Sustainable Cities and Society 61 (2020) 102350

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Sustainable Cities and Society

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/scs

Antivirus-built environment: Lessons learned from Covid-19 pandemic T

a, b
Naglaa A. Megahed *, Ehab M. Ghoneim
a
Professor, Architecture and Urban Planning Department, Faculty of Engineering, Port Said University, Egypt
b
Professor of Ophthalmology, Vice Dean for Community Services & Environmental Development Affairs, Faculty of Medicine, Port Said University, Egypt

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: Before developing medications for an epidemic, one solution is to go back to the physical and built environment
Antivirus to reduce its impact. Epidemics have transformed our built environment because of the fear of infection.
Architecture Consequently, architecture and urbanism after the Covid-19 epidemic will never be the same. Although the
Built environment current global epidemic poses a challenge at all levels in the built environment, it will take time to develop an
COVID-19
antivirus-enabled paradigm to reduce the potential risks or stop the virus from spreading. This study imagines
Social distancing
Post-pandemic
what the antivirus-built environment looks like based on the lessons learned and the importance of designing a
Urbanism healthy and sustainable built environment. Many unanswered questions require further multidisciplinary stu-
dies. We aim to search for answers and learn from this forced experiment to add additional security layers to
overcome future virus-like attacks.

1. Introduction measures taken before to ensure the health, hygiene, and comfort of
urban residents. Our built environment has always exhibited the ca-
COVID-19 affects physical health most directly and has alarming pacity to evolve after the crisis (Chang, 2020; Dejtiar, 2020; Muggah &
implications for emotional and social functioning, the coronavirus has Ermacora, 2020). This study encourages the search for suitable design
proven that a disaster doesn't fight with a known opponent. The enemy ideas, trends, and planning theories to provide the required protection
can simply be invisible with devastating consequences (Goniewicz from virus attacks and continue to add more layers in the defense
et al., 2020; Pfefferbaum & North, 2020). The real world is fragile, and system of our built environment. To cope with this pandemic, profes-
this virus is frighteningly causing massive disruptions across the globe sionals in architecture, urban planning sectors, and design agencies
(Budds, 2020; Saadat, Rawtani, & Hussain, 2020). Moreover, the digital have already switched their focus to visualize the post-pandemic era.
world is fragile regarding cyberattacks. This could be a teachable mo- However, there is inadequate research conducted to imagine how the
ment to apply lessons from the cybersecurity world to protect our built antivirus-built environment would look. To address this gap, this study
environment during the COVID-19 pandemic. The coronavirus is reviews architecture and urban story developments from the past cen-
quickly spreading and causes significant damage, mimicking the spread turies. We then review research areas affected by the COVID-19 pan-
of computer viruses within a network (Kindervag, 2020). In the digital demic and highlight their related questions. We then analyze the social
world, it is common practice to design and incorporate solutions that distancing and quarantine as a design problem in the post-pandemic
can help overcome virus attacks; for every new generation, a new se- era. Subsequently, some lessons learned from the pandemic are pre-
curity layer is added to ensure the ever-mutating computer viruses do sented to visualize and introduce the study’s vision about the antivirus-
not harm the digital structure (Ahlefeldt, 2020). Could policymakers, built environment.
planners, and architects inspired by the digital world learn from its
cybersecurity to make our built environment more resistant to the 2. Historical background: dramatic change developments
virus? Could we design and build our cities to stop the virus from
spreading? If so, could we install an antivirus-built environment ready During pandemics, the form has always followed the fear of infec-
to help in the protection from coronavirus or other pandemics? tion, just as much as the function (Ellin, 1999). From interiors to city
Infectious disease has already transformed our places through ar- planning, our built environment is shaped by diseases. Previously, to
chitecture, design, and urban planning. Previously, many trends in ar- minimize the risk of infectious diseases, people redesigned interior
chitecture and urbanism that we see today were derived from similar design, architecture, cities, and infrastructure. Considering historical

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (N.A. Megahed), [email protected] (E.M. Ghoneim).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2020.102350
Received 18 May 2020; Received in revised form 14 June 2020; Accepted 22 June 2020
Available online 24 June 2020
2210-6707/ © 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
N.A. Megahed and E.M. Ghoneim Sustainable Cities and Society 61 (2020) 102350

events of the last two centuries, the architecture and urban story in- immediate and precautionary measures to be taken. The WHO in-
cludes several developments. troduced these measures, which were practiced at both institutional
and individual levels to become a universal mainstream strategy
2.1. Urban renewal (Hishan, Ramakrishnan, Qureshi, Khan, & Al-Kumaim, 2020; Salama,
2020).
In the 14th century, the bubonic plague motivated the fundamental
urban improvements of the Renaissance. Cities cleared overcrowded 4.1. Potential transmission dynamics of COVID-19
living quarters, expanded their margins, developed early quarantine
facilities, and opened large public spaces. In the 20th century, in- Since most humans spend most of their daily lives inside the built
fectious disease was one of the drivers of urban renewal. Modernist environment, it is essential to understand the potential transmission
architects saw design as a cure to the sickness of overcrowded cities, dynamics of infection. As individuals move through the built environ-
where tuberculosis, typhoid, polio, and Spanish flu breakouts en- ment, COVID-19 can be transmitted both by air and via direct and in-
couraged urban planning, slum clearance, tenement reform, and waste direct contact. Viral particles can be directly deposited on surfaces or
management (Chang, 2020; Lubell, 2020). suspended due to natural and mechanical airflow patterns, or other
sources of turbulence in the indoor environment (Cirrincione et al.,
2.2. Sanitary reform 2020; Dietz et al., 2020; Horve et al., 2020). The WHO has prescribed
maintaining an inter-personal distance of 1.5 or 2 m (about 6 feet) to
During the industrial era, cholera and typhoid influenced the sani- minimize the risk of infection. However, more recently published stu-
tary reform movement. These epidemics contributed to developing dies support the hypothesis of virus transmission over 2 m from an
water and sewage systems to fight the pathogens, eventually leading to infected person (Bourouiba, 2020; Setti et al., 2020). In addition, Ok-
a sanitary innovation and required the streets to be straighter, lahoma State University researchers simulated different environmental
smoother, and wider to install underground pipe systems. Furthermore, and movement conditions to see if a six-foot social distancing policy is
the third plague pandemic in 1855 changed the design of everything enough. Their results indicate this policy is enough if the ambient air is
from drainpipes to door thresholds and building foundations (Budds, static (Oklahoma State University, 2020). Other factors and wearing
2020; Klaus, 2020; Wainwright, 2020). protective clothes affect the transmission dynamics of infection. How-
ever, WHO is continuously changing and updating all the mentioned
2.3. Building and housing reform distances based on the latest information and researches conducted by
professionals.
The wipe-clean esthetic of modernism can be partially attributed to
tuberculosis. The modern architectural designs were inspired by an era 4.2. Design problem and challenges
of purity of form, strict geometries, modern materials, and a rejection of
ornamentation. Modernist architects designed these curative environ- Based on the potential transmission dynamics of COVID-19 and the
ments as cleansed (physically and symbolically) from disease and pol- required measures, several competitions, conferences, and leagues have
lution. Beyond their esthetic appeal, these features embodied modernist been cancelled or postponed. The coronavirus has motivated authorities
preoccupations with the healing effects of light, air, and nature. These to restrict access to most public spaces and large shopping areas. This
buildings included large windows, balconies, flat surfaces that would pandemic could fundamentally change the way they operate in the
not collect dust, and white paint, emphasizing the appearance of future and requires further analysis (Honey-Roses et al., 2020). Archi-
cleanliness (Budds, 2020; Chang, 2020). Against this background, the tects, planners, and built environment professionals are keen to ex-
current health crisis should develop our built environment to increase amine many social and spatial implications to generate new patterns
the security layers that help to prevent the spread of infections and and configurations of use (Paital, 2020; Salama, 2020). Architectural
diseases. In this context, there are multiple areas of research needed and urban spaces, as they relate to infectious disease epidemics, are not
regarding COVID-19. only about quarantine based on immediate and precautionary measures
but also refer to design and planning problems and challenges in all
3. Research areas and questions building types and urban spaces as illustrated in Fig. 1. The pandemic of
COVID-19 has caused serious consequences that can be an opportunity
When the World Health Organization (WHO) declared the fast- to review individual and collective choices and priorities. Most archi-
spreading COVID-19 as a pandemic, citizens around the globe hastened tecture today shows evidence of how humans have responded to in-
to go home. This global pandemic significantly influenced our personal fectious diseases by redesigning our physical spaces. Thus, social dis-
and professional lives and has a direct bearing upon the very founda- tancing could change the design and planning process (Budds, 2020;
tions of urban planning and architecture theory and practice (Allam & Chang, 2020), specifically with the increased acceptance of distance
Jones, 2020; Haleem, Javaid, Vaishya, & Deshmukh, 2020; Saadat learning, online shopping, and the cultural connection of online en-
et al., 2020). Consequently, the pandemic has led to questions of how tertainment. The use of media for information sharing, and webinars for
architects and planners could present and install antivirus-related ideas sharing knowledge and expertise have seen widespread adoption during
or update the existing spaces, as well as at what stage can the pandemic the COVID19 pandemic (Chick et al., 2020; Goniewicz et al., 2020).
affect our physical and built environment. To extend the scope of re- Although new technologies can create additional difficulties, opportu-
search needed from the academic community, Table 1 reviews certain nities have emerged to apply innovative solutions to more smart and
required research areas affected by COVID-19 and highlights their re- virtual world applications in the built environment. When we increas-
lated questions. Professional and extensive research is required on all ingly work from a remote location, learn and upgrade skills online and
levels and scales in these areas to prevent the virus from spreading. The shop for necessities from e-commerce sites, we reduce the need of
answers to these questions could help in predicting the post-pandemic traditional physical spaces by virtual digital ones which can be accessed
style and visualizing the required antivirus system. from smart devices (Goniewicz et al., 2020; Hishan et al., 2020; Papu &
Pal, 2020). According to the affected lifestyles, the increased reliance
4. Social distancing and quarantine as a design problem on digital channels in the built environment may endure long after the
pandemic and affect in every design and urban aspects. Humanity is
In the absence of a specific vaccine to the coronavirus, physical facing a global crisis, perhaps the greatest of our generation. Many
distancing and the lockdown of the population are among the most measures adopted during the emergency will become part of daily life,

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N.A. Megahed and E.M. Ghoneim Sustainable Cities and Society 61 (2020) 102350

Table 1
Post-coronavirus architecture and urbanism: Research areas and questions.
Scope Research Areas Research Questions

Post-pandemic
urbanism
• Digital transformation and
telecommuting
• The COVID-19 crisis has changed the face of many of our cities and questioned how we should
manage urban life in the wake of a pandemic. Would the pandemic inspire more urban
• Centralization and decentralization improvements? Can we design cities that reduce infections? Would the post-pandemic era
• Density of cities generate new urbanism based on social distancing? More specifically, could COVID-19 be a
• Walking, cycling, and public
transportation
catalyst for decentralization and walkable cities?

Post-pandemic public spaces • Design, use and perceptions • There is no doubt about how COVID-19 will impact future public buildings and spaces.
• Design and disease transmission However, how long will these impact and reflection last for future? What about their furniture
• Street design and furniture materials, shared facilities and services? What is the future of commercial buildings? Can air-
• Shared facilities and services conditioned shopping malls continue? Will the pandemic teach us new lessons to incorporate
• Flexibility and transformation into our public buildings and spaces designs?
Post-pandemic housing • Housing layout • What is the future of our houses? Should they adapt to better accommodate workspaces?
• Space and density Should they be self-sufficient? Should our terraces, balconies, and roofs be planted? More
• Shelter and safety specifically, could COVID-19 be a catalyst for healthy housing and sustainable buildings?
• Indoor air quality
Post-pandemic office space • Layout and design solutions • What is the future of co-working spaces and open-plan offices? Could COVID-19 alter their
• Working and waiting spaces design? Would they need new design criteria? What is the future of high-rise buildings? Can
• Shared facilities and services skyscrapers continue? What happens when nobody wants to use elevators?
• Density in offices
• Building heights
Building and construction • Modular construction • What is the future of construction strategy? Could COVID-19 alter its techniques? Should we
technology • Prefabricating
components
standardized adopt a more modular construction strategy? If so, will the future witness more prefabricating
and standardized components? Could the pandemic speed up the digitalization and
• Lightweight
structures
and adaptable automation of our cities? Will our smart devices control everything around us?

• Artificial intelligence
To date, these are some of the questions highlighted by the current pandemic, and we are currently uncertain about the answers. The answers to these questions are
closely linked and remain a subject of significant research in the field during the global pandemic or through future events with similar impacts.

changing habits, and behaviors, they may be a positive or negative have a higher chance to bring the virus home (Saadat et al., 2020). This
intervention in architecture and urban planning approaches. will need special consideration in design solutions to prevent infection.
While there are many potential impacts of COVID-19 on built en- Social distancing level. Working from home might reduce social
vironment, our focus in the following points is on how post-architecture contact but is only available to some people focused on jobs linked to a
may change. Although social distancing and quarantine measures are higher socioeconomic status. Moreover, stay-at-home regulations
extensively adopted as the first preventive measure, other factors in- would be more than a challenge for those who live in smaller and
crease the risk of contracting the virus, as discussed below. crowded houses or without outside spaces (Saadat et al., 2020).
Population density. In our current health crisis, certain densely po- Shared facilities. Shared housing includes a broad range of settings
pulated cities have proved to be particularly vulnerable to the risk of with special considerations. People living and working in this type of
infection (Chang, 2020). building might have challenges with social distancing to prevent the
Household size. A big household, large, or extended families will spread of COVID-19 (CDC, 2020).

Fig. 1. Social distancing and lockdown reflections and their links to the variables under research.

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N.A. Megahed and E.M. Ghoneim Sustainable Cities and Society 61 (2020) 102350

Housing characteristics. With a stay-at-home attitude essential to the 5. An opportunity to reset and reshape our built environment
COVID-19 response, housing characteristics take on added importance
in people’s lives (Schellenberg & Fonberg, 2020). Extended time in- While it is uncertain how much change will follow COVID-19, me-
doors could raise various challenges in the design of post-pandemic chanisms increasing its spread will not be forgotten or ignored (Priday,
housing. Because we are forced to stay and work from home, post- 2020). The pandemic has highlighted the lack of how we manage our
pandemic house and office spaces will witness a great transformation built environment and presented certain lessons from this forced ex-
because we will be more aware of the functionality of our homes and periment. In this context, how should architects, planners, and policy-
workspaces in an interestingly new approach. Some of these transfor- makers react and learn? Beyond helping to design medical spaces lim-
mations are reviewed in following sections. iting the spread of infections (Acuto, 2020; Betsky, 2020), the pandemic
will allow them to reset and reshape our built environment. However,
the time to reset and reshape our built environment is now, and not
4.2.1. Post-pandemic housing
after the next pandemic. This study analyzes the lessons learned based
The pandemic has brought a greater sense of appreciation for our
on two approaches, namely, look step back to nature and look step
homes. People need houses that can effectively provide social isolation
forward to advanced technology.
and offer protection from viruses and infections. The expectation is that
even after the quarantine period, more people will work from home.
5.1. Look step back to nature
Consequently, the future of home design might change (Dejtiar, 2020;
Kashdan, 2020; Priday, 2020). Several studies have reported a direct
A key lesson that we are going to learn is the requirement to return
association between crowding and adverse health outcomes. The WHO
to nature with its healing effects. Although the situation is still un-
suggested the characteristics of healthy housing. High density could
folding, the COVID-19 pandemic has already highlighted the im-
lead to unhygienic conditions and the spread of several communicable
portance of certain design concepts and reassessed fundamental as-
diseases. Crowding increases the risk of volatile infections and droplet-
sumptions in urban and architecture approaches.
transmitted infections (Capolongo, Rebecchi, Buffoli, Letizia, & Carlo,
2020; World Health Organization, 1988). If possible, the current pan-
5.1.1. Urban approaches
demic makes a strong case for completely detached housing with a
To accommodate work from home situations, we could even reex-
reasonable amount of surrounding garden space, enhancing better fa-
amine old urban typologies. Many urban approaches might increase the
cilities for social distancing and producing food, and the healing effects
protection and defense system of our cities and avoid high density and
of light, air, and nature. Perhaps, quarantine is the best time to get to
overcrowding. Policymakers and planners should use the current crisis
know more about indoor gardens, even in the case of multi-story
to review planning theories and, based on the results, they should take a
buildings (Makhno, 2020; Wainwright, 2020). For multi-story build-
step back in searching about how past cities are structured.
ings, contact with other residents in shared areas is unavoidable. The
Expanding horizontally. During a pandemic, the human proximity
future should, therefore, focus on the touchless experience from the
of heavily populated cities poses further risks. The larger the popula-
front door to the apartment door itself (Kashdan, 2020; Priday, 2020).
tion, the higher the concentration of COVID-19 in cities. Regarding the
Regarding layout and design solutions, post-pandemic housing
impact of social distancing, planners and architects might design ac-
might introduce more partitions between departments and could be the
cording to expanding horizontally approaches with more available open
end of open-plan spaces. The building might have wider corridors and
spaces, which could be essential to prevent the spread of infections and
doorways, and many more staircases, leading to changes in the building
diseases (Liu, 2020; Novakovic, 2020).
code and design strategies. Ensuring flexible and adaptable spaces for
Fewer density cities. Because social distancing measures are es-
all users can make housing more sustainable, able to adapt to changing
sential to the containment effort, some have blamed the density of cities
needs and to changing lifestyles (Capolongo et al., 2020; Wainwright,
for the rapid spread of the infection and considered suburbs to be the
2020).
safest places. Urbanization might take a step back to enhance villages
and city suburbs, particularly with the increased acceptance of digital
4.2.2. Post-pandemic office space transformation (Makhno, 2020; Nicola et al., 2020; Wainwright, 2020).
Remote working consists of a relatively new mode of alternative However, the impacts of higher density on social interactions and
work arrangements developed in the 1970s. Several firms have been sustainability are still controversial issues (Mousavinia, Pourdeihimi, &
adapting their measures as the spread of Covid-19 increases Madani, 2019).
(Belzunegui-Eraso & Erro-Garcés, 2020; Papu & Pal, 2020). Even firms Decentralization. The pandemic highlights the importance of dis-
that were resistant to the concept of remote working have been forced tributing smaller units such as health facilities, schools, and services
to allow working from home. However, working from home all the time across more of the urban tissue and strengthen local centers (Alter,
is not for everyone; many will want to return to their physical offices. 2020; Wainwright, 2020). As more and more e-commerce models, the
As the pandemic continues or remote working becomes the new norm, shopping malls may eventually lose their aspirational value, we would
office space might have to be altered to create greater spacing and have to remodel traditional market in mixed use neighborhoods (Papu
fewer seating options (Marr, 2020; Molla, 2020). Based on this trans- & Pal, 2020). In addition, the decentralized network of smaller green
formation, the density in offices might probably change and firms will spaces will make it easier for residents to breathe nature that has im-
not need more space because of work from home policies. Conse- portant physical and mental health benefits (Velarde, Fry, & Tveit,
quently, high-rise buildings would become more expensive to build and 2007). Decentralization approach could probably encourage horizontal
become less efficient. Depending on how productive remote work expansion, requiring a review of planning theories to maintain sus-
proves to be in this pandemic, it is hastening the shift from structured tainable development and adequate city planning (Madanipour, 2001;
office environments to more flexible, virtual, and home-based work Taylor, 2000).
arrangements, which could mean a reversal of the open-office trend and Urban farming. The notion of a self-sufficient community is the
the search for better other natural ventilation and healthy design op- answer to protect the environment and ecological systems (Ali, Dom, &
tions (Alter, 2020; Muggah & Ermacora, 2020). Regarding cleaning Sahrum, 2012; Martinez et al., 2010; Priday, 2020; Tait, 2003). It is
policies, certain firms could even use ultraviolet germicidal irradiation urgent to rethink how land is used with landscapes and urban farming
to deeply disinfect offices at night or meeting rooms between uses; a integrated approaches (Proksch, 2017). Urban farming has been re-
practice that is increasingly common in hospitals to combat the spread cently growing, strengthening self-sustaining communities to become
of infection (Beggs et al., 2000; Kovach et al., 2017; Molla, 2020). more resilient to the epidemic. Farming could improve food security

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N.A. Megahed and E.M. Ghoneim Sustainable Cities and Society 61 (2020) 102350

Table 2
Construction strategies used in healthcare systems during the pandemic. The authors after (Allam & Jones, 2020; CNA, 2020; Constable, 2020; Hatcher, 2020; Lubell,
2020; Mcginn, 2020).
Strategy Example Description

Modular construction Vic hospital, Melbourne, Australia A semi-permanent resuscitation unit has been built at the hospital. The unit comprising a prefabricated semi-
containerized two-story COVID-19 specific-purpose hospital in its car park.
Leishenshan hospital, Wuhan, China A 1,600-bed hospital constructed on a parking lot from prefabricated modules placed into steel skeletons above
concrete foundations.
CURA prototype, Milan, Italy Italian architect and professor designed intensive-care pods within a shipping container called CURA. The pods
connected by inflatable corridors and fitted with biocontainment systems.

Adaptive reuse Temporary hospital, Javits Center, New York City's Javits Convention Center turned into a 2,910-bed temporary field hospital for COVID-19
New York patients
The Nightingale Hospital, London, Excel Exhibition Centre turned into a 500 -bed hospital equipped with ventilators and oxygen with the capacity
UK increased to fight COVID-19.

Lightweight architecture Inflatable emergency hospital, The hospital designed to be the quickest response to an immediate care center. A 1,000-square-meter structure
Pachuca, Mexico prepared to see up to 80 COVID-19 patients daily.
UCSF Medical Center, San Francisco The hospital sets up two outdoor tents to prep for possible influx of COVID-19 patients which employed as
Bay, USA triage and emergency room extensions, waiting and treatment areas.

and nutrition, reduce climate change impacts, and lower stress. In this as many people as possible in one place. During a pandemic, it is ne-
context, vertical and urban gardens should be flourishing (Ahlefeldt, cessary to reduce contact with everything in multi-story buildings such
2020; Chandran, 2020; Kashdan, 2020; Muggah and Ermacora, 2020). as elevators, elevator buttons, door handles, and surfaces (Capolongo
Urban farming integrated approaches have been implemented using the et al., 2020; Makhno, 2020). This new fear of infection and fear of being
latest designs and technologies with other architectural approaches trapped in the elevator should take future consideration in post-pan-
(Dmitriy & Alevtina, 2019). demic architecture with other psychosocial problems.
Fewer cars, more cycling, and walking. One of the key lessons Better air quality. After forced self-isolation and spending more
that we are going to learn is having a network of cycling and walkable time indoors, an approach to improving health through strategies such
streets. Walking, as a primary mode of transportation and physical as greater natural light, improved ventilation, fewer toxic substances,
activity, has proven both environmentally friendly and beneficial for and incorporating plants and other natural materials is necessary
residents’ physical and mental health (Dreessen, 2020; Zhou, He, Cai, (Constable, 2020; Lubell, 2020). In this context, it is critical to design
Wang, & Su, 2019). In the fight against infection and maintaining social buildings with skylights, large windows, rooftop terraces, balconies,
distancing, cities should offer more safe paths and small roads for and courtyards to avoid sick-building syndrome and enhance air quality
walking and micro-mobility than depending only on mass public (Guy & Farmer, 2001; Roaf, Crichton, & Nicol, 2010).
transportation. While considered a good environmental solution to re-
duce pollution, public transportation is not ideal during a pandemic as 5.2. Look step forward to advanced technology
it might contribute to the spread of diseases among users (Campisi,
Acampa, Marino, & Tesoriere, 2020; Constable, 2020; Gonzalez, 2020; To receive the maximum benefits from the previous approaches, the
Musselwhite, Avineri, & Susilo, 2020). The pandemic has emphasized antivirus-enabled paradigm requires advanced technology in the con-
that efficient multi-modal transport is more robust and thus essential to struction sector and a tool to quicken the pace of digital transformation.
sustainable growth. No single mode of transport is in the long run su- This approach requires using techniques outside the mainstream to
perior (Capolongo et al., 2020; Hishan et al., 2020). Streets might need secure our built environment by running alternatives, exploring, and
to be re-designed to meet multi-modal transport needs, which succeed inspiring new ways of constructing more sustainable and safe buildings.
in transforming streets to become healthier, safer, greener, and more
livable (Honey-Roses et al., 2020). 5.2.1. Construction strategy
The post-pandemic emphasizes the importance of look step forward
5.1.2. Architecture approaches of the innovations in construction techniques that speed the creation of
Previously, many architecture approaches were related and in- emergency architecture.
creased the healthy spaces of our buildings and enhanced sustainability. The COVID-19 pandemic represents an unprecedented challenge for
Self-sufficient strategies. In future, a high priority will be placed healthcare systems internationally. Medical facilities and their human
on self-sufficient buildings and lifestyles (Ali et al., 2012; Greer, 2009; resources are usually overwhelmed (Robbins et al., 2020; Scarfone
Priday, 2020). In addition to all the energy-efficient strategies with et al., 2011). The sheer scale of the pandemic puts enormous stress,
heating and cooling systems, architects might inspire additional most countries built field and temporary hospitals in a matter of a few
methods of thinking concerning water supply and food production. weeks or reused other building types and spaces to add thousands of
Refocusing on green spaces. We require physical interaction with beds. Table 2 reviews the most construction strategies used in con-
living plants for our mental health, and to grow what we eat to reduce structed additional healthcare systems to prevent further COVID-19
risk, specifically during self-isolation (Constable, 2020; Makhno, 2020). infection.
Consequently, planting our gardens, terraces, and implementing green Modular construction. Increasingly popular before COVID-19, the
roof systems have multiple advantages for sustainability (Hui, 2011; modular construction strategy is effective to face pandemics or natural
Specht et al., 2014; Thomaier et al., 2015) and can solve most of the disasters and to create less expensive and more quickly constructed
self-isolation problems. The challenge for the roofs is to consider them buildings (Smith & Quale, 2017). It is important for meeting health
as the buildings’ fifth façade to be the place of green roofs. However, services’ diverse requirements with prefabricated standardized com-
during the design process, green roofs designed for food production ponents. These components could help buildings adapt to requirements
might require additional calculations and requirements (Abd-Elhafeez, or enlarge their spaces for treatment and quarantine (Hatcher, 2020).
ELmokadem, Megahed, & El-Gheznawy, 2016; EL-Gheznawy, 2016). Adaptive reuse. This strategy is a sensitive and sustainable ap-
Low-rise buildings. High-rise buildings were designed to organize proach to create emergency facilities. During a pandemic, sports

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N.A. Megahed and E.M. Ghoneim Sustainable Cities and Society 61 (2020) 102350

facilities, parking lots, and other buildings are converting into medical circumstances, we might enter a completely post-pandemic style in
facilities and temporary hospitals. There will be a requirement for more which form follows fear of infection. Cities are currently being tested to
efficient, effective, and flexible reuse plans for future crises (Lubell, the extreme with the pandemic and multiple questions are arising in
2020). This strategy is beneficial when integrated with other advanced terms of how cities are planned and managed. Its impact is showing the
technologies in the construction sector. extent to which each city can function, or not, especially during times of
Lightweight and adaptable structures. When responding to the crisis (Lubell, 2020; Wahba & Vapaavuori, 2020). Our built environ-
pandemic, lightweight and adaptable structures are often preferable for ment is not designed or built to effectively help limit the effects of
their speed and portability. Designers are developing and assembling pandemics, such as the COVID-19 pandemic. However, we are learning
these temporary structures to create field hospitals that can be easily fast and there are already lessons worth learning and remembering. The
transported and erected for COVID-19 patients (Constable, 2020; pandemic will not last forever, but our response to it will shape our
Lubell, 2020). future built environment (Ahlefeldt, 2020; Novakovic, 2020).
Hygienic building materials. There will be a special effort to The significance of adding human health as one of the sustainability
consider and think about every possible place within the built en- development goals can be seen through the current pandemic. From a
vironment touched by people and the possibility of that being a source conceptual perspective, adding human health as the fourth pillar to the
of infections. Like the modernists who rejected ornament in service of overall definition of sustainability is a logical step (Hakovirta &
hygiene, contemporary designers are likely to use hygienic and anti- Denuwara, 2020). Many architecture and urban approaches might in-
bacterial materials that can be easily sanitized (Kashdan, 2020; Molla, crease the protection of our cities and avoid overcrowding. In normal
2020). Post-pandemic architecture might apply more cleaning strate- times, there might be many attributes attempted by the built environ-
gies based on new technologies. For applying a strategy based on na- ment to achieve sustainability. The pandemic’s influence in the densest
notechnology, we should consider other potential risks associated with areas raises questions about sustainable development and fundamental
nanomaterials (Megahed, 2013). assumptions of past theories. However, the future is still unclear; per-
haps we hope to see a shift towards a greener, smarter, and a more
5.2.2. Digital transformation sustainable built environment. Alternatively, distance communication
The global pandemic has forced us into an entirely new world and and digital transformation could change our long-term habits and
has increased digital transformation in all our activities. After the crisis, dramatically cut traffic and pollution. What if we harnessed tele-
we will have entered a new digital normal. In a few months, the pan- commuting and digital city strategy as a way of social distancing and to
demic has offered virtual and augmented reality alternatives, which are help employees and citizens achieve work-life balance? Based on the
expected to continuously increase (Gracy, 2020; Muggah & Ermacora, feasibility of working continuing remotely after the pandemic passes,
2020). our cities might require fewer spaces for highways and parking lots. In
Ability to work from home. As a lesson learned, this pandemic this case, we could recover these spaces for use as safe cycling and
brought to light the possible reduction of air pollutant emissions by walking networks. It sounds utopic but this vision might encourage
increasing expand remote working. During the quarantine, most people people to take their bikes to work and give more space to pedestrians
have been forced to work from home (Nakada & Urban, 2020). More (Gonzalez, 2020; Muggah & Ermacora, 2020). Post-pandemic design
consideration will be given to the arrangement of the workplace at and planning strategies must reflect this change. The right design and
home. The spatial organization will change. It will be a separate room planning strategies now could help to position our built environment in
with large windows, blackout curtains, and comfortable furniture. It the post-pandemic era. However, there are many other social effects
will be technically equipped, and sound insulated (Allam & Jones, beyond the pandemic; however, the long-term impact is unclear, re-
2020; Capolongo et al., 2020). While working from home is a benefit quiring further studies. Let us hope we do not encounter this scenario;
many employees value and reduces pollution, the long-term impact is however, if it comes again, at least we can understand the risks and be
unclear and requires further investigation. better prepared in the prevention and quickly react in mitigation.
Artificial intelligence and touchless technologies. Automation, As shown from the lessons and the complexity of the pandemic, it is
voice technology, and facial recognition-based in artificial intelligence no longer safe to solely rely on a strategy to protect our architecture and
could influence post-pandemic architecture. With 80 % of infectious urbanism. Instead, we must install an antivirus-built environment that
diseases transmitted by touching polluted surfaces, touchless tech- incorporates a multi-layered approach of protection into its defense
nology could become a new interface and remove the requirement for system. Architects and planners should design our built environment
physically pushing or touching a surface. Post-pandemic principles such as to stop the virus from spreading by creating an antivirus-en-
search for more contactless pathways, such as lifts being called from a abled paradigm. This paradigm must improve new tools, options, and
smartphone, avoiding the need to press any buttons, and doors to open strategies that are more flexible, holistic, and responsive to better ad-
automatically (Molla, 2020; Wainwright, 2020). These technologies dress the pandemic response at all levels and scales from interior design
could include other programs to both control space temperature and to city planning. Based on the lessons learned from this crisis, Fig. 2
automatically clean it to kill harmful organisms, viruses, and bacteria. shows the proposed vision about how nature and advanced technology
Although there is an added cost, it might be an amenity that will gain approaches help in visualizing antivirus-built environments to stop the
popularity to be integrated into future buildings (Kashdan, 2020; virus from spreading. However, selecting the best antivirus strategy
Makhno, 2020). depends on many factors, posing new challenges to choose that could
be used or planned as long-term reforms. We must be proactive, not
6. Discussion: antivirus-built environment reactive, and continue to update this antivirus-enabled paradigm and
install new approaches within its framework. Many questions still re-
One positive impact of the current pandemic is the time it offers to quire further multidisciplinary studies. This study does not present
the built environment professionals to reflect on past events and learn answers; it originates insights for areas where future research will be
what can be improved for future responses (Goniewicz et al., 2020). critically required to update the proposed vision.
Although pandemics have long been catastrophic, they have forced The proposed vision in this study does not have an expiration date,
architecture and city planning to cope with it. Covid-19 might have when the Covid-19 pandemic ended, most of healthy architecture and
similar effects on architecture and urban planning developments urban approaches could be applicable to the pandemics to come. We
(Budds, 2020; Chang, 2020; Saadat et al., 2020). Life after the pan- could imagine all housing buildings as self-sufficient, independent and
demic will never be the same; values, lives, and habits will change, and healthy neighborhoods and making smart use of the available tech-
our architecture will change under that influence. In all these nologies. It is crucial to make urban areas more resilient to emergencies

6
N.A. Megahed and E.M. Ghoneim Sustainable Cities and Society 61 (2020) 102350

Fig. 2. The proposed vision about the future of the antivirus-built environment.

response, to face epidemics and other possible future emergencies of term. However, it is too early to judge how responses to COVID-19 will
every kind. affect design and urbanism theories. These results call for urgent efforts
to further explore our built environment and not wait for another
7. Conclusion and outlook pandemic to serve as a reminder. This approach must be parallel to
other sustainable approaches embracing not impinging natural re-
There is no end in sight to the COVID-19 pandemic, but it has sources and not harming our environment. If we can manage that, our
helped us predict what post-pandemic architecture and urbanism might present architecture and cities will continue to serve us well. However,
look like. Although we are not going to overhaul how we have been the post-pandemic era will see multiple challenges that require a better
building architecture and cities before, based on the current circum- understanding of COVID-19 and its socioeconomic effects on society.
stances and emergency measures, we should review our design strate- The future remains uncertain and thus future multidisciplinary studies
gies and planning theories. We could more effectively use healthy de- are required.
sign and planning strategies to face pandemics and create a less
pullulated, more sustainable architecture, and urbanism in general. Declaration of Competing Interest
Moreover, if we harnessed the security layers not only to prevent ever-
mutating virus attacks but a healing approach that could be im- The Authors declare that there is no conflict of interest.
plemented in the post-pandemic era, it could help build a sustainable
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