Chapter 6 Filtration Prepared by LU

Filtration is commonly the mechanical or physical operation which is used for the
separation of solids from fluids (liquids or gases) by interposing a medium through which
only the fluid can pass. The fluid that passes through is called the filtrate. Oversize solids
in the fluid are retained, but the separation is not complete; solids will be contaminated with
some fluid and filtrate will contain fine particles (depending on the pore size and filter
thickness). Filtration is also used to describe some biological processes, especially in
water treatment and sewage treatment in which undesirable constituents are removed by
absorption into a biological film grown on or in the filter medium as in slow sand filtration.
Applications
 Filtration is used to separate particles and fluid in a suspension, where the fluid can be
a liquid, a gas or a supercritical fluid. Depending on the application, either one or both
of the components may be isolated.
 Filtration, as a physical operation is very important in chemistry for the separation of
materials of different chemical composition. A solvent is chosen which dissolves one
component, while not dissolving the other. By dissolving the mixture in the chosen
solvent, one component will go into the solution and pass through the filter, while the
other will be retained. This is one of the most important techniques used by chemists to
purify compounds.
 Filtration is also important and widely used as one of the unit operations of chemical
engineering. It may be simultaneously combined with other unit operations to process
the feed stream, as in the biofilter, which is a combined filter and biological digestion
device.
 Filtration differs from sieving, where separation occurs at a single perforated layer (a
sieve). In sieving, particles that are too big to pass through the holes of the sieve are
retained (see particle size distribution). In filtration, a multilayer lattice retains those
particles that are unable to follow the tortuous channels of the filter. Oversize particles
may form a cake layer on top of the filter and may also block the filter lattice, preventing
the fluid phase from crossing the filter (blinding). Commercially, the term filter is applied
to membranes where the separation lattice is so thin that the surface becomes the main
zone of particle separation, even though these products might be described as sieves.
 Filtration differs from adsorption, where it is not the physical size of particles that
causes separation but the effects of surface charge. Some adsorption devices
containing activated charcoal and ion exchange resin are commercially called filters,
although filtration is not their principal function.
 Filtration differs from removal of magnetic contaminants from fluids with magnets
(typically lubrication oil, coolants and fuel oils), because there is no filter medium.
Commercial devices called "magnetic filters" are sold, but the name reflects their use,
not their mode of operation.

Examples of filtration include

 The coffee filter to keep the coffee separate from the grounds.
 HEPA filters in air conditioning to remove particles from air.
 Belt filters to extract precious metals in mining.
 Horizontal plate filter, also known as Sparkler filter.
 Furnaces use filtration to prevent the furnace elements from fouling with particulates.
 Pneumatic conveying systems often employ filtration to stop or slow the flow of material
that is transported, through the use of a baghouse.

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Chapter 6 Filtration Prepared by LU
 In the laboratory, a Büchner funnel is often used, with a filter paper serving as the
porous barrier.

Methods
There are many different methods of filtration; all aim to attain the separation of
substances. Separation is achieved by some form of interaction between the substance or
objects to be removed and the filter. The substance that is to pass through the filter must
be a fluid, i.e. a liquid or gas. Methods of filtration vary depending on the location of the
targeted material, i.e. whether it is dissolved in the fluid phase or suspended as a solid.
The most important factors on which the rate of filtration then depends will be:
1. The drop in pressure from the feed to the far side of the filter medium.
2. The area of the filtering surface.
3. The viscosity of the filtrate.
4. The resistance of the filter cake.
5. The resistance of the filter medium and initial layers of cake.

Filter media
Two main types of filter media are employed in any chemical laboratory— surface filter, a
solid sieve which traps the solid particles, with or without the aid of filter paper (e.g.
Büchner funnel, Belt filter, Rotary vacuum-drum filter, Cross-flow filters, Screen filter), and
a depth filter, a bed of granular material which retains the solid particles as it passes (e.g.
sand filter). The first type allows the solid particles, i.e. the residue, to be collected intact;
the second type does not permit this. However, the second type is less prone to clogging
due to the greater surface area where the particles can be trapped. Also, when the solid
particles are very fine, it is often cheaper and easier to discard the contaminated granules
than to clean the solid sieve.
Filter media can be cleaned by rinsing with solvents or detergents. Alternatively, in
engineering applications, such as swimming pool water treatment plants, they may be
cleaned by backwashing. Self-cleaning screen filters utilize point-of-suction backwashing
to clean the screen without interrupting system flow.

Achieving flow through the filter

Fluids flow through a filter due to a difference in pressure — fluid flows from the high
pressure side to the low pressure side of the filter, leaving some material behind. The
simplest method to achieve this is by gravity and can be seen in the coffeemaker example.
In the laboratory, pressure in the form of compressed air on the feed side (or vacuum on
the filtrate side) may be applied to make the filtration process faster, though this may lead
to clogging or the passage of fine particles. Alternatively, the liquid may flow through the
filter by the force exerted by a pump, a method commonly used in industry when a reduced
filtration time is important. In this case, the filter need not be mounted vertically.

Filter aid
Certain filter aids may be used to aid filtration. These are often incompressible
diatomaceous earth, or kieselguhr, which is composed primarily of silica. Also used are
wood cellulose and other inert porous solids such as the cheaper and safer perlite.
These filter aids can be used in two different ways. They can be used as a precoat before
the slurry is filtered. This will prevent gelatinous-type solids from plugging the filter medium
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and also give a clearer filtrate. They can also be added to the slurry before filtration. This
increases the porosity of the cake and reduces resistance of the cake during filtration. In a
rotary filter, the filter aid may be applied as a precoat; subsequently, thin slices of this layer
are sliced off with the cake.
The use of filter aids is usually limited to cases where the cake is discarded or where
the precipitate can be chemically separated from the filter.

Alternatives
Filtration is a more efficient method for the separation of mixtures than decantation, but is
much more time consuming. If very small amounts of solution are involved, most of the
solution may be soaked up by the filter medium.
An alternative to filtration is centrifugation — instead of filtering the mixture of solid and
liquid particles, the mixture is centrifuged to force the (usually) denser solid to the bottom,
where it often forms a firm cake. The liquid above can then be decanted. This method is
especially useful for separating solids which do not filter well, such as gelatinous or fine
particles. These solids can clog or pass through the filter, respectively

So, we can summarize:

• The main factors to be considered when selecting equipment and operating
conditions are:
1. The properties of the fluid, particularly its viscosity, density and corrosive
properties.
2. The nature of the solid—its particle size and shape, size distribution,
compressible – incompressible and packing characteristics.
3. The concentration of solids in suspension.
4. The quantity of material to be handled, and its value.
5. Whether the valuable product is the solid, the fluid, or both.
6. Whether it is necessary to wash the filtered solids.
7. Whether very slight contamination caused by contact of the suspension or
filtrate with the various components of the equipment is detrimental to the
product.
8. Whether the feed liquor may be heated.
9. Whether any form of pretreatment might be helpful.

An experiment to prove the existence of microscopic organisms involves the comparison of

water passed through unglazed porcelain and unfiltered water. When left in sealed
containers the filtered water takes longer to go foul, demonstrating that very small items
(such as bacteria) can be removed from fluids by filtration.
In the kidney, renal filtration is the filtration of blood in the glomerulus, followed by selective
reabsorbtion of many substances essential for the body to maintain homeostasis.

Types of Filtration
There are many different ways to filter matter, and below are just a few that we can use in
the separating of substances.
Vacuum Filtration
In vacuum filtration, a vacuum pump is used to rapidly draw the fluid through a filter. Hirsch
funnels and Buchner funnels, which are the same kind of funnel in two different sizes, are

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used along with filter paper. The funnels have a plate with holes in it, as we can see below,
and they are usually used when the substance to be filtered is small in volume.

Buchner funnel

Centrifugal Filtration
This kind of filtration is done by rotating the substance to be filtered at very high speed.
Due to the horizontal rotation, the more dense matter is separated from the less dense
matter.

Gravity Filtration
This is where the mixture is poured from a higher point to a lower one. It is commonly done
through simple filtration, using filter paper in a glass funnel, where the insoluble solid
particles are captured by the filter paper and the liquid goes right through by gravity’s pull.
Depending on the volume of the substance at hand, filter cones, fluted filters, or
filtering pipets can be used.

Cold Filtration
Cold filtration makes use of very low temperatures, often by using an ice bath. Some
substances, such as fatty acid particles, become suspended in the mixture as they cool
down, which then allows us to filter them out more easily.

Hot Filtration
This is often used for crystalline compounds that contain impurities. The way this filtration
is done is by melting down the crystalline compound, removing the impurities as the
substance is still in liquid form, and finally recrystallizing the now pure substance. Often, it
is recommended that the apparatus used in this filtration be heated up so that the filtered
substance doesn’t crystallize in the funnel and block the flow.

Multilayer Filtration
This can refer to multiple layers of different material, including sand, gravel, or charcoal,
where the different layers contain different particle sizes of that material. In this type of
filtration, a mixture of liquid and insoluble solid particles is poured over the layers, and the
solid particles are caught throughout, resulting in a filtered liquid.

Depending on dispersing medium filtration is divided in two parts:

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a) Gas filtration and b) Liquid filtration.
Gas filtration
It mainly includes filtration of aerosols and lyosols. Membrane filters and nucleopore filters
are based on these below mechanisms.
Mechanism of gas filtration
Diffusion deposition: The trajectories of individual small particles do not coincide with the
streamlines of the fluid because of Brownian motion. With decreasing particle size the
intensity of Brownian motion increases and, as a consequence, so does the intensity of
diffusion deposition.
Direct interception: This mechanism involves the finite size of particles. A particle is
intercepted as it approaches the collecting surface to a distance equal to its radius. A
special case of this mechanism is the so-called sieve effect, or sieve mechanism.
Inertial deposition: The presence of a body in the flowing fluid results in a curvature of the
streamlines in the neighbourhood of the body. Because of their inertia, the individual
particles do not follow the curved streamlines but are projected against the body and may
deposit there. It is obvious that the intensity of this mechanism increases with increasing
particle size and velocity of flow.
Gravitational deposition: Individual particles have a certain sedimentation velocity due to
gravity. As a consequence, the particles deviate from the streamlines of the fluid and,
owing to this deviation; the particles may touch a fibre.
Electrostatic deposition: Both the particles and the fibres in the filter may carry electric
charges. Deposition of particles on the fibres may take place because of the forces acting
between charges or induced forces.

Liquid filtration
The term solid-liquid filtration covers all processes in which a liquid containing suspended
solid is freed of some or the entire solid when the suspension is drawn through a porous
medium.
Kozeny-Carman equation
\[{{1.dv} \over {A.dt}} = {{\Delta P} \over {r\mu (l + L)}}\] (7.1)

where,
A = filter area
v = total volume of filtrate delivered
t = filtration time
ΔP = pressure drop across cake and medium
r = specific cake resistance
μ = filtrate viscosity
l = cake thickness
L = thickness of cake equivalent to medium resistance

Limitations of Kozeny-Carman equation: This equation does not take into account of the
fact that depth of the granular bed is lesser than the actual path traversed by the fluid. The
actual path is not straight throughout the bed, but it is sinuous or tortuous.

Poiseulle’s law: This Law considered that filtration is similar to the streamline flow of a
liquid under pressure through capillaries.
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\[{{1.A}\over{dv.dt}}={{\DeltaP}\over{\mu(R_M+R_C)}}\]........ (7.2)

Cake resistance
\[RM={{\alphaW}\overA}\]..................................... (7.3)

Specific cake resistance\[alpha=\alpha'\DeltaP^S\]......................(7.4)

The filter resistance is much less than the cake resistance i.e.
Rc < Rm\[{{1.A}\over{dv.dt}}={{\DeltaP}\over{\mu(\alpha'\DeltaP^SWA)}}\]........(7.5)

where,
v = Filtrate volume
A = Filter area
t = Time
ΔP = Pressure driving force
μ = Broth viscosity
W = Mass of filter cake
R = Resistance
α = Specific cake resistance
s= Compressibility factor

Filter media: The filter medium acts as a mechanical support for the filter cake and it is
responsible for the collection of solids. Minimum cake thickness of discharge for different
types of filter is presented in Table 7.1.Table 7.1 Minimum cake thickness for discharge
Filter type Minimum design thickness

Belt 3.0-5.0

Roll discharge 1.0

Standard scraper 6.5

Coil 3.0-5.0

String discharge 6.5

Horizontal belt 3.0-5.0

Horizontal table 19.0

Materials used as filter media: Different types of materials used as filter media are
presented in Table 7. 2.
Woven materials such as felts or cloths: woven material is made of wool, cotton, silk &
synthetic fibres etc. are used. Synthetic fibres have greater chemical resistance than wool
or cotton. The choice of fibre also depends on the physical state & chemical constitution of
the slurry. It includes mainly of two types.
Monofilament woven cloth (Fig.7.1): The yarns of a monofilament fabric are not only
impermeable but also fairly smooth and cylindrical. Orifice analogy and drag theory
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approaches have been the most successful in predicting the resistance of these materials
to fluid flow.
Multifilament woven cloth: The chief difficulty encountered when dealing with
multifilament media is the highly complex geometry of the fibres and yarns that make up
the cloth. Even in a fabric of apparently simple weave and construction, such as a plain-
weave, continuous filament cloth, some of the flow takes place in the highly tortuous
channels present in the yarns.
Perforated sheet metal: stainless steel plates have pores which act as channels as in
case of Meta filter.
Bed of granular solid built up on a supporting medium: examples of granular solids
are gravel, sand, asbestos, paper, pulp & kieselguhr.
Prefabricated porous solid unit: sintered glass, sintered metal, earthenware and porous
plastics are material used for fabrication.
Membrane filter media: it includes surface & depth type of cartridges.
Criteria for choice of filter medium: There are three criteria for choice of filter medium.
1. Size of particle retained by the medium.
2. The permeability of the clean medium.
3. The solid holding capacity of the medium and the resistance to fluid flow of the used
medium.
Measurement of pore size & particle retention: In some cases, the desirable component
in the slurry is the liquid, which may be required in clarified form e.g., beverage filtration;
here the choice of deep-bed elements of pre-coated candles of large solids-holding
capacity may be indicated. While, where the solids are valuable, a sieve like mechanism is
favoured, so that information about the pore size of the medium may be of more direct use
in media selection. The pore structure of the medium will determine the feasibility of a
separation. Plain and Twill weave monofilament.
The pore size of a medium particularly for filters of the edge, simple wire or monofilament
type is of use in deciding the upper limit of aperture size required by a particular process.
In filters composed of random fibres, sintered or porous elements, staple or natural fibre
cloths, the mean pore size will have less significance and use in predicting media
behaviour. In certain cases, the geometry of septum allows direct measurement of
aperture or pore size. In random situation, where complex weave pattern produce a
distribution of pore sizes, such as a bubble point test or a permeability test are used.
Table 7.2 Type of filter media, characteristics and their application

Type of filter
Characteristics Application References
media

Metal fiber Excellent durability,

media (non- corrosion & Polymer & gas Wardsworth
woven metal abrasion industry (2007)
fiber) resistance

Multilayer
Wardsworth
sintered It can be reused Gas industry
(2007)
mesh

Stainless Water proof inside Oil, chemical, food, Hunt (2001)

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steel (plain, & plastic woven pharmaceutical &

twill & Dutch cloth outside aviation industry
type)

Anthracite It has high

Water purification Hunt (2001)
filter media efficiency

Used in cement &

Filter media
Made up of fibre steel industry. Used Wardsworth
treated by
glass as filter cloth for air (2007)
graphite
filter

Activated Used in air

Little air current
carbon fabric conditioner as auto air Wardsworth
resistance, strong
(non-woven filter or carbon air (2007)
strength
type) filter

Sanitary sewage&
High biological
Biocell industrial waste Hunt (2001)
activity
processing

Used in ore dressing,

Easiness of cake
chemical & brewing
Aramide filter peeling, high
industry, equipped in Hunt (2001)
fabric stability, anti-
filter presses, vacuum
distortion
filters etc.

It has metal
Autoroll filter structure, saves
Used in air filtrate Hunt (2001)
media energy & work
stably

Laminating Used in cement

PTFE Felt type of filter company & Hunt (2001)
membrane incineration fields

Air conditioner &

electronic industry,
Air filter Pocket type of filter food industry, applied Hunt (2001)
to the pre-filtration of
coarse efficiency

Filtration is widely used in the bioprocess industry, with both batch filtration and continuous
filtration finding several applications. Continuous filtration is practised with large scale
separation of cells, such as in the production of Saccharomyces spp., usually with the
vacuum drum filter. This consists of a drum which rotates in a trough of cell suspension
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and which draws the cells onto the drum surface under constant presure conditions
(vacuum). In this manner, a cake of cells is formed on the drum surface as it exits the
trough. The filter cake is removed by a blade2 or a string for further processing or
discarding, whichever applies.
Batch filtration is also practised but for smaller scale operations, with the chamber press
being the usual choice of filter. This filter press consists of a series of chambers separated
by filter plates, clamped together in a frame. The cell suspension is fed into the chambers
under pressure and the cells are deposited as a filter cake on the filter medium as the
filtrate moves through the filter press. Batch filtration can be conducted under constant
pressure (in which case the filtration rate decreases with time), constant filtration rate (in
which case the pressure increases with time) or variable pressure and variable rate.
The efficiency of filtration for an incompressible filter cake is dependent on the filter area
(A), the specific cake resistance (rc),3 the pressure drop across the filter medium and filter
cake (ΔP), and the viscosity of the fluid (μ). The rate of dVdt can be predicted from
the Carman-Kozeny equation

When operating under conditions where pressure varies, the filter cake may compress as
the pressure is increased. Compressibility is a major problem which leads to a decrease
in voidage and a corresponding increase in the specific cake resistance, with a
concomitant increase in pressure drop and reduced filtration rate.

Despite the wide usage of filtration as a means to separate cells in the bioprocess industry,
it would be wise to largely avoid this operation for separation of prokaryotes because solids
with such small diameters tend to result in the formation of a compressible filter cake. Cells
with low mechanical strength also tend to be compressible and are probably not suitable
for separation by filtration for the same reason. In addition, filtration should also not be
considered for separation of cells with slime layers, which reduces filtration rate essentially
by blockage of the pores, unless harvesting can be carried out before the slime layer has
formed. An interesting example of this is the successful separation of
the Penicillium mycelia by filtration during penicillin production; the mycelia are simply
harvested prior to the onset of slime accumulation.

To some extent the effect of compressibility can be overcome with the use of a filter
aid. Filter aids prevent blockage of filter medium pores and improves porosity of cake but
contaminates the solid product so cannot be used in processes where the product is
associated with the cells.

For most prokaryotes, and cells which for other reasons would tend to form a compressible
cake, centrifugation remains the separation operation of choice provided that the density
difference between the microorganism and the fluid is sufficient. This is not to say that
centrifugation is only used for prokaryotes. In fact, it can be used for particles of 0.1–100
μm diameter and is particularly widely used for yeast, especially where a concentrated
yeast cream is desired.

Centrifuges are operated continuously to separate cells from liquid by means of centrifugal
force. In practice, centrifuges comprise a tubular bowl or a disc stack bowl in which the
cells are pelletised towards the botom of the bowl and the fluid is removed from the top of

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the bowl. Centrifugation also has the advantage that it can be used if aseptic separation is
required, which is not possible with separation by filtration.

The efficiency of centrifugation is dependent on the density difference between the solid
(ρs) and the liquid (ρ1), the dynamic viscosity (η), the diameter of the particle (ϕp), the
angular velocity (ω) and the radius (r).

On the other hand, separation by gravity rather than by centrifugal force (gravity
sedimentation) is only used in specialised cases as the terminal settling velocities of
microorganisms are too low to permit sufficient settling within a reasonable time. The most
obvious case is in the biological treatment of domestic waste, where the microbes form
microbial masses or flocs. Here effluent clarification (i.e. purification of the product) takes
place in gravity settlers where the higher terminal settling velocities of these microbial flocs
enable efficient settling by gravity.

Classification of filters based on the driving force:

Filters are classified according to pressure differentials:
• Those that operate with pressure above atmospheric on the upstream side of the
filter medium and
• Those that operate with atmospheric pressure on upstream and vacuum
downstream.

Constant Pressure Filtration:

Advantages:
 A huge number of experimental studies
 Since liquid flow in the cake is additive, the flow rate necessarily increases as the liquid
approaches the medium compressing the filter cake
 Simplicity of obtaining the data

Disadvantages:
 Calculations and results have to be treated with caution; there is often a lack of
consistency, especially when different personnel perform the tests
 At the start there may be experimental difficulties, such as establishing a constant
pressure over the filter cake, due to a period of medium blocking
 There is not enough time to study the initial filtration period

Constant Rate Filtration

Advantages:
 Upper and lower limits on the variation of solids pressure in the filter cake can easily be
obtained
 Industry use is widespread (apart from vacuum filters)
 Constant growth rate of the cake is induced with reports of homogeneous particle
incorporation into the growing cake surface
 The particle packing structure is expected to be independent of cake thickness so that
uniform compacts are formed

Disadvantages:
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 The applied pressure has to be continuously increased with cake thickness

 In case of investigating gas deliquoring under pressure then this test rig would need to be
modified.

A filter cake may be either compressible or incompressible. The porosity of an incompressi

ble cake remains constant during filtration; the porosity of a compressible cake decreases
during filtration. In the case of an incompressible cake—
for example, grains of sand or calcium carbonate crystals—
the fluid flow through the filter medium is laminar, and the filtration rate is proportional to th
e pressure drop and the thickness of the cake. In the case of a compressible cake, for exa
mple, the hydroxide of a metal, the relationship is more complex and is unique for each sus
pension. The compression of a filter cake increases the resistance due to fluid friction and
decreases the filtration rate. Coagulants and flocculating agents, which facilitate the aggre
gation of small particles and increase the porosity of a cake, are added to finely dispersed
suspensions in order to prevent compression.

If the cake is compressible, then its voidage will decrease progressively in the direction of
flow of the filtrate, giving rise to a corresponding increase in the local value of the specific
resistance, rz, of the filter cake. The structure of the cake is, however, complex and may
change during the course of the filtration process. If the feed suspension is flocculated, the
flocs may become deformed within the cake, and this may give rise to a change in the
effective value of the specific surface, S. In addition, the particles themselves may show a
degree of compressibility. Whenever possible, experimental measurements should be
made to determine how the specific resistance varies over the range of conditions which
will be employed in practice.

If the cake is incompressible (i.e., it does not change its volume as pressure builds up) the
pressure resistance increases proportionally to the cake thickness.

However, since most cakes are compressible the pressure across the cake typically
increases even faster than the cake build-up.

Cake filtration - the particles from the suspension, which usually has a high proportion of
solids, are deposited on the surface of a porous septum which should ideally offer only a
small resistance to flow. As the solids build up on the septum, the initial layers form the
effective filter medium, preventing the particles from embedding themselves in the filter
cloth, and ensuring that a particle-free filtrate is obtained.
Depth or Deep-bed filtration - the particles penetrate into the pores of the filter medium,
where impacts between the particles and the surface of the medium are largely
responsible for their removal and retention. This configuration is commonly used for the
removal of fine particles from very dilute suspensions, where the recovery of the particles
is not of primary importance.

Plate and frame filter press:

• This type of filter consists of plates and frames arranged alternately and supported on a
pair of rails.

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• The hollow frame is separated from the plate by the filter cloth, and the press is closed
either by means of a hand screw or hydraulically, using the minimum pressure in order
to reduce wear on the cloths.
• A chamber is therefore formed between each pair of successive plates. The frames are
usually square or circular and may be 100 mm–2.5 m across and 10 mm–75 mm thick.
• The slurry is introduced through a port in each frame and the filtrate passes through the
cloth on each side so that two cakes are formed simultaneously in each chamber, and
these join when the frame is full.
• The slurry may be fed to the press through the continuous channel formed by the holes
in the corners of the plates and frames. Auxiliary channels carry slurry from main inlet
channel into each frame. Here the solids are deposited on the cloth covered faces of
the plates.
• Liquor passes through the cloth down the grooves or corrugations in the plate faces
and out of the press.
• Two methods of washing may be employed, “simple” washing and “through” or
“thorough” washing.
• Simple washing:
• The wash liquid is fed in through the same channel as the slurry although, as its
velocity near the point of entry is high, erosion of the cake takes place.
• The channels which are thus formed gradually enlarge and uneven washing is
usually obtained.
• Simple washing may be used only when the frame is not completely full.
• Thorough washing:
• The wash liquid is introduced through a separate channel behind the filter cloth
on alternate plates, known as washing plates and flows through the whole
thickness of the cake, first in the opposite direction and then in the same
direction as the filtrate.
• The area during washing is one-half of that during filtration and, in addition, the
wash liquid has to flow through twice the thickness, so that the rate of washing
should therefore be about one-quarter of the final rate of filtration.
• The wash liquid is usually discharged through the same channel as the filtrate
though sometimes a separate outlet is provided.
• Even with thorough washing some channeling occurs and several inlets are
often provided so that the liquid is well distributed.
• If the cake is appreciably compressible, the minimum pressure should be used
during washing, and in no case should the final filtration pressure be exceeded.
• After washing, the cake may be made easier to handle by removing excess
liquid with compressed air.

Advantages of the filter press

• Because of its basic simplicity the filter press is versatile and may be used for a
wide range of materials under varying operating conditions of cake thickness and
pressure.
• Maintenance cost is low.
• It provides a large filtering area on a small floor space and few additional associated
units are needed.
• Most joints are external and leakage is easily detected.
• High pressure operation is usually possible.
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• It is equally suitable whether the cake or the liquid is the main product.
Disadvantages of the filter press
• It is intermittent in operation and continual dismantling is apt to cause high wear on
the cloths.
• Despite the improvements mentioned previously, it is fairly heavy on labour.

Uses:
Foods industry
• Vinegar
• Honey
• Water
• Fruit juice
• Soft drinks
• Edible oil
Chemicals
• Paints
• Varnish
• Polishes
• Pigments
• Lubrication oils
• Ink
Pharmaceuticals and Cosmetics
• Syrups
• Hand lotion
• Shampoo
• Soap
• Proteins
• Perfume

Vertical pressure leaf filters:

• Vertical Pressure Leaf Filters are quite similar to the Horizontal Plate Filters except
for the orientation of the filter elements which are vertical rather than horizontal.
• applied for the polishing slurries with very low solids content of 1-5% or for cake
filtration with a solids concentration of 20-25%.
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• Also suited for handling flammable, toxic and corrosive materials since they are
autoclaved and designed for hazardous environments when high pressure and safe
operation are required.
• The largest Leaf Filters in horizontal vessels have a filtration area of 300 m2 and
vertical vessels 100 m2 both designed for an operating pressure of 6 bar
There are two types of vessel configuration:
• Vertical vessels
• Horizontal vessels
Advantages of the Vertical Leaf Filter:
when compared to the Horizontal Plate Filter is when cakes depart easily from the
filtering medium. In such cases it is not necessary to incorporate means to assist discharge
since gravity will release the cake and let it drop towards the discharge opening. For such
cakes that do not discharge readily a special mechanism that vibrates the entire stack is
incorporated and this will in most instances release the cake.
Advantages
• The cloth or woven mesh screens that cover the leaves of horizontal tanks may be
accessed easily once the stack is pulled out of the vessel.
• Mechanically simple since there are no complex sealing glands or bearings.
Disadvantages
• High headroom is required for dismantling the leaves on vertical vessels.
• Large floor space is required for discharging the cake on horizontal vessels.
• The emptying of the vessel in between cake filtration, washing and drying requires
close monitoring of the pressure inside the vessel to ensure that the cake holds on
to the candles.

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Vacuum Filtration:
Advantages
• Continuous operation
• Intensive soluble recovery or removal of contaminants from the cake by counter-
current washing (specially on Horizontal Belt, Tilting Pan and Table Filters)
• Producing relatively clean filtrates by using a sedimentation basin (on Horizontal
Belt, Tilting Pan and Table Filters)
• Convenient access to the cake for sampling or operator's activities
• Easy control of operating parameters such as cake thickness or wash ratios
• Wide variety of materials of construction
Disadvantages
• Higher residual moisture in the cake
• Untight construction so it is difficult to contain gases
• Difficult to clean (mainly as required for food grade applications)
• High power consumption by the vacuum pump

Comparison between Pressure filtration and vacuum filtration:

Pressure Filtration Vacuum Filtration
• Maintenance is low • Maintenance is high.
• Suitable for both cake and filtrate. • Suitable only for cakes
• Intermittent in operation • Continuous operation
• Requires heavy labor • Minimum labor
• Filtration of hot liquid done • Filtration of hot liquids cannot be
• Thorough washing done done
• Continuous dismantling causes high • Good washing not easily obtained.
wear • No necessity of dismantling

Rotary Drum filter:

Selection Criteria:
• Slurries with solids that do not tend to settle rapidly and will remain in a uniform
suspension under gentle agitation.
• Cakes when a single washing stage is sufficient to remove residual contaminants
from the cake or yield maximum recovery of filtrate.
• Cakes which do not require long drying times.
• Filtrates that generally do not require a sharp separation between the mother and
wash filtrates.
• Filtrates that are acceptable with a low quantity of fines that pass trough the filter
cloth in the first few seconds of cake formation. Broadly, and depending on particle
size and cloth permeability, the filtrate may contain 1000 to 5000 ppm insolubles.
• For very corrosive applications plastic drum filters are available with up to 10-15 m2
filtration area.
Discharge Mode:
• Scraper Knife
• String Discharge
• Belt Discharge
• Doctor Roll

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It consists of a hollow horizontal metal drum that is 1 to 20 ft long. The drum rotates at a
speed of less than one rpm. The face of the drum is divided into circumferential sectors
each forming a separate vacuum cell. The internal piping is used to attach each sector to
the center of the drum through a rotating valve. The valve has certain filter adjustable
blocks. A valve with a bridge setting controls the sequence of the cycle so that each sector
is subjected to vacuum, blow, and a dead zone. This helps in discharging of cake. The
slurry is placed into the tank. The agitator is used to maintain the uniformity of the slurry.
Filter cloth is attached to the face of the drum by inserting special caulking ropes into the
grooved strips. The cloth ends are attached to clippers. The filter cloth is used to retain the
cake. The multifilament strings are threaded across the entire cloth width. Sprays are
attached to wash the cake.

The working of rotary drum filter is divided into various zones such as pick-up zone,
drainage zone, washing zone, drying zone, and cake removal zone. The drum is immersed
to the required depth in the slurry, which is agitated with help of an agitator to prevent
settling of the solids. A drum rotates, vacuum is applied to those sectors of the drum which
is submerged. A cake of the desired thickness is produced by adjusting the speed of
rotation of the drum. The filtrate is passed out to the receiver. The drum leaves the
drainage zone and enters into the water wash zone. The cake is then washed with sprays.
The cake is partially dried through a current of air and the cake enters into the drying zone.
Finally, pressure is applied under the cloth to aid the removal of the cake. The washed and
partially dried cake is removed using a doctor’s knife. The cake is also discharged by string
discharge and belt discharge filters. In the string discharge filter, numbers of endless
strings are placed over the width of the drum. String discharge filters are used when the
cake is sticky. The wear of filter cloth is less in this case. In belt discharge filters short
endless belts are used. Higher filtration rates may be achieved using belt discharge. All
these steps are completed in one cycle of a drum. Then drum again receive a fresh lot of

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slurry. When the solids of the slurry are too much that the filter cloth becomes blocked with
the particles, a pre-coat filter may be used.

Advantages of Rotary Drum Filter

1. The rotary filter is continuous in operation
2. This filter is suitable for filter slurries containing a high proportion of solids.
3. Labor costs are very low due to automatic operation.
4. A rotary filter is suitable for filtration of highly concentrated solutions or thick slurries
containing 15 30% of solids.
5. Variation of the speed of rotation enables the cake thickness to be controlled.
6. Very high capacity.

Disadvantages of Rotary Drum Filter

1. Complex design with many moving parts.
2. Very expensive because a lot of accessories are connected such as vacuum
pumps, vacuum receivers. slurry pumps and agitators.
3. The cake tends to crack under vacuum, so washing and drying are not efficient. 4.
As a vacuum is applied, it is unsuitable for liquids near boiling point.
4. Gelatinous or slimy precipitates forming impenetrable cake will not separate cleanly
from cloth

Uses of Rotary Drum Filter

1. A rotary filter is used for the separation of the mycelium from the fermentation liquor
in the manufacture of antibiotics.
2. It is suitable for slurry containing considerable amounts of solids in the range of 15-
30%.
3. These are used for the collection of calcium carbonate, magnesium carbonate, and
starch.

Filtration in Centrifuge:
• Solids that form a porous cake can be separated from liquids in a filtering centrifuge.
• Slurry is fed to a rotating basket having slotted or perforated wall covered with filter
medium such as canvas or metal cloth.
• Pressure resulting from centrifugal action forces the liquor through the filter medium,
leaving the solids behind.
• If the feed to the basket is shut off and the cake is spun for short time, the output is
much drier cake.
Types:
• Basket – Batch
• Pusher – Continuous

There are two groups of centrifuges for liquid-solid separation: filtering centrifuges and
sedimenting centrifuges. Purchas (1981) has given full account of the designs and
applications of each type. The major difference between the two is that the former utilizes a
perforated bowl through which the fluid (centrate) can pass while the solids are retained
inside the bowl. The latter is equipped with a solid (impermeable) bowl, and separation of
the fluid is done by forcing it to overflow from the bowl while the solids are retained on its
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walls. The method of transport of solids and the control of liquid flows can vary widely in
both types of centrifuge, and these factors are the ones generally used to subclassify the
different machines.

Sedimenting centrifuges
Sedimenting centrifuges remove solids from liquids by causing the particles to migrate
radially towards the walls of the centrifuge bowl. The basic types of centrifuges in this
category are: a) the high speed, tubular bowl type with manual discharge of solids; b) the
skimmer pipe/knife discharge types; c) the disc-type centrifuge; and d) the continuous
scroll discharge machines.
A) The tubular Bowl centrifuge generally has a bowl with a diameter of between 15 and 50
cm which rotates at high-speed to generate a settling acceleration of up to about 18,000 g
(where g is the acceleration due to gravity) for industrial models and 65,000 g for
laboratory models. (This compares to accelerations of <1,000 g for cylindrical solid bowl
machines.) The feed slurry jets into the bottom of the bowl through the bowl neck, and a
distributor disperses the feed to prevent travel too far along the bowl length. The centrate
discharges from the top of the bowl by overflowing into a collecting cover.
B) Some designs use a skimmer pipe and knife to discharge the solids. Bowl diameters
can be up to about 1.5 m for larger industrial units, and rotate about the vertical axis to
generate up to 1,600 g. The feed enters at the bottom of the bowl and discharges over a lip
ring at the top. The solids sediment to the walls of the bowl, where they are allowed to
accumulate until the centrate clarity is adversely affected, then the feed is stopped and the
solids discharged. When the feed is stopped, the skimmer pipe engages the layer of liquid
above the solids and the rotational energy in the liquid causes it to flow up the skimmer
pipe and be discharged. The skimmer is lowered into the rotating liquid; but before it
contacts the solids layer, the discharging stream is diverted and those solids which are
sufficiently fluid are then discharged. If the solids are compacted and will not flow, a knife is
used to discharge the solids after the skimmer pipe has been retracted and the bowl
slowed to an idling speed of 1 to 2 Hz. After solids discharge the knife is retracted, the
bowl accelerated, and the cycle repeated. The cycle is usually fully automated.
C) The disc type centrifuge thickens the suspension to form a thick slurry by generating an
acceleration of up to about 12,000 g. The bowl contains between 50 and 150 conical discs,
spaced approximately 2 mm apart. The suspension flows towards the axis of the machine
through the spaces between the discs; solids settle to the underside of each disc, slide
along the disc in the outward direction and from the edge of the disc, are thrown to the wall
of the bowl by the centrifugal field. The clarified liquid passes to the center of the bowl and
discharges over a weir at the top or bottom. The solids (thickened slurry) are usually
discharged through ports at the periphery of the bowl, which open at a timed cycle
(opening bowl centrifuge), or continuously through nozzles (nozzle discharge centrifuge)
D) The continuous scroll discharge (or decanter) centrifuge provides a settling acceleration
of up to 4,000 g. Bowl diameters are generally in the range of 10 to 100 cm and are
cylindrical with a conical end (a few designs have wholly conical bowls). The feed is
introduced through a concentric pipe to an appropriate point along the bowl; the centrifugal
force causes the solids to sediment to the wall to leave a clear liquid in the bowl. Inside the
bowl, a helical screw conveyor rotates at a speed of up to 2 Hz slower than the bowl and
scrolls the sedimented solids to one end of the bowl, up the beach (the conical section),
out of the pond (the liquid) and discharges them from the bowl at the end of the conical

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section. The clarified liquid spills over a weir at the opposite end of the bowl (although in
some designs the liquid flows cocurrently with the solids).

They are of two types of basket centrifuge:

1) Top Driven Centrifuge / Bottom Discharge
2) Bottom Driven Centrifuge / Top Discharge

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