Topic: Non-vascular Plants

1. Explain why the oldest fossils of plants like spores, tracheids and cuticles were
preserved while other parts were not. (604)

The oldest fossils of plants like spores, tracheid and cuticle were preserved while other parts
were not because these are the derived traits that relate to terrestrial life that evolved within
many of the plant species. The plants moved from aquatic life to terrestrial. For instance, the
trait, cuticle, helps prevent excessive water loss from the above-ground plant organs.

2. Why did plants but not algae evolve (a) cuticle, (b) stomata, (c) lignin, (d) xylem, (e)
roots?

Plants evolved cuticle, stomata, lignin, xylem and roots and algae did not because algae was
submerge in water therefore it did not need the following since it already surrounded by
water. As for plants, these derived traits to help the plants adapt to the terrestrial
environment. Each derived traits contribute to the following:

CUTICLE: (604)
Plants evolved cuticle and algae did not because plant has a greater risk of desiccation than
algae. The cuticle help prevent excessive water loss.

STOMATA: (609 +776)

Plants evolved stomata and algae did not because stomata help with the CO₂ absorption
during photosynthesis as well as O₂ as a by-product, which is not necessary for algae since
it is submerge in water.

LIGNIN: (612)
Plant cells are lignified to give strength to the cell in which it helps the cell grow.

ROOTS (612)
Roots are necessary for plants because it absorb the water and nutrients from the soil. The
water and nutrients are absorb from the soil and transported to the shoot system for plant
growth.

3. Looking at the evolutionary line leading from green algae to vascular plants, be able to
state when the different characters evolved. (600)

a. Rosette-shaped cellulose synthesizing complexes

b. Peroxisomes enzymes
c. Structure of flagellated sperm
 d. Formation of a phragmoplast

4. Diagram a diplohaplontic life cycle.

Refer to drawings 602

5. Sketch the simplest sporophytes in the plant kingdom. What is their adaptive value
(i.e. how do they promote success in the terrestrial environment)?

Refer to drawing

Liverwort- simplest sporophytes

• Consist of foot, seta, capsule (sporangium)
o Foot-absorb nutrients from gameophyte
o Seta-conduct the amterial to the sporangium
o Capsule- uses nutrients to produces spores

6. Diagram the life cycles of the non-vascular plant divisions.

Refer to drawing (607)

7. Why are non-vascular plants most successful in moist habitats? (609)

Nonvascular plants are most successful in moist habitats because the female and male
gameophytes in most mosses are separate. Therefore, the sperm from the antherium needs
to swim through water in order to reach the egg in the archegonia.

8. What features distinguish non-vascular plants from other members of Kingdom

Plantae? (606)

Gameophytes are the dominant stages of the life cycle in nonvascular plants. The
gameophytes are larger and longer-living than the sporophytes. In addition, nonvascular
plant have smallest sporophyte. Rhizoid are present in nonvascular plants, which anchors
the gameophytes by long, tubular single cells or filaments of cells. Lack roots and true
leaves. The sperm of the nonvascular plants must swim to the egg.
 • Life Cycle: gameophyte dominant
• Gameotype: larger and longer living
• Sporophytes: smaller
• Rhizord
• Lack roots and true leaves
• Sperm have to swim to the egg

9. Name features that are shared by non-vascular plants and seedless vascular plants.
(605)

Multicellular embryos and apical meristem

Topic: Seedless Plants

1. What economic value comes from fossils of seedless vascular plants? (610)

The economic values that comes from the fossils of seedless vascular plants is that it
provided an insight into the plant evolution during the Devonian and Carboniferous period.
The fossils of seedless vascular plants also shows how their group outgrew their bryophytes
counterparts.

2. Name features that distinguish seedless vascular plants from non-vascular plants.
(611)

o Life cycle: Sporophyte dominant

o Transport: phloem and xylem
o Well-developed roots and leaves

3. Which divisions of seedless vascular plants have members with (a) microphylls? (b)
megaphylls? (c) leaves? (d) roots? (e) strobili? (f) jointed stems? (g) rhizomes? (h)
branching sporophytes? (612-614)

a. Microphylls- Lycophytes
b. Megaphylls- Pterophyte
c. Leaves- Lycophytes, Pterophytes
d. Roots- lycophytes, Pterophytes
e. Strobili- lycophytes
f. Joined stems- pterophytes
g. Rhizomes-Pterophytes
h. Branching sporophytes- pterophytes
 Pterophytes- b,c,d,f,g,h • Branching sporophytes
• Megaphyll Lycophytes- a,c,d,e
• Leaves • Microphylls
• Roots • Leaves
• Joined stems • Roots
• Rhizomes • Stobili

4. Describe adaptive benefits that early plants received when they evolved lignin. (612)

The adapative benefits that early plants received when they evolved lignin were the cell
walls of the plants were strengthened. In addition, it allowed vascular plant to gorw tall.
Their stem became strong enough to hold up against gravity and they could transport water
and mineral high above the ground. This lead the plants to tall growth, in which natural
selection favored taller plants since it reduce the access of sunlight to those plants that were
shorter.

Topic: Heterospory and Seed Plants

1. Diagram the difference between homosporous and heterosporous life cycles. Which
life cycle evolved first? (619)

VASCULAR PLANTS: Homosporous= Seedless Hetersporous= Seed

Gameophyte Reduced independent Reduced dependent on
(photosynthesis and free- surroundings sporophyte
living) tissue for nutrition
sporophyte Dominant Dominant
Examples Pterophytes: Fern Angiosperm

Homosporous life cycle evolved first because most seedless plant are homosporous and
seedless plant came before seed plant. In addition, the plant started out with a dominant
gameophyte life cycle, which are present in the earlier plants of nonvascular plant like moss
and the sporophytes depended on the gameophytes for nutrition. However, as time progress,
the evolutionary trend was gameophyte reduction and that is why we cannot see the
gameophytes on a flower, an angiosperm species, which is the most widespread and diverse
species.
• Homosporous life cycle evolved first

2. Describe the advantages offered by heterospory over homospory. (620)

The advantages offered by heterospory over the homospory are that the
 pollen grain, in which is carrying the sperm-producing male gameophyte
can travel long distance versus a sperm with flagella swimming to the
archgonia in a fern plant. The sperm of a heterosporus plant is
nonmotible and can be carried long distance whereas the sperm of a
homosporous plant is motible. In addition, in a hetersporous plant, when
the sperm fertilize the egg of a seed plant, the zygote grows into a
sporophyte embryo. Then the ovule develop into a seed. Since it is a
seed, it has a longer lifetime than a spore.

• Sperm can travel long distance with the pollen grain

• Sperm became nonmotible in the seed plant
• Ovule become seed the seed have a longer dormancy stage than spores.
• Increasing dominance of sporophytes
• The advent of seed as a resistant
• Dispersible stage in life cycle

3. How did the evolution of heterospory contribute to further plant evolution? (621+628)

The evolution of heterospory contribute to further plant evolution by the sperm to be carried
long distance, which increase the genetic variability. In addition, gymnosperm evolved thick
cuticle and relatively small surface area of their needle-shaped leaves to adapt to the arid
climates, which further the plant evolution because it was more suited to the enivronemnt
than lycophytes, so it replaced the lycophytes during the carboniferious period. The
evolution of angiosperm is not fully understood, but it further plant evolution by promoting
cross pollination, which made it the most diverse and widespread seed plants.

• Spore that contain sperms being carried long distance increase genetic variability
• During carboniferous period, gymnosperm replaced lycophytes because it was able
to adapt to the arid climate with their thick cuticle and small surface area of needle-
shaped leaves

4. Which Seedless Vascular Plants have members with heterospory? (614)

Lycophytes
• Spike mosses (selaginella)
• Quillwort
Topic: Seedplants

1. What feature distinguishes gymnosperms from all other groups of plants? (621)

Strobili, exposed seeds on a modified leaves that form a cone, are features that distinguishes
gymnosperms from all the other group of plants. Another name for gymnosperm and their
distinguishable features are the “naked” seeds.

2. Which gymnosperm division (a) is the chief source of lumber? (b) was dominant in the
age of dinosaurs? (c) has one living species? (d) is most related to flowering plants?
(622)

a. Conifer (douglas fir)

b. Cycad
c. Ginkgo
d. Gnetophytes (gnetum)

3. Diagram the life cycle of pine.

Refer to page 624

4. State the ploidy of each structure named in the life cycle of pine.

Refer to 624 (example n, 2n)

5. Describe pollination and fertilization in pine

6. Describe the development of the pine seed from the fertilized ovule, and identify the
structures in the ovule that become the storage tissue and seed coat. (624)

Endospermstorage tissues
Intregument seed coat

7. How do the ovule, and pollen grain, and seed improve on the corresponding items in
seedless plants with respect to survival on dry land? (624)
 Pollen grain can disperse better which increase the genetic variability.
Ovule-protects the megasporocyte
Seed- longer lifetime, food supply for embryo

8. Defend the view that seed plants are heterosporous.

Topics: Angiosperms, Origin and Flowering and Pollinator adaptations

1. Looking at the evolutionary line leading from seedless vascular plants to angiosperms,
be able to state when the different characters evolved.

2. State the defining differences between gymnosperms and the angiosperms. (628)

The differences between angiosperm and gymnosperm:

• Angiosperm have two integument
• Gymnosperm have one integument
• Angiosperm- double fertilization- one embryo and endosperm
• Gymnosperm-double fertilization- two embryo

3. Diagram the life cycle of a flowering plant.

Refer to 627,802-803

4. Given a diagram of a flower, identify all the structures.

Refer to 627,802-803

5. Given a micrograph or diagram of an ovule or seed, identify the structures and

describe their ploidy.

Refer to 627,802-803
6. Describe the radiation of angiosperms. Where and when did they first evolve? What
evidence points to that time and places? (628, notes)

Early cretaceous in the middle morocco, brazil

Radiation of the angiosperm is adapting to different habitat.

Angiosperm originated at least 140 mya during the late Mesozoic era. (628)

7. What might have caused a reversion to wind pollination? Show how their flowers
differ from those of animal-pollinated plants and explain how the changes in their
flowers contribute to reproductive success. (625)

Smaller greener leaves

Not depend on bugs
And they bloom on the early before leaves
And do not produce nectar

Insect-pollination might have caused a reversion to wind pollination because it is more

direct than wind pollination. The insect or animal transfers the pollen from one flower to the
sex organ of another flower. The flowers that are wind-pollinated are usually in dense
population and lack bright colored parts like grasses and tree species in temperate forests
and animal pollinated plants are usually have bright colored parts.

• Insect-pollination caused decrease in wind-pollination

• Wind-pollinated flowers

o Lack color

o Dense population
8. Illustrate the trend toward a reduced gametophyte by comparing seedless plants,
gymnosperms, and angiosperms.

Gameophyte Size (802)

Seedless plant > gymnosperm > angiosperm (consisting of only a few cells)

Refer to 619

9. What advantage might have been gained by reducing the gametophyte phase? (619 ?)

Reduced gametophytes allow for more spore production since the sporophyte is dominant
in the life cycle.

Reduced gameophytes allowed to promote cross pollination by allowing it to travel further.

Reduced gameophytes Increase #

10. Describe 3 ways in which plants reduce the extent of self-fertilization. (813)

1.different individuals have either staminate flowers or carpellate flowers, which are in
the cases of dioecious species.

2.self-incompatibility in plants- the ability of a plant to reject its own pollen or a closely
related species

3. the structure arrangement that prevent an animal pollinator could not transfer pollen
from an anther to a stigma of the same flower

4. the functional stamen and carpel that mature at a different time

11. Illustrate coevolution between insects and flowers by contrasting a primitive

flower/insect pair (beetle and magnolia) with a highly evolved pair (bee and orchid).
Show how traits of the plant match traits of the insect. (804)
 Refer to notes on 11/4/2010 on pg 2.

Orchid- bilateral- one direction-bee (hairy)

Magnolia- radial- all direction-beetle (clumsy cause the anther to shake pollen falls down
to the carpel OR beetle carry by foot)

Topic: Fruits and Seeds; Dispersal and Germination

1. What is the difference between a seed and a fruit? (626)

The difference between seed and fruit is a seed is a mature ovule and a fruit is a mature
ovary. Therefore, a fruit protects a dormant seed and aid in dispersal.

Fruit is the ovary that protect the seed.

• Seed= mature ovule

• Fruit= mature ovary

2. Name the flower parts that may enlarge to form the flesh of a fruit. (626, 810)

The receptacle of the flower part may become enlarged to form the flesh of a fruit.

Accessorry fruits- receptacle

Simple fruits- ovary
Simple fruits w/ accessory tissue- accessory tissue and ovary

3. Describe how reserve materials are stored in seeds. (807)

The reserve materials are stored in seed. The seed stockpiles proteins, oils and starch to a
varying degree, depending on the species. The nutrients are stored in the seed’s endosperm
then later when the seed is more developed, it will be stored in the cotyledon.

4. What characteristics distinguish a green and a ripe fruit? Explain how the differences
promote seed dispersal. (626, 810)
 A fruit usually ripens about same time that its seeds complete their development. Fruit and
seed dispersal dispersal by water, dispersal by wind, dispersal animal

The characteristic that distinguish a green fruit is dry and a ripe fruit is fleshy. The
differences between the two promoting seed dispersal is the green fruit seed dispersal
functions like a parachute in the wind and a ripe fruit seed dispersal is carried by an animal.

5. Name the hormone that initiate fruit ripening.

ethylene

6. List three ways in which a dry fruit wall can promote seed survival an dispersal. (626)

1. Seeds can function as a parachute or a propeller

2. Adapted to dispersal by water
3. Carry by animal

7. Given a diagram of a fruit, state whether it is a simple fruit with or without accessory
tissue, multiple fruit, or aggregate / accessory fruit. (810)

Refer to lab manual and lab notes

Topic: Plant Hormones

1. What are the 6 plant hormones. Characterize plant hormones with respect to (a)
typical concentrations, (b) sites in the plant where they are made, (c) variety of
responses that a hormone can cause.

Auxin(IAA)
• Typical concentration: High concentration for developing seed and fruit
• Synthesis: Shoot apical meristem and young leaves

• Function:

o simulate stem elongation

 o promote lateral and adventitious root
o regulate development of fruits
o enhance apical dominance
o promote vascular differentiation
o retards leaf abscission

Cytokinins
• Typical concentration:unknown
• Synthesis: primarily in the root
o And transported to other sites
• Function:
o regulate cell division in the root and shoots
o stimulate seed germination

Gibberellins
• typical concentration
• synthesis:
o meristem of apical buds
o Roots
o Young leaves
o Developing seed
• Functions:
o Stimulate stem
o Pollen development
o Pollen tube growth
o Fruit growth
o Seed development
Brassinosteriod
• Synthesis: present in all plant tissue
• Function
o Promote cell expansion
o Promote cell division
o Promote root growth @ low concentration

Abscisis Acid
• Synthesis: major organs and living tissue
• Function
o Inhibits growth
o Promotes stomatal closure during drought stress
o Promotes seed dormancy
o Inhibit early germination
Ethylene
Synthesis: produced by almost all plant
 Function:
• Promotes ripening of many types of fruit
• Leaf abscission
• Promote root and root hair formation
•

2. State which hormones are involved in the growth of fruits and in the maturation
(ripening) of fruits.

Ethylene- ripening
Auxin- regulate the development of fruit
Gibberellins- fruit growth

3. For each response listed below, describe the initiating stimulus, and the hormone
involved: Seed germination; phototropism; gravitropism; abscission; initiation of
roots; promotion of axillary bud growth.

Seed germination: giberellin

Phototropism: Auxin
Gravitropism: Auxin
Abscission: ethylene
Initiation of roots: auxin
Promotion of axillary bud growth: cytokinin counter the action of auxin (830)

4. Which hormone is present in gametophytes where is it produced and what are the
function

giberellins