their regular form.

It should be noted that

Notes on Reduction of Propositions into while reducing an irregular categorical
Logical Form proposition into its standard form, we should
pay enough attention to the meaning of the
Article Shared By proposition so that the reduced proposition is
equivalent in meaning to its irregular
counterpart.
There are four standard forms of categorical
propositions such as A, E, I and O-
propositions having the structure of the Before describing the method of reduction of
form, ‘All S is P’ ‘No S is P’, ‘Some S is P’ and irregular propositions into their regular
‘Some S is not P’ respectively. Thus, we forms, it is profitable to understand the
know that the logical structure of any reasons for irregularity of a categorical
categorical proposition exhibits the following proposition: The irregularity of any
four items in the order as given below. categorical proposition may be due to one or
more of these following factors.

Quantifier (Subject term) copula (predicate

term) (i) The copula is not explicitly stated; rather
it is mixed with the main verb which forms
the part of the predicate
Here the first item is the ‘quantifier’ (or more
precisely the words expressing the quantity
of the proposition). It is attached to the
subject term only. The second item in any
logical proposition is the subject term. The (ii) Though the logical ingredients of a
predicate term, that expresses something categorical proposition are present in the
about the subject, comes after the copula. sentence yet are not arranged in their proper
The copula is placed in between the subject logical order.
and predicate term.
(iii) The quantity of a categorical proposition
Further, the quality of the proposition is is not expressed by a proper word like ‘all’,
expressed in and through the copula. The ‘no’ (or none), ‘some’ or it does not contain
copula and the predicate term are any word to indicate the quantity of the
respectively the third and fourth logical proposition.
elements of a categorical proposition. Thus,
a categorical proposition which is in standard (iv) All exclusive, exceptive and interrogative
form must exhibit explicitly the subject, the propositions are clearly irregular.
predicate, the copula, its quality and
quantity. Let us call a categorical proposition (v) The quality of the proposition is not
regular if it is in its standard form, otherwise specified by attaching the sign of negation to
it is called irregular. the copula.

In our ordinary language most of the Keeping these factors in mind, let us
categorical propositions are irregular in describe systematically the method of
nature. Even though there are irregular reduction of an irregular categorical
categorical propositions they can be put in proposition into its standard form (or into a
regular proposition). Below we describe the “All sincere students deserve success.”
method of reduction. Irregular proposition.

I. Reduction of categorical propositions “All sincere students are success deserving.”

whose copula is not stated explicitly A – Proposition.

In our ordinary use of language, very often “All people seek power.” Irregular
the copula is not explicitly or separately proposition.
expressed but is mixed with the main verb.
The main verb in such a case forms the part “All people are power seekers.” A –
of the predicate. The moment copula is Proposition.
identified; the other items of a logical
proposition are brought out in a usual “Some people drink Coca Cola.” Irregular
manner. We know that the copula of any proposition.
logical proposition must be in present tense
of the verb “to be” with or without the sign
“Some people are Coca Cola drinkers.” I –
of negation.
proposition

Now let us consider an example of an

II. Irregular propositions where the usual
irregular proposition, where the copula is not
logical ingredients are all present but are not
explicitly stated. “All sincere students
arranged in their logical order.
deserve success”. This is an irregular
proposition, as the copula is clearly mixed
with the main verb of the proposition. The Consider the following examples of irregular
method of reducing such irregular sentences propositions. “All is well that ends well” and
into regular ones is as follows. The subject “Ladies are all affectionate.” In these cases,
and the quantifier of the irregular proposition first we have to locate the subject term and
should remain as they are, while the rest of then rearrange the words occurring in the
the proposition may be converted to a class proposition to obtain the regular categorical
forming property (i.e. term) which would be proposition. Such reductions are usually
our logical predicate. quite straight forward. Thus we reduce the
above two examples as given below.

In our above example ‘All’ is the quantifier

attached to the subject ‘sincere students’. “All is well that ends well.” Irregular
We should not touch the quantifier nor the proposition
subject term of the proposition, they should
remain where they are. On the other hand, “All things that end well are things that are
the rest of the proposition ‘deserve success’ well.” A – Proposition
should be converted into a class forming
property ‘success deserving’. This should be “Ladies are all affectionate.” Irregular
our logical predicate. Then we link the proposition
subject term with the predicate term with a
standard copula. Thus, “All ladies are affectionate.” A – Proposition
III. Statements in which the quantity is not treated as an O-proposition. Any such
expressed by proper quantity words. Some proposition may be reduced to its logical
propositions do not contain word like ‘All’, form as shown below.
‘No’, ‘some’ or contain no words to indicate
the quantity. We reduce such a type of “Every man is not honest”. Irregular
irregular proposition into its logical form as proposition
explained below.
“Some men are not honest.” O – Proposition
Here we have to consider two sub-cases :
sub-case (i) where there is indication of “Any student cannot get first class.”
quantity but no proper quantity words like Irregular proposition.
‘All’, ‘No’, on ‘Some’ are used and Sub case
(ii) where the irregular proposition contains
“Some students are not persons who can get
no word to indicate its quantity.
first class.” O – Proposition.

Sub-case (i): Affirmative sentences that

“All is not gold that glitters.” Irregular
begin with words like ‘every’, ‘any’, ‘each’
proposition.
are to be treated as A-propositions, where
such words are to be replaced by the word
“all” and rest of the proposition remains as it “Some things that glitter are not gold.” O –
is or may be modified as necessary. The Proposition.
followings are some of the examples of this
type.

“Every man is liable to commit mistakes.” Sub- Case (ii):

Irregular proposition.
“Sentences with singular term or definite
“All men are persons who liable to commit singular term without the sign of negation
mistakes.” A – Proposition. are to be treated as A-proposition. For
example, “Ram is mortal.”, “The oldest
“Each student took part in the competition.” university of Orissa is in Bhubaneswar.” are
Irregular proposition. A-propositions.

“All students are persons who took part in Here the predicate is affirmed of the whole
the competition.” A – Proposition. of the subject term. On the other hand,
sentences with singular term or definite
singular term with the sign of negation are
“Any one of my students is laborious.”
to be treated as E-propositions. For example,
Irregular proposition.
“Ram is not a student” and “The tallest
student of the class is not a singer” are to be
“All my students are laborious.” A – treated as E-propositions. These are cases
Proposition. where the predicate is denied of the whole of
the subject term.
A negative sentence that begins with a word
like ‘every’, ‘any’, ‘each’, or ‘all’ is to be
IV. “Sentences beginning with the words “Many Indians are religious.” Irregular
like ‘no’, ‘never’, ‘none’ are to be treated as proposition.
E-propositions. The following sentence is an
example of this type. “Some Indians are religious.” I – proposition.

“Never men are perfect.” Irregular “Certain books are not readable.” Irregular
proposition proposition

“No man is perfect.” E – Proposition “Some books are not readable.” O –

Proposition
V. Affirmative sentences with words, like ‘a
few’, ‘certain’, ‘most’, ‘many’ are to be “Most of the students are not rich.” Irregular
treated as I-propositions, while negative proposition.
sentences with these words are to be treated
as “Some students are not rich.” O –
Proposition
O-propositions. Since the word ‘few’ has a
negative sense, an affirmative sentence “Few men are above temptation.” Irregular
beginning with the word ‘few’ is negative in proposition
quality. A negative sentence beginning with
the word ‘few’ is affirmative in quality
“Some men are not above temptation.” O –
because it involves a double negation that
Proposition
amount to affirmation. The following are
examples of above type.
“Few men are not selfish.” Irregular
proposition
“A few men are present.” Irregular
proposition.
“Some men are selfish.’ I

“Some men are present.” I – proposition.

VI. Any statement whose subject is qualified
with words like ‘only’, ‘alone’, ‘none but’, or
“Certain books are good.” Irregular
‘no one else but’ is called an exclusive
proposition.
proposition. This is so called because the
term qualified by any such word applies
“Some books are good.” I – proposition. exclusively to the other term. In such cases
the quantity of the proposition is not
“Most of the students are laborious.” explicitly stated.
Irregular proposition.
The propositions beginning with words like
“Some students are laborious.” I – ‘only’, ‘alone’, ‘none but’ etc are to be
proposition. reduced to their logical form by the following
procedure. First interchange the subject and
Here we may note that ‘most’ means less the predicate, and then replace the words
then ‘all’ and hence it is equivalent to ‘some’. like ‘only’, ‘alone’ etc with ‘all’. For example,
“Only Oriyas are students of this college.” In such cases propositions in question are to
Irregular proposition. be reduced to A-proposition because the
subject in each of these cases is a definite
“All students of this college are oriyas.” A – description.
Proposition.
“It is cold”. Irregular proposition
“The honest alone wins the confidence of
people.” Irregular Proposition. “The whether is cold.” A – Proposition.

“All persons who win the confidence of “It is ten O’clock.” Irregular proposition.
people are honest.” A-proposition.
“The time is ten O’clock.” A – Proposition.
VII. Propositions in which the predicate is
affirmed or denied of the whole subject with There are some propositions where the
some exception is called an exceptive quantity is not specified. In such cases we
proposition. An exceptive proposition may be have to examine the context of its use to
definite or indefinite. If the exception is decide the quantity. For example, consider
definitely specified as in case of “All metals following sentences (1) “Dogs are
except mercury are solid” then the carnivorous”, (2) “Men are mortal”, (3)
proposition is to be treated as universal and “Students are present.” In first two
if the exception is indefinite, as in case of examples, the quantity has to be universal
“All metals except one is solid”, the but in the third case, it is particular. Thus,
proposition is to be treated as particular. their reductions into logical form are as
follows.
“All metals except mercury are solid.” is a
universal proposition which means “Dogs are carnivorous.” Irregular
proposition.
“All non-mercury metals are solid.”
“All dogs are carnivorous.” A – Proposition.
Now let us consider an example where the
exception is indefinite. For example, “All This is so because we know that “being
students of my class except a few are well carnivorous’ is true of all dogs.
prepared”, it is to be reduced to an I-
proposition as given below. “Men are mortal.” Irregular proposition.

“All students of my class except a few are “All men are mortal.” A – Proposition
well prepared.” Irregular proposition.

Here ‘being mortal’ is generally true of men.

“Some students of my class are well But in the proposition “Students are
prepared.” I – proposition. present”, we mean to assert that some
students are present”. So the proposition
VIII. There are impersonal propositions “Men are mortal” is reduced to “All men are
where the quantity is not specified. Consider mortal” But in the example “Students are
for example, “It is cold”, “It is ten O’clock”.
present”, ‘being present’ is not generally true
of all students.

So the proposition “Students are present” is

reduced to “Some dents are present” which
is an I-proposition. Thus the context of use
of a proposition determines the nature of the
proposition.

IX. Problematic propositions are particular in

meaning. For example “The poor may be
happy” should be treated as a particular
proposition, because what such a proposition
asserts is that it is sometimes true and
sometimes false.

Thus, “The poor may be happy” is reduced to

“Some poor people are happy”, which is an
I-proposition

X. Similarly, there are propositions where

the quantity is not specified but their
predicates are qualified by the words like
‘hardly’, ‘scarcely’, ‘seldom’. Such
propositions should be treated as particular
negative. For example, “Businessmen are
seldom honest”, is an irregular proposition.
It is reduced to “Some businessmen are not
honest”. If such a proposition contains the
sign of negation that these proposition is to
be treated as an I-proposition.

For example, “Businessmen are not seldom

honest.” is to be reduced to “Some
businessmen are honest”, which is an I –
proposition. This is so because it involves a
double negation which is equivalent to
affirmation