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Research on Regenerative Braking Systems: A Review

Article  in  International Journal of Science and Research (IJSR) · September 2020

DOI: 10.21275/SR20902143703

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 International Journal of Science and Research (IJSR)
ISSN: 2319-7064
ResearchGate Impact Factor (2018): 0.28 | SJIF (2019): 7.583

Research on Regenerative Braking Systems: A

Review
Bekir GÜNEY1, Halil KILIÇ2
1
Karamanoglu Mehmetbey University, Vocational School of Technical Sciences, Karaman, 70200, Turkey, [email protected]
2
Kırklareli University, Vocational School of Technical Sciences, Kırklareli, 39200, Turkey, [email protected]

Abstract: Regenerative braking systems (RBS) are an effective method of recovering the energy released and at the same time
reducing the exhaust and brake emissions of vehicles. This method is based on the principle of converting the kinetic energy created by
the mechanical energy of the motor into electrical energy. The converted electrical energy is stored in the battery for later use. This
braking system must meet maximum energy recovery criteria by performing its function safely within the shortest braking distance.
This study was conducted to provide comprehensive information about regenerative energy systems. These systems provide economic
benefits via fuel savings and prevention of material loss. Their use also contributes to a clean environment and renewable energy
sources, which are among the most important issues on the global agenda. It is clear that more comprehensive studies should be
carried out in this area.

Keywords: Regenerative brake, Energy, Vehicle, Emission, Fuel saving, Clean air

1. Introduction because of its advantages of simple structure, low cost, high

reliability, high power generation, and high efficiency at a
Due to the rapid increase in the world population, the wide range of speeds [7, 8]. Meanwhile, the traction system
number of vehicles is also rising. Serious threats to the with SRM can recover more energy during regenerative
environment and human health brought about by vehicle- braking conditions. However, SRMs have the disadvantage
related emissions include air pollution, global warming, and of high torque fluctuations [9] that directly affect the braking
the rapid depletion of petrol resources. These problems force comfort and stability of the vehicle.
countries to take measures to ensure clean air, energy
savings, and novel energy applications. In addition, the Another major disadvantage of purely EVs is the use of
resulting worldwide energy crisis compels nations to turn to batteries as the only energy source, which causes problems
alternative energy sources and to retain maximum energy because of long charging time, low specific power, and the
from existing resources. Regenerative braking systems are inability to meet the short-term power requirements of the
among these important energy saving applications. vehicles. Therefore, the acceleration, climbing, braking
performance, and energy recovery efficiency of the motor
Electric vehicle systems constitute one area to which RBS are seriously affected and the power requirements of the
can be widely applied. These vehicles have become highly vehicle on the motor cannot be fully met [2-3]. However, the
popular in recent years due to their significant fuel economy advantage of the EV is that as the energy storage system, the
and minimum vehicle emissions. In order to both drive the battery has high energy density and a very large storage
vehicle and recover significant amounts of braking energy, capacity [10]. Moreover, advanced battery technology offers
electric vehicles (EVs), hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs), and a longer service life for batteries [11]. In this way, EVs use
fuel cell hybrid electric vehicles (FCHEVs) have one the RBS to increase energy efficiency by recovering some of
additional electric motor. In EVs, HEVs, and FCHEVs, this the braking energy. However, under different braking
is one of the most important units for saving fuel and energy. conditions, the feedback current produced by the generator is
Although this unit has the same characteristics as in substantially high [12]. High levels of charging current can
conventional vehicles, it enables the storage of the vehicle’s shorten the cycle life of the battery [13, 14]. However, the
energy during driving and braking. This braking energy energy recovery rate of the energy storage system may not
stored in the system can be reused [1]. reach the desired level due to the limitation caused by the
characteristics of the motor and battery [15]. The high cost
For this reason, EVs, HEVs, and FCHEVs are of great of batteries and the limitations of their use in heavy vehicles
interest as alternatives to conventional internal combustion are also disadvantages of these new-generation vehicles[16].
engine (ICE) vehicles [2]. This may result from the
increased awareness of global warming and rising fuel costs. The abovementioned restrictions can be overcome by using
Therefore, these vehicles are in high demand due to the ultracapacitors, flywheels, electrochemical batteries, and
alarming increase in air pollution and petrol prices [3]. similar energy sources in addition to the battery [3].
These vehicles have the advantages of low emission, low Regenerative braking was developed to overcome this
noise, and high energy efficiency, all of which have become problem as a process in which some of the kinetic energy
the focus of research in the automotive industry [4-6]. generated during deceleration in vehicles is stored in the
Currently, the switched reluctance motor (SRM) is battery and ultracapacitor [17]. However, the RBS may not
considered one of the best options for operating EVs always work when the vehicle is forced to apply the brakes

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Licensed Under Creative Commons Attribution CC BY
Paper ID: SR20902143703 DOI: 10.21275/SR20902143703 160
 International Journal of Science and Research (IJSR)
ISSN: 2319-7064
ResearchGate Impact Factor (2018): 0.28 | SJIF (2019): 7.583
on a stable road, as seen with vehicle speed-bumps and slowing down of a vehicle having a conventional brake
potholes in the road [18]. system requires the kinetic and potential energy of the
vehicle to be converted into thermal energy or heat as a
In addition, although the energy density of the hydraulic result of the frictional effect. Studies have shown that
energy storage system is substantially low, it has the approximately one-third of the energy produced by a vehicle
characteristics of a high-power density device (hydraulic during urban driving is consumed by braking [21, 30]. In
accumulator) [19], and thus has the potential to overcome HEVs, kinetic energy generated by regenerative braking can
the shortcomings of an electrical energy storage system. The be converted into electrical energy that can be stored in
hydraulic system is used to absorb the high-power braking batteries to propel the vehicle during the driving cycle [30].
energy and release the stored energy during starting or Regenerative braking has the potential to conserve energy by
acceleration. This has the potential to increase energy boosting fuel economy, while reducing emissions that cause
efficiency and reduce over current and consequently, to air pollution [15]. There are two versions [32] of
extend the driving range of the vehicle and prolong the cycle regenerative braking. The first type is the series regenerative
life of the battery. The hydraulic energy storage system is braking based on a combination of a friction-based
used to improve fuel economy in conventional ICE vehicles. adjustable braking system and a regenerative braking system
The hydraulic system can recover about 80% of the braking that transfers energy to electric motors and batteries under an
kinetic energy and deliver it to the wheels. This hydraulic integrated control strategy. The second type is a friction-
hybrid system has been reported to reduce fuel consumption based parallel braking system in which the regenerative
by 45% during urban use [20]. The energy efficiency of a braking system is operated sequentially without an integrated
vehicle can generally be improved in three ways: control [33]. The parallel RBS has the advantage of a simple
1) By operating each component at optimum efficiency. structure and can be used without modification in existing
2) By reducing tire rolling resistance and curbing friction braking systems. However, the amount of energy
aerodynamic and transmission losses. recovered by the RBS is small and the vehicle range may be
3) By recovering the kinetic and potential energies adversely affected. On the other hand, the implementation of
commonly generated in the form of heat in the brakes. a series RBS is more complex than with the parallel RBS,
but the energy recovered is higher and the drive ability of the
Operating each component with optimum efficiency can be vehicle can be maintained [15]. Regenerative braking is
accomplished by correctly selecting the component type, observed only when the battery is fully charged and needs to
component size, configuration, and control strategy. Thus, be performed by releasing energy, and therefore, EVs
the components can function in a coordinated and require mechanical brakes. Electric vehicles use mechanical
harmonious manner under all operating conditions. Ever brakes to increase the roughness of the wheel for
since the invention of the automobile, the goal of automobile deceleration. Easily controlled motors can be regenerated. In
engineers has been to reduce tire-rolling resistance and curb two-wheel EVs, mechanical brakes are often used to stop or
aerodynamic and transmission losses, and great efforts on slow the vehicle; kinetic energy stored in vehicles is lost
behalf of these issues are still being made today. Moreover, during braking [34]. The kinetic energy lost during braking
recovery of vehicle kinetic and potential energies has been can be converted back into electrical energy and stored in
recognized as one of the most effective approaches to the battery or ultracapacitor. If this energy is properly
increase vehicle energy efficiency and boost stop-and-go managed, it can be carefully controlled without causing any
vehicle efficiency. For example, a 1500-kg vehicle traveling problems for the motor, driver, or battery [18].
at 70 km.h-1 will store approximately ½ × 1500 × 202 =
300,000 J = 300 kJ of kinetic energy. If the kinetic energy of In EVs, the driving range is increased by combining
this vehicle at 70 km / h can be fully recovered and mechanical braking and regenerative braking systems. In
transformed, this recovered energy has the potential to drive recent years, many studies have been carried out on
the vehicle forward for a distance of approximately 1.8 km. improving the braking system performance of EVs,
However, because of various friction mechanisms, this including the topics of EV energy management [35],
distance in reality is shorter, and not all the kinetic and emergency brake control strategies [36] and anti-lock
potential energy of the vehicle can be recovered and braking systems (ABS) [37], mechanical and maximum
recycled. In EVs and HEVs, only the driven axle is effective regenerative braking force [38], braking reliability [39],
for regenerative braking. In the braking system, some of the increasing regeneration efficiency [40], improving driving
braking energy is dissipated as heat via the friction of the distance [2], and vehicle lateral stability problems caused by
non-driven axle. Moreover, losses occur in vehicles that use the transition from regenerative braking to hybrid braking
energy recovery and conversion. One major problem is that [41]. These studies mainly focused on maximum
because a part of the braking energy is absorbed when the regenerative braking force, maximum energy generation, and
braking power requirement exceeds the capacity of the RBS, braking stability. In addition, intensive studies are currently
the amount of energy recovered by the friction braking being carried out on the subjects of the switched reluctance
system is reduced. Therefore, when designing an RBS, a generator (SRG) drive system control [22], efficient
correlation must be established between the amount of recovery of mechanical energy [42], power draw
regenerative braking energy and the structure, development improvement [25], ripple reduction [7, 43, 44], and limiting
time, cost, and braking reliability of the system [21]. of battery current fluctuation [45].

Brake systems are expected to control the speed of a vehicle The biggest obstacle to energy recovery in EVs is the short
under all road conditions and to stop it safely [22-29]. The driving range. The RBS includes an electric motor that
Volume 9 Issue 9, September 2020
www.ijsr.net
Licensed Under Creative Commons Attribution CC BY
Paper ID: SR20902143703 DOI: 10.21275/SR20902143703 161
 International Journal of Science and Research (IJSR)
ISSN: 2319-7064
ResearchGate Impact Factor (2018): 0.28 | SJIF (2019): 7.583
applies negative torque to the driven wheels and converts the example, conventional friction brakes are used in some
kinetic energy into electrical energy to charge the battery. vehicles. In these systems, continuous braking is applied,
The kinetic energy released during braking in EVs can which produces the friction necessary to slow the vehicle by
advantageously be recovered by the electric motor equipped stopping the wheels. In conventional brake systems, a
with a control unit acting as a generator. The recovered significant amount of energy is lost due to the heating of the
energy is stored in the battery for later use [31, 46]. brake pads. Another brake system is the anti-lock brake
system. In this system, braking is not applied continuously,
The three main RBS control strategies for EVs include: but an intermittent braking procedure is used, which slows
maximum regenerative power control, maximum down or stops the vehicle when necessary. This system is
regenerative efficiency control, and constant regeneration more efficient than the traditional brake system and provides
current control. Regarding the power of the battery, it is superior performance. Regarding our study, it is also
necessary to limit the maximum charging current to within possible to see the RBS system widely in use. The RBS
the range of 0.1 C (C is the capacity of the battery) to includes an electric motor. This electric motor is used as a
prevent excess regenerative current from damaging the driver. When the brake pedal is pressed in an EV, the
battery. An EV requires long periods of braking when mechanism tends to move the motor in the opposite
running on long gradients. However, the above two control direction, thereby slowing the vehicle by generating a torque
strategies can damage the battery even if it achieves higher in the opposite direction. During braking, the motor works as
regenerative efficiency [47, 48]. For this reason, a a generator that re-energizes the battery and at the same time
cooperative regenerative braking control strategy is slows down the vehicle. Another circuit can also be used to
recommended to increase the recovery of braking energy direct the motor current generated during braking of the
while improving the lateral stability of the vehicle [49]. vehicle. Such systems also charge the battery and aid in
braking. However, regenerative braking systems cannot be
Braking is a process that prevents the movement of a used alone because they have only a slow down feature and
mechanical or electrical device. Generally, it is necessary to cannot stop the vehicle completely. Therefore, such systems
brake a vehicle quickly and smoothly according to a certain are used in conjunction with conventional friction brakes or
speed program. The braking torque can be applied by using ABS [50].
an electrical system, a mechanical system, or a combination
of both. The speed and accuracy of the stopping operations In regenerative braking systems, by integrating the electric
increase the efficiency and reliability of a system. When motor on the front and rear wheels, many advantages can be
starting electric drives, it is necessary to stop the engine gained from the system compared to conventional vehicles.
quickly. A retarding torque can be applied either First, the additional torque coupling mechanism can be
mechanically or electrically. In the mechanical operation, the eliminated. Second, when the torque needed is relatively
braking motion is performed by the friction force between large, four-wheel drive can be executed. Finally, during the
the rotating parts and the brake pads. On the other hand, in deceleration process, the electric motor can be used as a
electric braking, a braking torque is developed that generator by applying regenerative braking [51], and thus
corresponds to the movement of the rotating element during providing fuel economy with the energy recovery from the
the braking process. Electrical methods are more precise regenerative braking [52]. This electrical energy can then be
than mechanical methods, making accurate and timely stored in energy storage systems (e.g., batteries or
control of the stopping possible. The braking torque is also ultracapacitors) and left as driving means for the electric
required for parts of the duty cycle and for emergency motors when required. The regenerative and mechanical
braking in some applications such as winches. Reversing and braking systems must be fully integrated to enable
speed control of the drives can also be performed by electric regenerative braking to operate reliably and effectively. In
braking. In the event of electrical braking, the kinetic energy order to meet the demand of the driver, this integration
of the rotating parts is converted into electrical energy. requires smooth and accurate control of the combined
regenerative and mechanical braking [53]. Therefore, a
Braking in AC systems harmonious operation between the hydraulic brake system
The braking methods used in an asynchronous (AC) motor and the regenerative brake system is an important element in
drive can be classified as follows: the design of HEV brake control strategy [54].
a) Regenerative braking,
b) Plugging or reverse current braking, 2. Working Principle of Regenerative Braking
c) Dynamic or DC rheostatic braking. System
Braking in DC systems Regenerative braking is a braking method that provides
Braking in direct current (DC) systems is again divided into
charge to the battery by converting the mechanical energy of
three categories:
the motor and kinetic energy into electrical energy. In
a) Regenerative braking,
regenerative braking mode, the car's engine slows down on
b) Dynamic or rheostatic braking,
an incline. When force is applied to the brake pedal, the
c) Plugging or reverse current braking.
vehicle slows down and the motor runs in the opposite
direction. When operating in the opposite direction, the
Braking in Electric Vehicles engine acts as a generator and converts torque energy into
Brake systems used in electric vehicles can be of different
electrical energy. In this way, fuel consumption and
types. Different types of systems can be used in EVs. For
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www.ijsr.net
Licensed Under Creative Commons Attribution CC BY
Paper ID: SR20902143703 DOI: 10.21275/SR20902143703 162
 International Journal of Science and Research (IJSR)
ISSN: 2319-7064
ResearchGate Impact Factor (2018): 0.28 | SJIF (2019): 7.583
emissions are reduced. In high-speed vehicles, the braking During parallel regenerative braking, both the electric motor
force is lower, and therefore does not adversely affect the and the mechanical braking system always work together in
traffic flow [55]. parallel to slow down the vehicle [56]. Energy regeneration
during braking is important for a parallel HEV because it
The new electric-hydraulic powertrain is a parallel hybrid enables the vehicle to improve fuel economy and extend its
system that includes a traction motor, battery pack, hydraulic driving range. To increase energy use during braking, the
pump / motor (secondary component), hydraulic electric motor applies a negative torque to the wheels to
accumulator, reservoir, and a set of hydraulic valves. The convert some of the vehicle's kinetic energy into electrical
hydraulic circuit includes the drive circuit and the drain energy to recharge the battery [57, 58].
circuit. The drive circuit consists of a cartridge valve, a one-
way valve, and a two-position four-way valve. When the Since the mechanical braking process cannot be controlled
vehicle is braking, the valve is shifted to the left; this directs independently of the brake pedal force, some of the kinetic
the oil from the reservoir to flow towards the accumulator energy of the vehicle is converted into heat, not electrical
using the secondary component pump / motor. The energy. The regenerative braking force developed by the
secondary component operates in pump mode, using the electric motor is a function of the hydraulic pressure of the
kinetic energy of the vehicle to pressurize the oil in the master cylinder and therefore a function of vehicle
reservoir to flow into the accumulator. The energy is stored deceleration. Since the available regenerative braking force
in the accumulator and the vehicle slows down. The is a function of the motor speed and almost no kinetic energy
hydraulic system works in the regenerative braking mode can be recovered at low motor speeds, in order to maintain
[20]. brake balance, the regenerative braking force is designed to
be zero at high-speed deceleration. A pressure sensor detects
These brakes work very effectively in urban braking hydraulic pressure indicating the demand for deceleration in
situations. The brake system and control sensors are the master cylinder. The pressure signal is regulated and sent
programmed to control all of the vehicle motors. The brake to the electric motor controller to control the electric motor
control sensor calculates the electricity to be generated and in producing the desired braking torque. Moreover, the
the rotational force to be fed to the batteries by monitoring parallel regenerative braking system is simple and
the speed and torque of the wheel. During braking, the brake inexpensive. With this method, the electric motor can be
control sensor controls the electrical energy generated by the integrated into the system with a small modification on the
motor and directs it to the batteries [17]. mechanical brake system. In addition, there is the advantage
of always having a back-up mechanical brake system in
2.1 Series Regenerative Braking System cases where repeated brake system failure occurs [53].

The vehicle's power train includes an auxiliary power unit 3. Conclusions

(APU), which consists of an internal combustion engine
connected to a generator and rectifier that can start the This study presents information about the principles and
electric motor or recharge the batteries as requested by the properties of regenerative braking systems. Many
vehicle control unit (VCU).The electric motor controlled by automation, electromechanical, and constructive studies have
the motor control unit can act as a drive motor or a been carried out in this field in order to boost recovered
generator. During regenerative braking, while the motor is energy efficiency and reduce operating costs. Considering
operating as a generator, the battery can start the motor or that most of the economic losses worldwide are caused by
absorb current from the APU and the electric motor. The mechanical wear, the importance of regenerative braking
framework of the RBS series consists of the RBS, the ABS systems has become better recognized. Safety, comfort, and
and two duty valves used to adjust the friction braking force. economic aspects can be increased by developing these
Working valves are installed on the front and rear brake brake systems. Regenerative braking systems, currently in
lines. Elements used in the ABS can be used for this purpose limited use in electric vehicles, can also be used in
and have a rapid response time. The different states of the conventional braking or other motion control systems. When
two valves determine the air pressure in the brake chambers. they are widely used, economic input can be obtained by the
The brake control unit controls the mechanical braking force reduction of mechanical losses and energy savings can be
under the command of the RBS control system by sending achieved as a result of the recovered electrical energy. In
pulse width modulation (PWM) signals to the valves to addition, vehicle emissions caused by conventional brake
control the pressure. When the electronic control unit (ECU) wear can be reduced, thus contributing to the protection of
detects a lock on one of the rear wheels, the ABS controller the environment and human health. As a result, these systems
emits a signal that will cause the brakes to vibrate to activate emphasize the recovery of energy, reduction of energy
the modulator valve, thereby easing the wheel lock state. consumption, lowering of costs, and provision of clean air.
Since the RGS is mounted on the rear axle, the same signal For this reason, more comprehensive studies in the field of
can be used to control the regenerative braking force and to regenerative braking systems should be carried out and their
increase vehicle stability by minimizing wheel lock during findings presented to policy makers and researchers.
hard braking operations [15].
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Paper ID: SR20902143703 DOI: 10.21275/SR20902143703 163
 International Journal of Science and Research (IJSR)
ISSN: 2319-7064
ResearchGate Impact Factor (2018): 0.28 | SJIF (2019): 7.583
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Licensed Under Creative Commons Attribution CC BY
Paper ID: SR20902143703 DOI: 10.21275/SR20902143703 164
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ISSN: 2319-7064
ResearchGate Impact Factor (2018): 0.28 | SJIF (2019): 7.583
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Paper ID: SR20902143703 DOI: 10.21275/SR20902143703 165
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