where it remains stable.
from the nucleus and the higher its energy with a
Excited State
higher quantum number. - Electron is in a higher energy level
and more reactive.
A specific amount of energy is required to move
an electron from one level to another.

Schrödinger's Quantum Model

2s Orbital Nucleus
Erwin Schrödinger
1926
2p Orbital Electrons do not have exact paths around
the nucleus in orbits and cannot be located
precisely within an atom.
1s Orbital
3s Orbital Specify regions around the nucleus of an atom
in which there is a large probability of finding
electrons.
 Atomic Orbital
The region of space around the nucleus where the probability
of finding an electron with a given energy is greatest.

The Four Quantum Numbers

01 Principal Quantum Number (n)

- It describes the energy of electrons, which is determined by the average
distance to the nucleus.

02 Angular Momentum (ℓ)

- It describes the shape of the orbital and designates the sublevel which the
electron is said to occupy.

s=0 d=2
p=1 f=3

03 Magnetic Quantum Number (mℓ)

- It describes the orientation of the orbital in space, and its values are
restricted to a range of +1 down through to 0 to -1.

s = 1 orbital d = 5 orbitals
0 +2, +1, 0, -1, -2
p = 3 orbitals f = 7 orbitals
+1, 0, -1 +3, +2, +1, 0, -1, -2, -3
z
s - Orbital is a spherical shape centered around
the nucleus. The spherical shape means that the
electron is moving with 90% probability in a region y
of space within the sphere.
x
p - Orbitals have two lobes in dumbbell shape that lie along
three axes (x, y, z).
z z z

y y y

x x x

d - Orbitals have clover-leaf shapes but have different orientations. The

names of the orbitals refer to the orientations of orbitals in space.
z z z

x y x y x y
z z

x y x y

f - Orbitals have complex shapes that are difficult to visualize.

04 Spin Quantum Number (ms)

- It refers to the spin of an electron in a given orbital. It can have two values:
↑(+1/2) and ↓
(-1/2).

It follows that an orbital can accommodate a maximum of two electrons

only.
The spin can be in two opposite directions, clockwise or counterclockwise.

note:

The four quantum numbers describe the state of a particular electron in a given orbital.
Each electron has its own set of four quantum numbers, and no two electrons in the
atom can have the same set.
Four Quantum Numbers
1. 3p5 n= 3 2. 4d4 n= 4 3. 5f13 n= 5
ℓ= 1 ℓ= 2 ℓ= 3
mℓ = 0 mℓ = 1 mℓ = 2
ms = -1/2 ms = +1/2 ms = -1/2

Electron Configuration

01 Aufbau Building-up Principle

Electrons occupy orbitals in the order of increasing energy.
The orbitals are arranged in order of increasing energy based on the
principal energy levels and sublevels.

The lowest energy sublevel is the s sublevel, followed by p, d, and f

sublevels.
The lowest energy orbital is the 1s orbital that is the only orbital that
makes up the first principal energy (n = 1).

Degenerate
- Orbitals having the same or equal energy leads to a listing of
increasing energies of the orbitals.
Above the 3p level, there are overlaps of the sublevels of the
principal energy that cause a change in the order of their energies.

n + ℓ rule, the orbital with the lowest energy is usually the sum
of n and ℓ is the lowest.

example:

3d sublevel 4s sublevel
n+ℓ 3+2=5 4+0=4
Mnemonic
- Means assisting or designed to assist memory.
- A device to help determine the order by which orbitals are filled.

It is separated by:
Listing all the orbitals in the principal energy levels and sublevels.
Draw diagonal parallel arrows that would strike the tabular listing,
starting at the first principal level and sublevel.

The order of filling the orbitals will be:

1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, 5s, 4d, 5p, 6s, 4f, 5d, 6p, 7s

This order is followed in writing electron

configuration.

02 Hand's Rule of Maximum Multiplicity

Electrons occupy orbitals of equal energy singly so that orbitals
contain one electron each before pairing up.

Having one electron at a time in orbitals of a given set, then adding

the remaining electrons one at a time until two electrons of
opposite spins occupy a single orbital.

03 Pauli Exclusion Principle

Two electrons may occupy an atomic orbital only if they have
opposite spins.

The maximum number of two electrons that can occupy an orbital

is two.
 Electron Configuration
- Shows the distribution of electrons in the atomic orbitals of an atom.

Numbers and letters are used to Number superscripts indicate the

represent the principal energy number of electrons in each
levels and sublevels of orbitals. sublevel or orbital.

Orbital Diagrams
- Shows the arrangement of electrons in an atom.
- Uses boxes containing small arrows indicating the electrons represent
the orbitals

An arrow pointing upward ( ) is ↑

used when an orbital contains one
electron.

An arrow pointing downward ( ) ↓

indicates the second electron.
 CHAPTER 12

The Periodic Table

Stability of Atoms
Magnetic Property
Metals, Nonmetals, and Metalloids
Atomic Properties and Their Trends in Periodic Table
 Stability of Atoms
Special stability is associated with certain electron
configurations in an atom.

An atom with filled levels is quite stable.

An atom with eight electrons in the outermost level has special
stability.
Octet rule of stability
An atom having a fully or half-filled sublevel is more stable than
other arrangements.

Magnetic Property

Paramagnetic Diamagnetic
Elements that made up of Elements consisting of atoms
atoms with unpaired electrons. with paired electrons.
Attracted to magnetic fields. Weakly repelled or not affected
by the magnetic fields.
example:

example:
1s2, 2s2, 2p4
- 2 unpaired electrons 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2
- all have paired electrons

Metals, Nonmetals, and Metalloids

Metals
- Element that forms positive ions and has metallic bonds.

Properties of metals
Luster - mirror-like shine that reflects light well.
Conductivity - ability to transfer heat and electricity well.
Malleability - ability to be rolled or hammered into thin sheets.
Ductility - ability to be drawn into wire.
 Nonmetals Metalloids
- Brittle, lackluster, and have - Both have metallic and
poor conductivities nonmetallic properties.

Metals Metalloids Nonmetals

In the periodic table, metals are located on the left except for hydrogen,
and nonmetals are located on the right. The zigzag separating the two are
the metalloids.

Atomic Properties and Their Trends in the Periodic Table

01 ATOMIC SIZE
- It is measured in terms of the radius, which is the distance from the
nucleus to its outermost principal energy level.
Radius is measured by x-ray and electron diffraction method.
note:

If the atom does not bond, one-half of the distance between the nuclei of two
adjacent atoms is measured as its radius when they are closest together.
Van der Waals radius
If the atom is a metal, one-half the distance between the nuclei of two adjacent
atoms in the metallic crystal is measured.
Metallic Atomic radius
Radii - Measured in angstroms and picometer as the unit to express atomic radii.
 Issue:

In a given group or family of the periodic table, the

atomic size increases from the top to bottom with
an increase in atomic number.
In a given period of the periodic table, the atomic
size decreases with an increase in atomic number
from left to right.

02 IONIZATION OF ENERGY
- The energy needed to remove an atom's most loosely held electron
is called first ionization energy

Measured in kilojoules per mole

Issue:

In a given group or family of the periodic table, ionization energy

decreases as the atomic number increases from top to bottom.
In a given period of the periodic table, ionization energy increases
from the left to right with an increase in atomic number.

03 ELECTRON AFFINITY
- The measure of the energy change that occurs when an atom gains
a single electron and forms a negative ion.
The more energy released by the atom, the more stable it becomes
when it gains electrons.
When the energy is released, electron affinity is negative; when
energy is absorbed, electron affinity is positive.

Issue:

In a given group or family of the periodic table, ionization energy

decreases as the atomic number increases from top to bottom.
In a given period of the periodic table, ionization energy increases
from the left to right with an increase in atomic number.
04 ELECTRONEGATIVITY
- Measure of an atom's ability to attract a pair of electrons when
bonded to another atom.
The higher electronegativity, the more atom attracts the shared
pair of electrons.

Issue:

In a given group or family of the periodic table, electronegativity

decreases as the atomic number increases from top to bottom.
In a given period of the periodic table, electronegativity increases
from the left to right with an increase in atomic number.

Arrangement of Elements in the Periodic Table

Dmitri Mendeleev and Lothar Meyer

- Arranged the known elements in the order of their atomic masses
in horizontal rows and produced a table where those with similar
properties were in the same vertical column.

Henry Moseley
- Determined the atomic numbers of elements and rearranged the
elements in the periodic table according to increasing atomic
numbers.
The Periodic Law
- The properties of elements are periodic functions of their atomic
numbers.
 Periods and Groups in the Periodic Table
Periods are the horizontal rows, and groups are the
vertical columns.

Periods
- Horizontal row of elements in the periodic table.
- 7 periods

The period number refers to the principal energy levels in the

atoms of each element in the period.
Elements in the same period have the same number of occupied
principal energy levels.

Groups
- Vertical columns of elements
IUPAC Notation
- Begins with group 1 on the left side and continues through
group 18 on the right side
US Notation
- Uses Roman numerals (I - VIII) and the letters A and B to indicate
the A and B families.

Blocks in the Periodic Table

Groups 1 (IA) and 2 (IIA)

Constitute the s-block because their atoms undergo filling up the s
sublevels
Groups 13 (IIIA) to 18 (VIIIA)
Constitute the p-block because within the six adjacent groups the p
sublevels of the atoms are being filled.
Groups 3 - 12 (B Groups)
d sublevels get filled
 Classification of Elements
Group family names
Alkali metal family - Group 1
Representative Elements (IA), except hydrogen
Elements in the s and p- blocks Alkaline earth metal family -
The A families Group 2 (IIA)
Chalcogen family - Group 16
Transition Elements
(VIA)
Elements in the d- blocks
Halogen family - Group 17
The B families
(VIIA)
Noble gases - Group 18 (VIIIA)

The Chemistry of the Group of Elements

note:

Elements in the same group in the periodic table have similar outer electron
configuration, giving them similar properties.
Group 1 (IA), Group 2 (IIA), Group 17 (VIIA), Group 18 (VIIIA) have strong similarities.

01 GROUP 1 (IA)
- Called alkali metals except for hydrogen note:

Alkali metals form 1+ ions.

Hydrogen is not an alkali metal because
Alkali metals react and
its properties are not similar to others in
form binary compounds
the group.
with most nonmetals.
Associated with Group 1 because it has
the electron configuration of 1s2.
- Have the most metallic character, have low ionization energies and
electronegativities, and have the largest atoms.
- Do not occur freely in nature because they are highly reactive.

Lithium, Sodium, Potassium, Rubidium, Cesium, and Francium

Hydrogen
- It is a gas and is the most abundant element
- It can react in four ways
It can lose its only electron to form the hydrogen ion.
It can gain an electron to form the hydride ion, and combine with
metal ions.
It can share electrons with most nonmetals.
It can act as a bridging atom between two atoms

Lithium, Sodium, and Potassium

- They have low densities and soft
Francium
- It is radioactive as it is formed only from the radioactive
disintegration of actinium

02 GROUP 2 (IIA)
note:
- Called alkaline earth metals Alkaline earth metals have
- Less metallic character than the two valence electrons with
alkali metal. ns2
Alkaline earth metals form 2+
- Reactive and do not occur as a free
ions
element in nature.
- Soluble in water
Beryllium, Magnesium, Calcium, Strontium, Barium, and Radium

Beryllium Magnesium
- Poisonous even when low - Light and lustrous metal
concentrations
Strontium and Barium
Calcium - Soft and reactive metals
- Fairly hard silvery metal - Stored in mineral oil
Radium
- Radioactive and extremely
dangerous to handle.
03 GROUP 3 (IIIA)
2 1
- Has three valence electrons with the configuration of ns np .
Boron, Aluminum, Gallium, Indium, Thallium
Boron
- Does not form 3+ ion readily as the other elements in
the group.
- It is a metalloid.
- Brownish powder when impure and yellow crystals
when pure.

Aluminum
- Most abundant metal in the Earth's Crust.
- Light, shiny, and noncorroding metal.

Gallium, Indium, and Thallium

- Most abundant metal in the Earth's Crust.

04 GROUP 14 (IVA)
- Has four valence electrons with the configuration of ns 2np 2.
- Shows a progression of metallic character: from Carbon (nonmetal)
to Silicon (metalloid) to Tin and Lead (metal).
Carbon, Silicon, Germanium, Tin, Lead note:

Allotropes are substances that

Carbon
have the same composition but
- Occurs in two distinct crystalline forms. have differences in the manner
Diamond, the hardest substance known. in which their atoms are bonded,
Graphite, one of the softest substance. resulting in having very different
Allotropes properties

Silicon
- Dull solid and somewhat metallic in appearance.
- Second most abundant element in Earth's crust.
- When refined to an extremely high purity is used as a
semiconductor in transistors.
- Major component of sand and gravel in the form of silicon
dioxide known as silica.
Silica is used in the production of glass.
 note:

Germanium Alloy is a solid solution

- Brittle, grayish-white solid with some luster. for two or more metals.
- Used widely in the computer industry.

Tin and Lead

- Relative inert metallic substances are used widely in homes and
industries.
- Together formed the alloy called brass.

05 GROUP 15 (VA)
- Has five valance electrons with ns2np3 configuration
- Shows a progression of nonmetallic to a metallic character: from
Nitrogen and Phosphorus (nonmetal) to Arsenic and Antimony
(metalloids) to Bismuth (metal).

Nitrogen
- Exist in nature as stable diatomic (N2) molecules in a gaseous
state.
- Comprises 80% of the air.

Phosphorus
- Soft solid
- Exist in white and red allotropic forms
Both forms are very toxic when touched by skin, ingested, or
inhaled as a vapor.
The red form is fairly stable.
Arsenic
- Exist in three allotropic forms: black metallic, gray metallic, and
waxy yellow nonmetallic.
- Used as poisons.
The yellow nonmetallic is very unstable that it cannot be kept at
room temperature.
Antimony
- Exist in gray metallic form and unstable.
Bismuth
- Soft lustrous metal.
06 GROUP 16 (VIA)
- Has six valance electrons with ns2np 4 configuration
- Ions with 2- charge.

Oxygen
- Exist in two allotropic forms: Oxygen (02) and Ozone (03)
Oxygen is an odorless and colorless gas, but is pale in liquid
form is reactive, and can combine with all other elements
except with some of the noble gases.
Ozone is more reactive and in pure form is explosive as it
decomposes to oxygen.

Selenium and Tellurium Sulfur

- Both exist in various allotropic - Exist as a pale yellow solid.
forms, some of which have - Most are changed to
semimetallic properties. sulfuric acid which is widely
- Repulsive odors and toxic used in the manufacture of
fertilizers, dyestuffs, and
Polonium other products.
- Radioactive

07 GROUP 17 (VIIA)
- Halogens
- Has seven valance electrons with ns2np5 configuration.

Fluorine Bromine
-Exist as pale yellow gas. - Dense, dark, red liquid which
- Very reactive and toxic. readily evaporates to a
reddish-brown gas that stays
Chlorine
on the surface of the liquid.
- Exist as greenish-yellow gas.
- Toxic and been used as a
poison gas.
 Iodine
- Bluish black lustrous solid that sublimes to a purple vapor.
- It is used as an antiseptic called tincture of iodine when dissolved
in ethyl alcohol.

Astatine
- Radioactive element that occurs in very small amounts on the Earth.

08 GROUP 18 (VIIIA)
- Has eight valence electrons with ns2np6 except for Helium.
Helium has only two valence electrons, it is associated with the
group because its properties are very much like the other elements.
- Known as the noble gases.
- Colorless and exhibit little or no reactivity at all.

09 GROUP 3-11 (TRANSITION ELEMENTS)

- It has d-block elements with electron configuration (n-1)d and ns
where n is the period number.
- Begin in Period 4 and include Groups 3 (IIIB), Group 4 (IVB), Group 5
(VB), Group 6 (VIB), Group 7 (VIIB), Group 8, 9, 10 (VIIIB), and Group 11
(IB).
- They are dense, lustrous, good conductors of heat and electricity,
and hard.
Group 12 (IIB) elements are not considered the transition elements
because their d and s sublevels are complete.

Platinum and Gold

- Used in jewelry because they are unreactive in air and do not
tarnish.
 Copper and Gold
- Two colored metals.
Mercury
- The only liquid among transition metals and is more dense.

Osmium
- The most dense metal.

note:

The fourth-period elements are used primarily as structural meals.

Transition elements form many colored compounds and form
polyatomic ions.

10 THE INNER TRANSITION ELEMENTS

LANTHANIDES
- Belong to period 6, but do not belong to any group.
- All metals, known for their similarity of their chemical and physical
properties.
- Show 3+ as the most stable level.
Neodymium
- A soft reactive metal
- Highest energy level electrons in the 4f sublevel.

ACTINIDES
- Belong to period 7, but are not classified to any group.
- All are radioactive.

Thorium and Uranium

- Mildly radioactive but dangerous to inhale or taste.

note:

The elements after Uranium are produced artificially by nuclear reactions.

The highest energy level electron is 5f sublevel.
 CHAPTER 13

Ionic Bonds

Ionic Bonding Naming Ionic Compounds

Transferring Electrons Properties of Ionic Compounds
Writing Chemical Formulas Naming Bases, Acids, and Salts
 Ionic Bonding
It involves losing and gaining electrons to complete an octet
of valence electrons.
Occurs between metals and nonmetals.

Atoms react by making use of their electrons in the

outermost energy level.

Lewis Electron Dot Symbol or Lewis Electron Dot Formula

- Valence electrons are represented by dots surrounding the symbol of
the atom or the element.

The number of dots equals the number of s and p electrons in the

atom's outermost energy level.
example:

The valence electrons of the sulfur atom are in the second

energy level 2s 22p 4.

s
Atoms react to become stable. Stability is attained when the atom
acquires a valence level that is isoelectronic with the valence level of
noble gases.

Two electrons if the valence level is the first principal level.

Eight electrons if the valence level is the second or a higher
principal level.

Transferring Electrons

A way by which atoms attain a total of eight electrons in their outermost

energy level.
One atom must be able to lose electrons readily, and the other
atoms must be able to gain electrons readily.
Charged Particles (Ions)
- Formed when electrons are transferred from one atom to
another.

Cation
Positively charged ions.
Smaller than its parent atom.
When an atom loses an electron, a negative charge is
removed leaving behind a positively charged particle.
Anion
Negatively charged ions.
Larger than its parent atom.
When an atom gains an electron, it takes on the negative charge of
the additional electron and becomes a negatively charged ion.

note:

Ion is represented by a formula using the symbol of the atom from

which the ion was formed, with the charge of the ion as a superscript.

Lewis symbol Lewis symbol Lewis symbol Lewis symbol

Atom Ion Atom Ion

Na Loss of 1e- Na+ F Gain of 1e- F

Ca Loss of 2e- Ca2+ Ca Gain of 2e- Ca

Al Loss of 3e- Al3+ Al Gain of 3e- Al

Predicting Charges of Ions

The number of the outermost valence electrons of the atom indicates
the atom's tendency to lose or gain electrons.
Atoms with 1, 2, or 3 outer energy level electrons tend to lose them.
Atoms with 5, 6, or 7 outer energy level electrons tend to gain more
to have a total of eight electrons in the outer energy level.
 Remember:

Atoms that lose electrons have an octet on the lower energy level,
and those that gain electrons need a few electrons to complete
an octet in the outer energy level.
The group number of a representative element on the periodic
table tells the number of valence electrons its atom has.

Polyatomic Ions
- Groups of atoms that carry electrical charges as unit particles.
- Act as a single unit and maintain their identity in combining with other
ions to form an ionic compound.
2-
O
All the oxide ions: O2 : 2- x 3 = 6-
C All the carbon ions C4+ : 4+ x 1 = 4+
CO ionic charge = (6-) = (4+) = 2
O O

Lewis Symbol or Formula

- Illistrate the transfer of electrons between atoms.

Ionic Bond
- Electrostatic attraction that holds the ions together.

Ionic Compound
- Substance formed by the combination of ions.
 The Lewis symbol or formula can illustrate the transfer
of electrons between atoms.

Writing Chemical Formulas Examples:

1 Al + O
3+
Symbol of the positive ion is written first.

2 Symbol of the negative ion is written after Al + O

3+ 2-

the positive ion.

3 The numbers representing the valences are Al O - Al 2 + O 3

3+ 2-

transferred as subscripts of opposite symbols.

Crisscross method

Subrules of the Crisscross Method

01 The subscript 1 is not shown in the formula.

02 If the valences of the positive and negative parts are the same,
there is no need for crisscrossing.
example:

Ca + O
2-
Ca + O
2+

03 If subscripts are divisible by the same number, change in lowest

terms.
example:

Sn O Sn2/2 O4/2
2-
SnO2
4+

04 A polyatomic ion or radical is to have a subscript other than 1, a

parenthesis should be used, closing the polyatomic ion and the correct
subscript is placed outside the parenthesis.
example:

(NH4)2CO3
-2
NH4+ CO3

05 A correctly written formula always shows that the algebraic sum of

the valence electrons or charges is equal to zero.
 Naming Ionic Compounds
Binary Compounds
- Compounds are made up of only two elements.
- Named directly from the elements.

The element with positive valence is named first, then the element
with negative valence is given with the suffix -ide.

example:

NaCl sodium chloride BaS barium sulfide

a. Greek Prefixes
di-, tri-, tetra-, penta- for the negative part.
b. Suffixes
-ous and -ic for the Latin name of the positive part to denote
lower and higher valences.
c. Roman Numerals
Indicate the specific valences of the cations with multiple
charge

example:
a b c
FeCl2 iron dichloride ferrous Chloride iron (II) chloride
FeCl3 iron trichloride ferric Chloride iron (III) chloride

Structures of Ionic Compounds

Oppositely charged ions arrange Na

+

Cl
-

themselves in a regular array-like in

an orderly three-dimensional
pattern of the crystal lattice.
Each sodium ion is surrounded
by six chloride ions, and each
chloride ion is surrounded by six
sodium ions.
Properties and Types of Ionic Compounds
Most ionic compounds exist as amorphous or crystalline solids.
Well defined crystals have high melting points, tend to be soluble in
water, and conduct electric current in the molten state.

Arrhenius Theory
Acid
- Compound that dissociates into a hydrogen ion, H , and an anion
+

when dissolved in water.

- Combine readily with water forming the hydronium ion,
(H+ + H2 O H3O+)
- Their aqueous solutions are good electrical conductors, have a sour
taste, liberate hydrogen gas when reacted with the active metal, and
react with bases.

example:

HCl + H2O H3 O++ Cl-

Base
-
- Compound that dissociates to give hydroxide (OH ) ions and cations
when dissolved in water.
- Also called an alkali.
- Form solutions that conduct electricity.
- Bitter taste, feel slippery to touch and react with acids.

example:

NaOH + H2O Na+ + +2OH + H+

-

The strength of an acid or a base is related to the relative amounts of

+
H justify stronger the acid or base is.
An acid reacts with a base such that the anion of the acid combines
with the cation of the base to form a salt.
Neutralization
- Reaction between an acid and a base.
Naming Acids, Bases, and Salts

a. Bases are called hydroxides since most of them contain the

-
Hydroxide ion (OH )
example:

NH4OH ammonium hydroxide

b. Binary acids in water solutions are taken from the name of the
element combined with hydrogen, using prefix hydro-, suffix -ic and
adding the word acid.
example:

HCl hydrochloric acid

When middle elements of oxyacids can assume two valences, the one
corresponding to the lower state is given the -ous ending and the other in
a higher state, the -ic ending then adding the word acid.

example:

H4SO3 sulfurous acid H2SO4 sulfuric acid

When there are more than two oxyacids of different valences, the prefix
hypo- is used for the lower valence than that of the -ous acid and prefix
per- for that with valence higher than that of the -ic acid.

example:

NaClO2 sodium hypochlorite K2SO4 potassium sulfate

b. Salts that are derived from polyprotic acids are best named by
indicating the number of hydrogen atoms that are unneutralized.

example:

note:
NaH2PO 4 sodium dihydrogen phosphate
Polyprotic acids are
acids more than one
H+ as positive part
 CHAPTER 14

Covalent Bonds

Covalent Bonding Characteristics of Covalent Bonds

Dative or Coordinate Covalent Bonds Formulas pf Covalent Bonds
Exceptions to the Octet Rule VSEPR Theory and Molecular Theory
Covalent Bonding Concepts Polarity of Molecules
Covalent Bonding
It involves sharing of an electron pair between two
atoms.
Occurs between two nonmetals.
note:

The number of unpaired electrons of an atom thus

indicates the number of covalent bonds it can form. This is
known as its covalency number.

note:
Electron-Dot Symbols
A neutral particle that results
Illustrate the sharing of electrons. from the union of two or
more atoms is called a
example:
molecule.
H +H H H
A hydrogen atom has only one valence electron. It needs one more
electron to have a stable electron configuration. Two hydrogen atoms
share a pair of electrons to become stable as the hydrogen molecule, H2.

Cl Cl Cl

A chlorine atom has seven valence electrons. It needs just one more
electron to complete an octet and attain a stable electron configuration.
It can share its unpaired electron with another chlorine atom.

Remember:

The single-particle formed when electrons are shared between two

or more atoms is neutral because it still contains an equal number of
protons and electrons.
Sharing of electrons occurs between atoms of the same kind forming
diatomic molecules.
 Seven elements exist in nature as diatomic molecules
H2, N2, O2, F2, Cl2, Br2 , I2.

Except H2, which is stable with two valence electrons, they conform
with the octet rule of stability.

Dative or Coordinate Covalent Bonds

Another kind of sharing when both of the shared pair of electrons

come originally from one of the two bonded atoms.
Once a coordinate covalent bond is formed, it cannot be
distinguished anymore from a regularly formed covalent bond.

Writing Lewis Structure

01 Get the sum of the valence electrons of the atoms in the molecule
02 Write the sequential arrangement of atoms after choosing the central
atom.
The central atom is often the first atom in the molecular formula, the
atom with the higher covalency, or is capable of a higher oxidation
number.

03 Distribute the valence electrons by drawing dots between and around

the atoms in the skeleton formula.

A dash can be used to replace two dots and represent a covalent

bond between two atoms.
04 If there are not enough electrons to give eight electrons, shift
unbonded electrons as necessary or change single bond to double or
triple bond.
05 Perform a final electron count to verify that the total number of
electrons have been distributed.
Exceptions to the Octet Rule
Free Radicals
A molecule in which one or more electrons are unpaired.

example:

Nitric Oxide (NO) Chlorine Dioxide (ClO2)

Nitrogen Oxide (NO2) , Dioxygen (O2 )

O2 can be considered includes in this group, experimental studies

have shown that it is paramagnetic.

Resonance
Observation regarding the molecules NO2, O2, and O3 is that two electron
dot structures can be written for each of them.

Resonance Structure
Resonance Hybrid
The structure of a molecule cannot be
It is the actual molecule.
accurately represented by a single Lewis
formula rather, two formulas taken
together can describe the molecule better.

How Electrons Are Shared

The sharing occurs when an electron cloud overlaps with another
electron cloud forming a new orbital, where the two electrons with
opposite spins stay together and are considered shared.

Covalent Bonding Concepts

A. The Valence Bond (VB) Conpect

When two atoms approach each other and reach bonding distance, the
atomic orbital of one atom overlaps maximally with the atomic orbital of
the other atom.
 Two types of Valence Bond
01 Sigma (σ) Bond
Symmetrically arranged along the line passing through the
two nuclei.

a. two s AOs c. s and a p AO

b. two p AOs d. s and a d AO

02 Pi (π) Bond

It arises from the interaction of p or d orbitals that are not

directed along the internuclear axis.

B. Molecular Orbital (MO) Theory

A new set of orbitals that is characteristics of the newly formed molecule
is generated when atoms combine to form a molecule.
Molecular orbital, which can hold two electrons of the opposite spins.

Conditions:

Two atomic orbitals that will overlap must have one electron each of
opposite spins, or alternately, one must have two electrons of
opposite spins and the other, unoccupied.
The energies of the atomic orbitals that will overlap must be of
comparable magnitude.
The atomic orbitals that will overlap have the same symmetry relative
to the internuclear axis.

In a molecular orbital, overlapping of the electron clouds or orbitals

facilitates electron sharing as the pair of electrons has an increased
probability of existing in the region between the two atomic nuclei.

Antibonding MO

There is a characteristic withdrawal of electrons from the internuclear

region indicating greater repulsion between nuclei.
PROPERTIES OF COVALENT BONDS
Bond Polarity
- A covalent bond is nonpolar if it is formed between two atoms of the
same kind, if the molecular orbital is symmetrical to both atomic
nuclei, and when there is equal sharing of electrons between two
nuclei.
- A covalent bond is polar if it is formed between two dissimilar
atoms, if the bonding MO is not symmetrical, if there is an uneven
sharing of electrons, and if it produces a partial negative charge of the
atom.

Electronegativity

Predict the polar character of the bond that holds the atom.
Nonpolar if the electronegativity difference between the bonded
atom is 0 - 0.3 units.
Polar if the electronegativity difference between the bonded atom
is 0.4 - 1.6 units
Ionic if the electronegativity difference is equal or greater than 1.7
units.

Bond Length
- Distance between two nuclei along the bond axis in which the
stabilizing effects of overlapping orbitals are balanced by repulsion
between the positively charged nuclei.
Measured in Angstrom units (1A = 1 x 10-8 cm)

Bond Energy
- The energy necessary to dissociate the bonded atoms to their
ground state.

Expressed in terms of kilocalories per mole

 Bond Order
- Number of bonds between atoms in molecules. It may refer to the
total bond order.

Bond Angle
- Predicted from the orientation and direction of the bonding orbitals
and all together indicate the shape or configuration of the whole
molecule.

Formulas of Covalent Compounds

Covalent compounds have formulas that show the actual number

of atoms that have combined to form a molecule.
Covalent compounds classified as organic compounds are
identified by writing their structural formula where the positions
of the atoms in relation to each other are shown.

Valence-Shell Electron-Pair Repulsion Theory

Prediction of molecular geometries involves the application of a few
basic principles.

01 Electrons in molecules occupy space and repel each other.

02 The most favorable geometric arrangement of molecule is one in
which electron repulsion is at the minimum.

03 The degree to which electron pairs repel one another depends on

whether they are bonding pairs (BPs) or lone pairs (LPs).
The repulsion between two lone pairs is greater than that between
a bonding pair and a lone pair.
The strength of repulsion in decreasing order is given by: [LP-LP >
LP-BP > BP-BP]
Prediction of geometry of a molecule

01 Write a Lewis structure for the molecule.

02 Determine how many groups surround the central atom.
03 Assign a geometry that is consistent with the minimum electron-
pair repulsion.

Total Number of Electron Pairs Minimum Repulsion Geometry

2 linear
3 trigonal planar
4 tetrahedral
5 trigonal bipyramidal
6 octahedral

Polarity of Molecules
Molecules are classified as polar or nonpolar depending on the
polarity of the individual bonds and the overall shape of the
molecule,

Polar Molecules

Have one polar bond or if there are more, their individual bond
dipoles do no cancel.

Nonpolar Molecules

Have no polar bonds or their individual bond dipoles cancel.

Relationship between polarity and molecular symmetry

Molecules containing only nonpolar covalent bonds are nonpolar.
Molecules containing only polar covalent bonds that have charges
distributed symmetrically are nonpolar.
Molecules containing only polar covalent bonds that have charges
distributed unsymmetrically are polar.
 CHAPTER 15

Carbon and Its Compound

Uniqueness of Carbon and Itd Versatility Molecular Geometry

Hybrid Atomic Orbitals Composition, Structure, Properties, and Classes of Matter
Hybrid Orbitals of Other Atom Open-Chain Hydrocarbon:
The Hydrogen Derivatives
 Uniqueness of Carbon and Its Versatility

Carbon atoms have the unique ability to form strong bonds with
each other in different ways.
Carbon atoms can be bonded to each other by single, double, or
triple bonds.
Four or more carbons in a molecule may be arranged differently
that corresponds to a different compound.

Concepts:

01 The C atom usually forms four covalent bonds in compound formation.

C atom is at an excited state during the reaction.
02 The C atom used hybrid atomic orbitals in bond formation to account
for the observed equivalence of bond properties.

Hybrid Atomic Orbitals

The formation of hybrid orbitals involves the mixing and re-arrangement
of pure atomic orbitals in the valence level, resulting in a combination of s,
p, and d orbitals that are identical in stability and reactivity.

Hybrid Orbitals note:

The number of hybrid orbitals

Have directional character and will allow
formed is equal to the total
more effective overlap that makes stronger
number of atomic orbitals that
bonds.
are combined, and the symbols
Orbital hybridization is one of the factors of the hybrids identify the
that affect the covalent bond properties. kinds and number of orbitals
Polarity, length, strength, and angle. involved.
 sp3 hybrid orbitals and single bonds
When the 2s and the three p orbitals of carbon (2s12p1 2p1 2p1 ) are
mixed and rearranged, it results in 4 sp hybrid orbitals directed
toward the corners of a regular tetrahedron.

z z
y y sp 3
x x

s Px sp 3 109.5°
z z
y y sp 3
x x

Py Pz sp 3

Together, the four sp hybrid orbitals have bonded angles of 109°28' (109.5°).
3

Methane (CH4)
H
Formed when each of the sp orbitals overlaps with
the s orbital of a hydrogen atom. C
H H
The first member of a series of organic compounds.
H

Ethane (C2H6)
H H
Simples molecule containing a sigma carbon-carbon
H C C H
bond.
All the angles are near the tetrahedral value of 109°28. H H

sp2 hybrid orbitals and double bonds

Formed by combining the 2s orbital with only two of the three available 2-
orbitals of carbon.

+
 Ethylene (C2H4 )

The simplest molecule that can be formed H H

from sp2- hybridized carbon atoms. C C
The first member of another homologous H H
series of hydrocarbons.

sp hybrid orbitals and triple bonds

Formed when the carbon 2s orbital combines with a single 2p orbital

and the two rearrange to form two sp hybrid orbitals, with the two 2p
orbitals remaining unchanged.
Two sp hybrid orbitals are 180° apart on the x-axis.
Two sp orbitals are perpendicular on he y-axis and the z-axis.

Hybridize

p orbital sp hybrid orbitals

two sp hybrid orbitals

An overlap of two sp hybrid orbitals, one from each of two carbons

forms a strong sigma (σ) bond.

Acetylene (C2H2)

The first member of another series of organic

compounds characterized by the presence of at H C C H
least one triple bond.

MOLECULAR GEOMETRY
Predicted using the valence bond approach where the directional
properties of the orbitals involved in bonding are taken into account.
 Prediction for a specific molecule:
01 The molecular formula is inspected to see how many
atoms (A) are bonded to the central atom (C).
02 The orbital condition of C is determined.
03 The geometry is decided based on the molecular formula
type and orbital conditional.

Molecular Formula Hybridization Molecular Geometry of Hybrid Orbitals

CA 2 sp
CA 2 sp3
CA 3 sp 2
linear angular trigonal pyramidal trigonal planar
CA 3 sp3
CA 4 sp3
CA 4 dsp 2
CA 5 sp3d
2 tetrahedral square planar trigonal bipyramidal octahedral
CA 6 sp3d

Composition, Structure, Properties, and Classes of Matter

Composition
Organic Compounds Inorganic Compounds
Have C as the common Do not have any common
constituent. constituent.

Structure
Organic Compounds Inorganic Compounds
Structures are of varying Structures are simple.
complexities.
Physical Properties
Organic Compounds Inorganic Compounds
Exist as gases, liquids, and Exist predominantly as solids
solids at room temperature. at room temperature.

Have low solubility in water Have high solubility in water

and high solubility in non- and low solubility in non-
polar solvents. polar solvents.

Have low boiling and melting Have high boiling and melting
points. points.
Solutions are nonelectrolytes. Solutions are strong electrolytes.

Chemical Properties
Organic Compounds Inorganic Compounds
Easily affected by heat, many Not easily affected by heat,
of which are flammable. and mostly flammable.
Exhibit covalent bonding. Exhibit ionic bonding.
Exhibit isomerism. Isomers are limited to a few
exceptions.
Chemical reaction are generally
slow but more specific. Chemical reaction happens fast.

The Homologous Series of Hydrocarbons

Hydrocarbon
The simplest organic compounds contain only carbon and hydrogen.
Open-Chain Hydrocarbon: Alkanes, Alkenes, Alkynes
Alkanes
Also known as paraffins, They are continuous hydrocarbons with
single covalent bonds only between the carbon atoms. Compounds
with a single bonds only are saturated.

The names of the alkanes all end with the suffix -ane.
The alkanes are arranged from the top to bottom in increasing
number of Cs and Hs.

Isomerism
When there are four or more carbon atoms in an organic compound,
there can be different structural formulas for the same molecular
formula.

Constitutional Isomers

The substances that have the same molecular formula but different
structural formula.
The Hydrogen Derivatives

Compounds are obtained when hydrocarbons undergo

chemical reactions. They are classified according to the kind
of atom or molecule they contain.

Hydrocarbon Derivatives

Halogen- Oxygen- Nitrogen- Sulfur- Metal-

containing containing containing containing containing

Halogen-containing Compounds
Aliphatic Halides
Organic compounds containing the halogen atom bonded to a simple
aliphatic group.

Polyhaloalkanes
Compounds obtained by replacing two or more H atoms in a
hydrocarbon with halogen atoms.

Aromatic Halides
Compounds in which the halogen atom is bonded to the ring C of a
planar, conjugated, cyclic group of ArX.

Oxygen-containing Compounds
Alcohols and Phenols
Alcohols are derivatives in which one or more H atoms in aliphatic
hydrocarbons have been replaced by hydroxyl groups. Phenols are
compounds in which one or more H atoms in the aromatic nucleus
have been replaced by OH groups. Aromatic alcohols are compounds
that the OH group has replaced an H atom in a side chain.
Ethers
Alkyl oxides, two alkyl radicals are attached to an oxygen atom.
Derivatives of the alcohols in which the hydrogen atom of the OH group
has been replaced by an alkyl (R-) group.

Aldehydes and Ketones

Aldehydes
The carbonyl group is linked to one C atom and one H atom.
Ketones
Linked to two C atoms.

Aldehydes and Ketones

Functional group in carboxylic acids.

Nitrogen-containing Compounds
Amines
Have amino functional group. They are soluble in water and more basic
than ammonia.

Sulfur-containing Compounds

Thiols
It is the sulfur analog of alcohol. Sulfur equivalents of RO-H.

Thioethers
It is the S analogs of ethers which are oxidize readily.

Metal-containing Compounds
Organo-metallic
Compunds contain a metal bound to a C by linkage which may be either
covalent or ionic.
 CHAPTER 16

Polymers

Polymer Properties Polyester Formation

Condensation Polymers Polyamide Formation
Addition Polymers
 Polymers are macromolecules or very large molecules that
contain several thousand atoms formed by the repetitive
bonding of monomers.

Polymer Properties

The polymers depend on the monomer, the average size of the

large molecules in a particular sample, and how extensively they
branch.
The repeating unit in a natural polymer is generally identified by
studying its decomposition products.

Thermoplastic Thermosetting
Soften on reheating. Become infusible solids and
Formed when monomer do not soften on reheating
molecules join end to end in Macromolecules in which the
a linear chain with little or no polymeric chains are cross-
cross-linking between chains. linked to form a network
structure.

Addition Polymers
Formed from unsaturated monomers undergoing polymerization.
example: Polyisoprene rubber

01 Free radicals from peroxide decomposition initiate the reaction to

form resonance-stabilized allylic free radical.
02 In the propagation steps, each allylic free radicals adds to another
isoprene molecule, forming a longer allylic free radical, and the chain
contributes to propagate.
03 Two propagating chains will come together end to end as the
termination step to give the final polymer.
Polyisoprene
Used in the tire manufacturing industry.

Neoprene
Used in gasoline pump hoses and rubber tubings in automobile engines.

Condensation Polymers
Formed by the head-to-jail joining of monomer units.
Accompanied by the loss of water from the reacting monomers and
the formation of water as a reaction product
Polyesters are polymers consisting of many repeating units of
dicarboxylic acids and dihydroxy alcohols joinedby ester bonds.

Polyester Formation

Polyethylene Terephthalate
Most common synthetic polyester.
Used in films, clothing, tires, plastic drink bottles, soda, ore
vegetable oils.
Sold under the trade names of Dacron, Mylar, and Terylene.

Polyamide Formation
Nylons are polyamides produced by the reaction of diamines with
diacids.

Kevlar
Designed by Stephanie L. Kwolek.
Produced by the reaction of an aromatic dicarboxylic acid with an
aromatic diamine.
Known for its great strength but are lightweight and flame resistant.
 CHAPTER 17

Biomolecules

Covalent Bonding Characteristics of Covalent Bonds

Dative or Coordinate Covalent Bonds Formulas pf Covalent Bonds
Exceptions to the Octet Rule VSEPR Theory and Molecular Theory
Covalent Bonding Concepts Polarity of Molecules
Biomolecules
Carbon-containing compounds are of biological importance
because they make up and carry out by their chemical reactions the
needs of the living organism where they are found.

Carbohydrates, Lipids, Proteins, and Nucleic acid

01 Carbohydrates
Defined as an aldehyde or ketone derivatives of polyhydric
alcohols.
Referred to as saccharides, from the Greek word sakkharon
meaning something sweet.
Named using the ending -ose.
Monomers are monosaccharides.

Sugar is applied to all carbohydrates with sweet taste.

note:

Fructose (fruit sugar) - 173.3% Invert sugar - 127.13%

Glucose (grape sugar) - 74.3% Sucrose - 100%
Maltose (malt sugar) - 32.5% Lactose (milk sugar) - 16%

Monosaccharides
- Simplest group of carbohydrates.
- Consist of single saccharide units.
- Subclassified as trioses, tetroses, pentoses, hexoses, or heptoses.
- Usually crystalline, have a sweet taste and readily soluble in water.
 Glucose

Occurs freely in fruit and plant juices.

Also known as grape sugar.
Also called dextrose and given when a person is unable
to take food by mouth.
Also known as blood sugar.
Exist in open chain form and two cyclic forms.

Fructose

Found free in certain fruit juices and honey.

Also known as levulose.
A ketohexose and produced by the hydrolysis of the
polysaccharide inulin.
Exist in five-member ring structures.

Galactose

Does not occur in a free state in the body.

A constituent of milk sugar in the mammary glands and the
cerebrosides of brain and nerve tissues.

Oligosaccharides
- Carbohydrates that contain 2-10 monosaccharides.
- Most common are the disaccharides.

Lactose Sucrose Maltose

Also known as milk It is an ordinary table

Called malt sugar.
sugar. sugar
Glucose + Glucose
Glucose + Galactose Glucose + Fructose
Produced by the
Present in all various Commercially
incomplete hydrolysis
animal milk. prepared from sugar
of starch, glycogen, or
Least sweet of all cane and sugar beets.
dextrins.
sugars.
Polysaccharides
- Consist of 10 or more monosaccharides.
- Not sweet
- Not soluble in water, and are not readily obtained in
crystalline form.

Starch Cellulose Glycogen

A most important Has glucose as the Major glucose storage

source of monosaccharide unit. of animals.
carbohydrates. Oxygen atoms joining Also called animal
An essential part of the the glucose units are starch.
human diet. parallel to the planes Reserve carbohydrate
It is the mixture of of the rings. material of animals.
amylose.

02 Lipids
Organic molecules of varying chemical composition grouped on
the basis of their solubility in nonpolar solvents.
Monomers are glycerol and fatty acids.

Simple Lipids

Neutral Lipids

Esters of the trihydroxy alcohol, glycerol, and long-chain fatty

acids.
Most abundant of the neutral fats are triglycerides.

Fats and Oil

Fats are a solid triglyceride that is commonly derived from an

animal source. Oils are also triglyceride that is liquid at room
temperature.

Waxes

Esters of fatty acids with monohydroxy alcohol having high

molecular weight.
03 Proteins
Derived from the Greek word proteios meaning of first importance.
Monomers are amino acids.

Simple Proteins
- Yield primarily amino acids upon hydrolysis.
example: Egg albumin

Conjugated Proteins

- Made up of proteins combined with other compounds.

example: Casein from milk

Derived Proteins

- Formed by the partial hydrolysis of naturally occuring proteins

example: Proteoses

Structures of Proteins
Primary
- Given by its amino acid sequence. Tertiary

Secondary
Secondary
- Specific geometric orientation of the
amino acids in space. Primary
Alpha helix and beta pleated sheet Quartenary
Tertiary
- Characteristic conformation of a protein molecule.
Globular structure
Quartenary
- Shape of entire complex molecule with two or more subunits.
 Essential Amino Acids
- Not synthesized by the body
- Indispensable for the biological needs of the body
Non-essential Amino Acids
- Produced by the body.

04 Nucleic Acid
Chain-like molecules with very large molecular masses.
Monomers are nucleotides.
Contains the blueprint of life.
note:
Deoxyribonucleic acid and Ribonucleic acid
Nitrogen-containing
bases are pyrimidines
J.D. Watson and F.H. Crick and purine.
1953
Proposed structure of DNA consists of two helical polynucleotide
chains that are connected by hydrogen bonding between pairs.

DNA
- Deoxyribonucleic Acid
- Carrier of genetic information.
- Stores the instruction for making every living thing.
Adenine, Guanine, Thymine, Cytosine
A-T and C-G