6.

FLUID DYNAMICS
In physics, this volume falls into the field of hydrodynamics – the science that studies the motion of liquids. Regarding the
movement of biological fluids, the most important part is hemodynamics – the movement of blood in the cardiovascular system.

Let's start with some basic terms. Liquids and gases are generally referred to as fluids.

1. General concepts:
ideal fluid

The basic laws of fluid motion are derived for ideal fluids. They are a physical abstraction. An ideal fluid is a liquid or a gas for
which the interactions between the particles that make them up are neglected. In addition, ideal liquids are incompressible, which is
largely the case for real ones

steady flow – 𝒗(𝒕) = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕

We will consider steady (stationary) fluid motion. This is a motion in which the speed of the fluid does not change over time.

trajectory of the liquid particles – pathlines

The trajectory of each particle of the fluid will be called a pathline.

streamlines

A family of curves that are instantaneously tangent to the velocity vector of the flow.

stream surface

The group of streamlines form a stream surface. This can be part of the fluid we have chosen as a virtual or a real tube.

In the figure you can see a pipe with the pathlines and with changing cross section.

Fluid flow (flow)

A basic measure that quantifies the motion of a fluid is called a fluid flow. Fluid flow is defined as the volume of fluid flowing
through a section of pipe per unit time:
𝒅𝑽
𝑸= .
𝒅𝒕
Therefore, the measurement unit for it is m3/s = m3.s-1.

Let's look at a current tube with a varying cross section.

1
 For a very short time interval 𝒅𝒕 a volume of liquid 𝒅𝑽 will pass through the cross section of the pipe 𝑺𝟏 . During time 𝒅𝒕, the
liquid has traveled path 𝒅𝒍 with velocity 𝒗. Therefore, the volume of the liquid passing through the section 𝑺𝟏 during this time is equal
to the volume of the cylinder with base 𝑺𝟏 and height 𝒅𝒍:
𝒅𝑽 𝑺. 𝒅𝒍
𝑸= = = 𝑺. 𝝊
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕
The ratio of the distance traveled to time is actually the velocity of the liquid. Finally, we obtain that the flow of moving fluid
through a given section of the pipe is 𝑺. 𝒗.

2. Laws for the ideal fluids

Equation for the continuity of the fluid

For moving ideal fluids, it is valid the continuity equation:

𝑸𝟏 = 𝑸𝟐 =. . . = 𝑸𝒏 = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕 ⇒ 𝑺𝟏 𝝊𝟏 = 𝑺𝟐 𝝊𝟐 =. . . = 𝑺𝒏 𝝊𝒏 = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕

According to this equation, the flow through each section of the pipe is maintained. Therefore, the product of the cross-sectional
area and the velocity must also be preserved. This means that if the cross section of the pipe decreases, the speed increases and vice
versa. In everyday life you know the manifestations of this equation – when the pipe through which liquid flows narrows, its speed
increases.

Bernoulli’s law

Another law that applies to ideal fluids is the Bernoulli’s law or Bernoulli’s
principle. In fluid dynamics, Bernoulli's principle states that an increase in the
speed of a fluid occurs simultaneously with a decrease in static pressure or a
decrease in the fluid's potential energy. Bernoulli's principle can be applied to
various types of fluid flow, resulting in various forms of Bernoulli's equation, given
as:
𝟏
𝒑 + 𝝆𝝊𝟐 + 𝝆𝒈𝒉 = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕.
𝟐
Here 𝒑 is the static pressure – the pressure of a static fluid, which is
associated not with its motion but with its state. Where the term pressure alone is
𝟏
used it refers to this static pressure. 𝝆𝝊𝟐 is dynamic pressure (the kinetic energy
𝟐
per unit volume of a fluid), and 𝝆𝒈𝒉 is hydrostatic pressure (𝒉 is the elevation of

2
the point above a reference plane, with the positive 𝒉-direction pointing upward – so in the direction opposite to the gravitational
acceleration,).

In many fluid flow situations of interest, changes in elevation are insignificant, in particular for horizontal pipes, and can be
ignored. With this simplification, Bernoulli's equation for incompressible flows can be expressed as:
𝟏
𝒑 + 𝝆𝝊𝟐 = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕
𝟐
The constant in the right side of equation is the total pressure 𝒑𝟎 that is equal in every point of the fluid.
Pressure is the amount of force applied at right angles to the surface of an object per unit area. Fluids exert pressure (static pressure) normal to any contacting
surface. If a point in the fluid is thought of as an infinitesimally small cube, then it follows from the principles of equilibrium that the pressure on every side of this unit
of fluid must be equal. If this were not the case, the fluid would move in the direction of the resulting force. Thus, the pressure on a fluid at rest is isotropic; i.e., it acts
with equal magnitude in all directions. This characteristic allows fluids to transmit force through the length of pipes or tubes; i.e., a force applied to a fluid in a pipe is
transmitted, via the fluid, to the other end of the pipe. This principle is called Pascal's law.

If an incompressible liquid is placed in a gravitational field, then at the points below the surface of the fluid, a pressure acts due to the weight of the
superimposed fluid, which is called hydrostatic pressure. This pressure is given as:

𝒑𝒉 = 𝝆𝒈𝒉,

where 𝒉 is the depth at which the point below the surface is located.

In a perfect system (i.e. there are no frictional effects), for an incompressible fluid there are three types of energy existing:

 Pressure Energy – increase in fluid pressure when we work for this increase.
 Kinetic Energy – the energy contained in a moving fluid. If this fluid hits a body it will be moved (if the mass of the
body is enough small).
 Potential Energy – when water is at a high point it contains gravitational potential energy, which can “potentially”
allow it to flow down.

Bernoulli's principle can be derived from the principle of conservation of energy. This states that, in a steady flow, the sum
of all forms of energy in a fluid along a streamline is the same at all points on that streamline. This requires that the sum of kinetic
energy, potential energy and internal energy remains constant. Thus, an increase in the speed of the fluid – implying an increase in its
kinetic energy (dynamic pressure) – occurs with a simultaneous decrease in (the sum of) its potential energy (including the static
pressure) and internal energy.

Manifestations of the Bernoulli’s law

 Venturi effect

Venturi meter

The Venturi meter is based on the Venture effect – reduction in fluid pressure that results when a fluid flows through a
constricted section of a pipe. It is used for flow measurement by measuring the velocity of the fluid using the formula:

3
 𝟏
𝒑𝟏 − 𝒑𝟐 = 𝝆(𝒗𝟐𝟏 − 𝒗𝟐𝟐 ).
𝟐
In the everyday life there are many observations that can be successfully explained by application of Bernoulli's principle, even
though no real fluid is entirely incompressible and a small viscosity (internal friction) often has a large effect on the flow.

 Sprayer
A sprayer used for perfumes or insecticides works on the Bernoulli’s principle. The air flows at a high velocity through the
tube when the plunger is pushed in. A region of low pressure is created just above the tube due to the flow of air at a high speed. Due
to this the perfume or insecticide leaves the tip of the tube through the nozzle as a fine spray which is carried by fast moving air.

 Lifting force

If the air flowing past the top surface of an aircraft wing is moving faster than the air flowing past the bottom surface, then
Bernoulli's principle implies that the pressure on the surfaces of the wing will be lower above than below. This pressure difference
results in an upwards lifting force. Whenever the distribution of speed past the top and bottom surfaces of a wing is known, the lift
forces can be calculated (to a good approximation) using Bernoulli's equations.

 “Natural flow”

When the flow between two tanks at different

heights is unrestricted (i.e. no flow control valves), then
a situation known as “natural flow” occurs. This means
that the flow of water will increase until the kinetic
energy exactly equal the potential energy of the water in
the top tank.

According the Bernoulli’s law:

𝟏 𝟏
𝒑𝟏 + 𝝆𝒗𝟐𝟏 + 𝝆𝒈𝒉𝟏 = 𝒑𝟐 + 𝝆𝒗𝟐𝟐 + 𝝆𝒈𝒉𝟐
𝟐 𝟐

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 The pressures are equal at each tank (𝒑𝟏 = 𝒑𝟐 ) because they are both at atmospheric pressure, so they can be eliminated. The
velocity of the water at the top tank is zero (𝒗𝟏 = 𝟎), so the kinetic energy term for the top tank can be eliminated. Thus, the equation
can be rewritten as below and is typical for natural flow scenarios:
𝟏 𝟐
𝝆𝒗 = 𝝆𝒈(𝒉𝟏 − 𝒉𝟐 ) ⇒ 𝒗𝟐 = √𝟐𝒈(𝒉𝟏 − 𝒉𝟐 )
𝟐 𝟐
 Aspiration water pump (common aspirator)

hose barb

The cheap and simple water aspirator is commonly used in chemistry and biology laboratories and consists of a tee fitting
attached to a tap and has a hose barb at one side. The flow of water passes through the straight portion of the tee, which has a restriction
at the intersection, where the hose barb is attached. The vacuum hose should be connected to this barb.

Appliances for aspiration

The operation of aspiration devices is based on creating a negative pressure – lower than the atmosphere pressure. The air
around liquids to be sucked out, e.g. during surgery or other interventions, is sucked in by the aspirator, in which the pressure is lower
than atmospheric, and carries with it the liquids.

 Drainage aspirator

The operation of this simple device is based on the reduction of the pressure in the
aspirator when its volume increases – according to Boyle-Marriott's law of isothermal process.
It is a corrugated bellows that shrinks and when released, the volume increases and the pressure
in the bellows becomes negative.

 Vacuum pump aspirator

Vacuum pumps used for aspiration in medicine are most often rotary. The principle
of operation of these pumps is periodic pumping by changing the volume of the working
chamber and thus creating a negative pressure.

5
 3. Real liquids movement
Velocity distribution

The velocities at which the particles of an ideal fluid move are the same
because they do not interact with each other. In real fluids there is an interaction
between the particles that make them up and therefore their velocities are different.
When liquid flows through a pipe, the layer next to the walls of the pipe will have
the lowest speed and the one in the center the highest.

As can be seen from the figure in cross section of the pipe, the speed of
movement of the liquid is different. If we divide the liquid into layers, the layer
with the axis of the pipe has the greatest velocity, and the layer next to the wall of
Pipe the pipe has a negligibly small velocity, which is approximately 0. The speed
distribution along an axis perpendicular to the axis of the pipe is:

𝒓𝟐
𝝊𝒓 = 𝝊𝟎 (𝟏 − ),
𝑹𝟐

where 𝒓 is the distance from the axis of the pipe to the corresponding layer, and 𝑹 is the radius of the pipe. In borderline cases:

At 𝒓 = 𝑹 ⇒ 𝝊𝒓 = 𝟎

𝒓 = 𝟎 ⇒ 𝝊𝒓 = 𝝊𝟎 = 𝝊𝒎𝒂𝒙

Newton’s law of the internal friction

Viscosity (internal friction) is the property of fluids (liquids and gases) to resist the movement of one part of them relative to
another. Consider motion between two plates, the lower of which is stationary and the upper movable. The liquid between them is
divided also into virtual layers, which are numbered in the picture below.

When the top plate moves under the action of some force, the speed distribution, as shown in the figure, is linearly increasing
from the stationary plate upwards. A uniform motion is established, which shows that the driving force of the upper plate is balanced
by a force directed opposite to it – the force of internal friction between the layers. Studies show that this force is equal to:
𝒅𝝊
𝑭 = −𝜼. 𝑺. ,
𝒅𝒙
where 𝑺 is the area of the friction layers, 𝒅𝝊 is the difference in the velocities of the two layers, and 𝒅𝒙 is the distance between them. 𝜼
is a coefficient called coefficient of internal friction or dynamic viscosity. The ratio 𝒅𝝊⁄𝒅𝒙, when 𝒅𝒙 is very small, is called the velocity
gradient along an axis perpendicular to the plates – the 𝒙-axis. The sign "−" indicates that the force of internal friction is opposite to
the velocity gradient. The above formula is called Newton's law of internal friction.

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 Dynamic viscosity

The dynamic viscosity 𝜼 is an important dynamic characteristic of any fluid. It is equal to:

𝜼 = 𝑫𝝆,

where 𝑫 is the diffusion coefficient and 𝝆 is the density of the fluid.

According to molecular kinetic theory, the diffusion coefficient is expressed as:
𝟏
𝑫= 𝝀𝝊,
𝟑
where 𝝀 is the average free path and 𝝊 is the average velocity of thermal motion of the fluid particles. The average free path is the
average value of the path that the fluid particles travel before interacting with other particles in their thermal motion. Then:
𝟏
𝜼= 𝝀𝝊𝝆.
𝟑
From the above dependence, we can determine how the dynamic viscosity of liquids and gases will depend on temperature.
As the temperature increases, 𝝀 decreases, because due to the more intense heat movement, the path that the particles travel to collisions
with other particles decreases. However, 𝝊 is growing. It turns out that the dependence of 𝜼 on temperature is different for liquids and
gases.

Since particles are located at great distances in gases, the reduction of 𝝀 has no such priority as the increase of 𝝊. Therefore,
for gases, 𝜼 increases with increasing temperature.

In liquids, the particles are located at short distances and it is more important the decrease of the average free path with
increasing the temperature. Therefore, for liquids with increasing temperature, the dynamic viscosity decreases.

The reciprocal of 𝜼 is called fluidity. In our daily lives we have many times observed a decrease in the fluidity of fluids with
decreasing temperature.

The physical meaning and the units by which the coefficient of dynamic viscosity is measured can be obtained by expressing it from
Newton's law. The physical meaning of the dynamic viscosity is that it is the force of internal friction between layers with an area 𝑺 =1
m2 at a velocity gradient 𝒅𝝊⁄𝒅𝒙 = 1 s-1. The units with which it is measured will be obtained by replacing the quantities in the formula
for η with their units of measurement [𝜼] = Pa. s.

Substance Temperature,С Dynamic viscosity, Pa.s

0 171.10-7
Air
40 196.10-7
40 0,655.10-3
Water 20 10-3
0 1,79.10-3
Blood 37 4.10-3
Glycerin 20 149
Mercury 20 155.10-5

In liquids, distilled water is used as the standard liquid. Therefore, the relative viscosity indicates how many times the viscosity
of a medium is greater or less than the viscosity of water.
𝜼𝒕
𝜼𝒓𝒆𝒍 = , [𝜼𝒓𝒆𝒍 ] = number
𝜼𝑯 𝟐 𝑶

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 For example, for blood plasma this value is 2, for normal blood 4,2÷6, for glycerin 1500. For blood in pathology: 𝜼𝒓𝒆𝒍 = 2÷3
in anemia and 𝜼𝒓𝒆𝒍 =15÷20 in inflammatory processes.

4. Laminar and turbulent motion

Laminar motion

Laminar is the movement of liquids in which the individual layers

of the fluid do not mix, i.e. the trajectories of the particles (pathlines) do not
intersect. At low fluid velocities, the fluid moves in layers – laminar motion.

Laminar movement of fluid around a body

immersed in the liquid, wherein the current is
layered (arranged)

Turbulent motion

During turbulent motion, the layers mix and vortices are formed
(pathlines intersect). It is accompanied by a characteristic noise called flow
noise or turbulent noise.
The flow noise is generated by a “Bernoulli” effect. Because the pressure within
the eddies is less than that in the fluid outside, fluid is injected into the eddies and thrown
against the wall.

The type of motion is determined by the Reynolds number:

𝝆𝝊𝑫
𝑹𝒆 = ,
𝜼

where 𝝆 is the density of the liquid (mass per unit volume, measured in kg/m 3), 𝝊 is the velocity of the liquid, 𝑫 is the diameter of the
pipe through which the liquid flows and 𝜼 is the dynamic viscosity of the liquid. Reynolds number is a way to predict under ideal
conditions when turbulence will occur. The turbulence occurs when a critical Reynolds number (𝑹𝒆) is exceeded.

The blood moves laminar at values of the Reynolds number less than 1000; turbulent – at values greater than 2000, and between
1000 and 2000 the movement is unstable – passes from laminar and turbulent and vice versa. Turbulence increases the energy required
to drive blood flow because turbulence increases the loss of energy in the form of friction, which generates heat. Turbulence does not
begin to occur until the velocity of flow becomes high enough that the flow lamina breaks apart.

Blood flow in the human body is remarkably free of turbulence. Generally the movement of blood in the blood vessels is
laminar except for the aorta, where the velocity 𝝊𝒆𝒇𝒇 is supercritical and turbulent. Sounds attributed to turbulence are sometimes
detected by stethoscope associated with the aorta. Modeling the flow makes use of the Reynold's number and the associated critical
velocity 𝝊𝒄𝒓𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 . Assuming a nominal blood volume flowrate of 5 liters/min and a radius of 0,9 cm for the aorta:

𝑸 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒄𝒎𝟑 /𝒎𝒊𝒏

𝝊𝒆𝒇𝒇 = = ≈ 𝟑𝟑 𝒄𝒎/𝒔,
𝑺 𝝅(𝟎, 𝟗 𝒄𝒎)𝟐 (𝟔𝟎 𝒔⁄𝒎𝒊𝒏)
𝜼𝑹𝒆 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎 × 𝟎, 𝟎𝟎𝟑 𝑷𝒂. 𝒔
𝝊𝒄𝒓𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 = = ≈ 𝟑𝟐 𝒄𝒎⁄𝒔.
𝝆𝑫 𝟐(𝟏, 𝟎𝟓 𝒈⁄𝒄𝒎𝟑 )(𝟎, 𝟗 𝒄𝒎)

But when the velocity profile for tube flow is taken into account, it is found that the maximum velocity of flow is twice the
effective value, so a velocity of 66 cm/s would be expected to produce turbulence in the center of the aorta.

Under conditions of high flow, particularly in the ascending aorta, laminar flow can be disrupted and become turbulent. When
this occurs, blood does not flow linearly and smoothly in adjacent layers, but instead the flow can be described as being chaotic. In
pathological conditions (for example, when the density increases or the blood viscosity decreases), the movement can become turbulent.

8
Turbulent flow also occurs in large arteries at branch points, in diseased and narrowed (stenotic or partially obstructed) arteries, and
across stenotic heart valves. Turbulent noise is used in diagnostics to measure blood pressure.

Turbulence increases the perfusion pressure required to drive a given flow. Alternatively, at a given perfusion pressure,
turbulence leads to a decrease in flow. Therefore, as blood flow velocity increases in a blood vessel or across a heart valve, there is not
a gradual increase in turbulence.

In the case of a laminar flow of liquid through a pipe with radius 𝒓 and length 𝒍 under the action of pressure difference 𝜟𝒑
(driving force), Poiseuille's law applies:

𝝅 𝒓𝟒
𝑸= 𝜟𝒑,
𝟖𝜼 𝒍

where 𝑸 is the flow of a liquid with dynamic viscosity  .

The measure:
𝜟𝒑
𝑹=
𝑸
𝟏
is called hydraulic resistance. It depends on the radius of the pipe by law: 𝑹 ∼ .
𝒓𝟒

Therefore, the smaller the radius, the greater the hydraulic resistance and the greater the pressure change required to maintain
the same flow.

In the cardiovascular system, the pressure difference is created during the work of the heart. A very small change in the radius
of the blood vessel leads to a significant change in blood flow, and hence to insufficient irrigation of the relevant organs. Reduction of
the radius of the blood vessels occurs with narrowing or accumulation of sclerotic plaques on the inner wall of the vessels. Reduced
blood flow forces the heart to work with a load to compensate for this reduction. As a manifestation of this condition, blood pressure
rises.

5. “Newtonian” and “non-Newtonian” liquids

Fluids that obey Newton's law are called “Newtonian”, and those that do not obey are called “non-Newtonian”.

Newtonian fluids can be characterized by a single coefficient of viscosity for a specific temperature. Only a small group of
fluids exhibit such constant viscosity. Newtonian liquids are water, real solutions, low molecular weight organic compounds and others.
In them, the coefficient of dynamic viscosity depends on the type of liquid and the presence of impurities in it, and for a given liquid on
the temperature, but does not depend on the velocity gradient.

The large class of fluids whose viscosity changes with the relative flow velocity are called non-Newtonian fluids. For non-
Newtonian fluids, η depends on both the velocity gradient and the pressure. Such are the dispersed systems and solutions of
macromolecular organic compounds.

 Micro-rheology processes – influences on the viscosity

Rheology is the study of the flow of matter, primarily in a liquid or gas state, but also as "soft solids" or solids under conditions in which they respond with
plastic flow rather than deforming elastically in response to an applied force. Rheology is a branch of physics, and it is the science that deals with the deformation and
flow of materials, both solids and liquids.

Hemorheology, also spelled haemorheology or blood rheology, is the study of flow properties of blood and its elements of plasma and cells. Proper tissue
perfusion can occur only when blood's rheological properties are within certain levels. Alterations of these properties play significant roles in disease processes.

Blood can more accurately be described as a fluidized suspension of elastic cells (or a sol). Blood viscosity is determined by
plasma viscosity, mechanical properties of erythrocytes (red blood cells, RBC) and hematocrit (volume fraction of red blood cell, which
constitute 99,9% of the cellular elements):
𝑽𝟏
𝑯𝒕 = ,
𝑽𝟐

where 𝑽𝟏 is the sum volume of the erythrocytes, lymphocytes and platelets; 𝑽𝟐 – the whole volume of the blood. [𝑯𝒕 ] = number or
×100 %, 𝑯𝒕 ≈ 45 % in norm.
9
 RBC have unique mechanical behavior, which can be discussed under the terms erythrocyte deformability and erythrocyte
aggregation. Because of that, blood behaves as a non-Newtonian fluid. As such, the viscosity of blood varies with the velocity gradient.

Blood becomes less viscous at high velocity gradient like those experienced with increased flow such as during exercise or in
peak-systole. Contrarily, blood viscosity increases when shear rate goes down with increased vessel diameters or with low flow, such
as downstream from an obstruction or in diastole. Blood viscosity also increases with increases in red cell aggregability.

Erythrocyte deformability refers to the ability of to change shape under a given level of applied stress, without hemolysing
(rupturing). Shape change of erythrocytes under applied forces (i.e., shear forces in blood flow) is reversible and the biconcave-discoid
shape, which is normal for the RBC of most the mammals, is maintained after the removal of the deforming forces. In other words,
erythrocytes behave like elastic bodies, while they also resist to shape change under deforming forces.

Erythrocyte deformability is an important determinant of blood viscosity, hence blood flow resistance in the vascular system.
It affects blood flow in large blood vessels, due to the increased frictional resistance between fluid laminae under laminar flow
conditions. It also affects the microcirculatory blood flow significantly, where erythrocytes are forced to pass through blood vessels
with diameters smaller than their size.

We call micro-rheological the processes in which the viscosity of the liquid changes, tracing the trajectories of the particles in
the flow.

 Orientation  Aggregation

𝜼↓ 𝜼↑
 Disaggregation  Deformation

𝜼↓ 𝜼↓

 Destruction of structures  Unwinding of balls

𝜼↓
𝜼↓

Blood viscosity

Dependence of the blood viscosity on the hematocrit. Einshtain’s formula for 𝑯𝒕 < 𝟑%:

𝜼𝒕 = 𝜼(𝟏 + 𝒌𝑯𝒕 )

𝜼𝒕 – whole blood viscosity; 𝜼 – blood plasma viscosity

𝒌 – coefficient – a function of the dimensions and the shape of the cells. 𝒌𝒔𝒑𝒉𝒆𝒓.𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒕. = 𝟐, 𝟓𝟎; 𝒌𝑹𝑩𝑪 = 𝟐, 𝟓𝟎.

10