Sustainable Energy Science and Engineering Center

Photovoltaics: Direct Conversion of

Solar Radiation to Electricity
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Photovoltaic Terminology

026587152
Source: Dr. Thomas Surek, NREL
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Photovoltaic Systems Engineering

Photovoltaic System Components:
Photovoltaic generator: Photovoltaic modules which are
interconnected to form a DC power producing unit, usually called
an array.
Power conditioning and control: Various electronic devices used to
accommodate the variable nature of power output from the PV
generator; e.g. to convert the DC power into AC output
Storage system: Stand-alone PV systems make provision for energy
storage; e.g. battery storage

Sources: Solar Electricity, Edited by Tomas Markvart, Wiley, 2000

Photovoltaic Systems Engineering, Roger Messenger & Jerry Ventre, CRC, 2000
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PV Module
The solar cell is the basic building block of solar photovoltaics. When charged by the
sun, this basic unit generates a dc photovoltage of 0.5 to 1.0V and, in short circuit, a
photocurrent of some tens of mA/cm2. Since the voltage is too small for most
applications, to produce a useful voltage, the cells are connected in series into
modules, typically containing about 28 to 36 cells in series to generate a dc output of
12 V. To avoid the complete loss of power when one of the cells in the series fails, a
blocking diode is integrated into the module. Modules within arrays are similarly
protected to form a photovoltaic generator that is designed to generate power at a
certain current and a voltage which is a multiple of 12 V.
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Photovoltaic Module
Typical 10 cm x 10 cm cell power: 1 - 1.5 W (under standard
conditions)
Supply voltage of a single cell: 0.5 - 0.6 V
Standard conditions:
Irradiance 1000 W/m2
Spectral distribution AM1.5
Cell temperature 25oC
Module voltage is based on a number of cells ( typically 32 - 34)
connected in a series (usually matched to the nominal voltage of
the storage system)
Typical module power: 40 - 60 W
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Module I-V Characteristics

Voltage variation is
much less than the
current drop
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Effect of Temperature and Irradiance

dVoc
=
2.3  n c .....mV /o C Where nc is number of cells
dT
dIsc
= 6  n c ....μA/o C
dT

Isc (G) = ( Isc ) at1kW / m 2
G G is in kW/m2

Vm = 0.8Voc Vm is the voltage at the MPP

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Normal Operating Cell Temperature (NOCT)

It is the cell temperature when the module operates under the

following conditions at open circuit:

Irradiance 800 W/m2

Spectral distribution AM1.5
Cell temperature 20oC
Wind speed >1 m/s

Usually between 42 - 46oC

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Solar Cell Temperature

(during module operation)

NOCT
20
TC
Ta = G
0.8

Where G is given in kW/m2 , Tc and Ta are cell and ambient

temperature respectively.
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Battery Operation

Module - 12V Battery operation:

Output power P
P = Isc(G)Vbat=GPeff
Peff= VbatIsc
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Module operation with MPP tracker

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Module Parameter Determination

Example:
A module is formed by 34 solar cells in a series. The operating conditions are: G
= 700 W/m2 and Ta = 34oC. The specifications under standard conditions
are; Isc=3A; Voc=20.4V; Pmax=45.9W, NOCT = 43oC.
1. Short circuit current
Isc= (Isc)1kW/m2 G = 3 x 0.7 = 2.1 A
2. Solar cell temperature
TC = Ta + ((NOCT -20)/0.8) G = 34 + ((43-20)/0.8) 0.7 = 54.12oC
3. Open-circuit voltage
(Voc)at 54.12 = Voc-2.3 nc (Tc -Ta) = 20.4 - (2.3x34x(54.12-25))=18.1V
4. Maximum power
Pmax=FF x Vocx Isc = 2.1x18.1x0.75 = 28.5 W (62% of the nominal rating)
FF = 45.9/(20.4x3)= 0.75
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Module Interconnection

Ns : number of modules = 2
Np : number of parallel strings = 3
Ns determines DC bus voltage
Np determines the required current

Hot-spot formation
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Isolation Diode

Blocking or isolation diode:

They are placed to prevent current from
flowing backwards through the module.
Also prevent discharge of batteries
during night.
Bypass diode:
When a string of cells in series contains
one bad cell or one cell shaded from the
sun, an open circuit can exist in which
there is no current flow. Bypass diode is
used to shunt current around rather than
through a group of cells or modules
whenever necessary.
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Module Specifications
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Power Conditioning and Control

Charge regulator:
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Power Conditioning and Control

Switching DC/DC Converters:

Reduces the voltage

D: duty ratio

Increases the voltage

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Power Conditioning and Control

DC/DC Converter: MPP tracker

VR = Pmax R
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Power Conditioning and Control

Inverters from DC to AC:

The power conditioning and control equipment makes it possible to convert the
generated DC power to AC, protect the battery against the overcharge or discharge
and optimize the energy transfer between the PV generator and the load.
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Sizing
Sizing the photovoltaic systems:
1. Obtain the site radiation data
2. Obtain the data for typical loads
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The System Energy Balance

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The System Energy Balance

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Photovoltaic Systems Engineering

1. Input to the sizing procedure:
a) Determination of the energy input - the incident solar radiation on the
panel for a typical day in every month of the year.
b) Determination of the load demand - the load profile should be
determined by estimating the times when various appliances will be
needed.

2. Number of series-connected modules

a) The DC operating voltage of the system VDC must be specified.
b) The number of modules Ns is determined from
VDC
Ns =
Vm

where Vm is the operating voltage of one module

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Photovoltaic Systems Engineering

3. The number of parallel strings, Np
This number is directly related to the current requirement of the load.
a) The equivalent load current is calculated from the following
equation,
EL
IL =
24VDC

where EL (Wh/day) is the typical power requirement of the day.

b) Nominal current IPV is defined by the AM1.5 radiation at 1kW/m2.

E L = IPV VDC ( PSH )

where PSH is peak solar hours, equal to the number of hours of the
standard irradiance (1kW/m2) which would produce the same
irradiation.
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Photovoltaic Systems Engineering

The average load current multiplied by the number of hours in a day =
the nominal current of the PV generator multiplied by the number of peak
solar hours
24IL
IPV =
PSH
The nominal current is equal to the short-circuit current, Isc

c) The number of modules connected in parallel is then given by

IPV
N p = SF
ISC
where SF is the sizing factor
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Photovoltaic Systems Engineering

4. Sizing of the storage subsystem
a) The daily and seasonal charge deficits
calculation
The winter energy deficit,
E is given by

E
Qyd =
VDC

where Qyd is the charge deficit in ampere-hours.

This energy deficit depends on the choice
of the array sizing factor SF
b) A further climatic charge deficit is also added
to allow for a number of days of operation
without energy input (lack of sunshine)
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Photovoltaic Systems Engineering

Sizing of stand-alone photovoltaic system:
Point-sizing approach method: It is designed to meet the load under
worst case isolation conditions, usually in the winter months for the
northern hemisphere.

Reference: Photovoltaic System Design Course manual by Florida Solar

Energy Center, Cape Canaveral, Florida
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Typical PV Array Characteristics

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Grid-connected Photovoltaic Systems

Energy storage is not necessary in this case
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PV Industrialization
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Large Scale PV Projects

SAN FRANCISCO SOLAR POWER, USA
In 2001, two proposals to install renewable energy
systems in San Francisco were ratified. Construction of a
50MW solar power facility is due to begin in Spring 2003.
This will come from 140-250 photovoltaic acres of panels
on commercial, residential and government rooftops.
Another 10-12MW of solar power will come from an
agreement linked to 30MW of wind power and costing
$100 million. This involves photovoltaic panels being
fixed to city facilities and buildings. Together, these two
propositions will provide electricity for 60,000 homes in
San Francisco.

The plant will be six times larger than the world's largest
solar facility, Sacramento Municipal Utility District, and
will feed power directly into the network.

The plan will cut greenhouse emissions from the area by

around 1%, and provide 10% of the city's electricity in
the daytime, and 5% at night (peak load). The 'peaker'
plant will be designed, built, operated, maintained and
transferred by Local Power through an agreement with
California Power Authority.
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Cost of PV generated Energy

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Photovoltaic Systems Engineering

Cost effectiveness

Source: Solar Electric Power Association

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PV Technology Options

Crystalline silicon

Flat plates
Thin films

New technologies

Silicon
Concentrators

Multijunctions
(III-Vs)
Source: Dr. Thomas Surek, NREL
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PV Module Production in 2004

by Technology Type *

Technology Type MW %
Flat plates – Single crystal silicon 403.5 33.8
Cast polycrystalline silicon 669.1 56.0 >93%
Ribbon silicon 41.0 3.4

Thin film amorphous silicon 64.6 5.4

Thin film cadmium telluride 13.0 1.1

Thin film CIGS 3.0 0.3
Concentrators – Silicon 0.5 <0.05

TOTALS 1194.7 100

* Source: PV News, March 2005

Source: Dr. Thomas Surek, NREL
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Solar Powered House

Source: Dr. Thomas Surek, NREL

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District Solar Power

Source: Dr. Thomas Surek, NREL

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Are there enough materials for

energy-significant PV production?
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PV Manufacturing R&D Cost/Capacity
(DOE/U.S. Industry Partnership)

Actual Projected