SURFACE MINING TECHNOLOGY

Methods
 Surface mining
• It is a type of mining in which soil and rock
overlying the mineral deposit
(the overburden) are removed.
• Surface mining is used when deposits of
commercially useful minerals or rocks are
found near the surface; that is, where the
overburden is relatively thin or the material of
interest is structurally unsuitable for tunneling
(as would usually be the case for sand ,
and gravel.)
• It is the opposite of underground mining ,in which
the overlying rock is left in place, and the mineral
removed through shafts or tunnels.
• In most forms of surface mining, heavy equipment,
such as earthmovers, first remove the overburden.
Next, huge machines, such as dragline
excavators or Bucket wheel excavators, extract the
mineral.
 Slope Stability
• The field of slope stability encompasses the
analysis of static and dynamic stability of slopes of
earth and rock-fill dams, slopes of other types of
embankments, excavated slopes, and natural slopes
in soil and soft rock .
• Slope stability investigation, analysis (including
modeling), and design mitigation is typically
completed by geologists ,engineering geologists ,
or geotechnical engineers .
• If the forces available to resist movement are
greater than the forces driving movement, the slope
is considered stable.
• A factor of safety is calculated by dividing the forces
resisting movement by the forces driving
movement. In earthquake-prone areas, the analysis
is typically run for static conditions and pseudo-
static conditions, where the seismic forces from an
earthquake are assumed to add static loads to the
analysis .
 Types of movement

• SLIDES
• Falls
Rock fall
• In open-pit mining a Stripping Ratio refers to the
amount of waste rock removed to recover ore. For
example, a stripping ratio of 3:1 means to recover
one ton of ore you must remove three tons of waste
rock.
• A large Stripping Ratio is less economically efficient
than a small one, because that means more rock
will need to be moved without generating revenue.
• If The ratio is going to be too large, then
underground mining will usually be more efficient .
lWhere minerals occur deep below the
surface—where the overburden is thick or
the mineral occurs as veins in hard rock—
underground mining methods are used to
extract the valued material.
lSurface mines are typically enlarged until
either the mineral deposit is exhausted, or
the cost of removing larger volumes of
overburden makes further mining no longer
economically viable .
Problem-4:
Calculate the value of stripping ratio, if a mining company says that
during the year 5.4 million tons of material was mined and that the
mill processed was 2.1 million tons.
• “Open pit mining "refers to a method of
extracting rock or minerals from the earth through
their removal from an open pit or borrow .

• "Mountaintop removal mining" (MTR) is a form of

coal mining that uses explosives to blast
"overburden" off the top of some Appalachian
mountains.
 Types of surface mining
"Strip mining“
• It is the practice of mining a seam of mineral by
first removing a long strip of overlying soil and rock
(the overburden).
• It is most commonly used to mine coal or tar sand.
Strip mining is only practicable when the ore body
to be excavated is relatively near the surface.
Mining
By 1852, mining operations were well
under way on the American River near
Sacramento. http://www.smithsonianmag.si.edu/smithsonian/issues98/jan98/mining_jpg.html
Open Pit Mine
http://imcg.wr.usgs.gov/usbmak/fig03.gif
Commonly mined materials and end uses
Mined
End uses
material
Generating electricity, making iron and steel, manufacturing chemicals
Coal
and other products.
Sand and gravel Building roads, homes, schools, offices, and factories.
Iron ore Steel products (kitchen utensils, automobiles, ships, buildings).
Aluminum ore
Military aircraft, naval vessels, pots and pans, beverage cans.
(bauxite)
Copper ore Electrical motors, generators, communications equipment, wiring.
Silver ore Electric and electronics circuitry, coins, jewelry, photographic film.
Gold ore Jewelry, satellites, sophisticated electronic circuits.
Diecasting, galvanizing brass and bronze, protective coatings on steel,
Zinc
chemical compounds in rubber and paints.
Lead Batteries, solder, electronic components.
Bricks, paper, paint, glass, pottery, linoleum, concrete, wallboard,
Clay
spackling, pencils, microwavable containers, vegetable oil.
Gypsum Concrete, wallboard, spackling, caulking, potting soil.
Phosphate Plant fertilizers.
Salt Cooking, drinking water, plastics, highway de-icing, detergents.
In the solution mining
method of extraction,
water is forced under
pressure into a cavity
which forms in the
underground salt bed, as
the salt dissolves. This
turns the water into brine
containing about 30% salt.
The saturated raw brine is
pumped to the purification
plant where calcium,
magnesium and other
impurities are removed,
prior to the evaporation
process.
http://www.saltinfo.com/salt%20production4.html
http://www.miningmuseum.org/
http://imcg.wr.usgs.gov/usbmak/fig16.jpg
http://www.mcintoshengineering.com/Services/mineengineering.htm
The illustration above shows a drift type of underground
mine. A mine opening is made at the same elevation as
the coals seam and mining is conducted using typically
either longwall mining or room and pillar mining with
continuous mining equipment. Coal is transported to the
surface by conveyor belts. This method of mining is
used when the coal seam outcrops at the surface, or
when a bench has to be constructed on a mountain side
to mine the coal. http://66.113.204.26/mining/coal/undergnd_mining.htm
The illustration shows a shaft
type of underground mine. A
mine opening is made by sinking
a shaft down to the elevation of
the coal seam. Mining is
conducted using typically either
longwall mining or room and
pillar mining with continuous
mining equipment. Coal is
transported to the surface by a
skip hoist. This is the most
expensive type of underground
mine to build and operate. This
method of mining coal is usually
utilized when the coal seam is
deep below the surface.
The illustration above shows a slope type of underground mine.
A mine opening is made by tunneling from the surface down to
the elevation of the coal seam. Mining is conducted using
typically either longwall mining or room and pillar mining with
continuous mining equipment. Coal is transported to the surface
by conveyor belts. This method of mining coal is usually utilized
when the coal seam is not far from the surface, and the outcrop
of the coal seam is not exposed.
Reclamation plans include many of the following
concerns: drainage control, preservation of top soil,
segregation of waste material, erosion and
sediment control, solid waste disposal, control of
fugitive dust, regrading, and restoration of waste
and mine areas. The plan must also consider the
effects of mine subsidence, vibration (induced by
mining, processing, transport, or subsidence), and
impact on surface water and groundwater. These
environmental items often dictate the economics of
a planned mining operation and determine its
viability.
http://www.mines.edu/fs_home/jhoran/ch126/tailings.htm
 Acid Mine Drainage

Pyritic mine tailings leach acid mine drainage

originating in a large part to the metabolic
activity of Thiobacillus ferrooxidans(5). This
bacterial microbe has been implicated as the
major culprit in the pollution of streams
emanating from active and abandoned mining
operations. Abiotic oxidation of pyrite is slow. T.
ferrooxidans catalyzes the oxidation of FeS2,
producing ferric ions and hydrogen ions.

http://www.mines.edu/f
s_home/jhoran/ch126/
microbia.htm
AMD (Acid Mine Drainage)

http://www.mines.edu/fs_home/jhoran/
ch126/amd.htm
Mining, particularly gold
mining, is an increasing threat
to the world's rainforests and http://www.rainforestweb.org/Rainforest
to forest communities. _Destruction/Mining/
During the lifetime of the average American, he or
she will use: http://imcg.wr.usgs.gov/usbmak/thisis.html

Ø 1,600 kg (3,600 lb) of aluminum

Ø 360 kg (800 lb) of zinc

Ø 11,300 kg (25,000 lb) of clay

Ø 25,400 kg (56,000 lb) of steel

Ø 360 kg (800 lb) of lead

Ø 680 kg (1,500 lb) of copper

Ø 12,200 kg (27,000 lb) of salt

Ø More than 226,000 kg (500,000 lb) of coal

Ø More than 453,000 kg (1 million lb) of stone, sand, gravel, and

cement.
 Possible Science Fair Experiment
• http://www.mines.edu/fs_home/jhoran/ch1
26/amd.htm
Global Trends in Opencast Mining
Heavy Earth Moving Machineries
(HEMM)

Dr. H.K.Naik
Associate Professor,
Department of Mining Engineering
National Institute of Technology
Rourkela (India)
 INTRODUCTION
The history of mineral development is as old as the civilization.

In case of India, the mineral production dates back to the ancient times
as the mining activities can be traced as far back as 6,000 years or so.

It has been found that the people of Mahenzodaro – Haroppa (Pakistan)

and Lothal (Gujrat) Civilization used metals for their weapons,
armaments and ornaments.

The remains of some of the old mine workings are a witness to this fact.
A few of these workings have led to the discovery of a number of
significant mineral deposits, which are being worked in the present time.

These include the lead - zinc deposit at Zawar, copper deposit at Khetri,
and gold deposits in Karnataka.
The metallurgical and mineral industries constitute the
bedrock of industrial development as they provide the
basic raw materials for most of the industries.

The importance of mineral development for the

economic growth of a country was realized in India
long back.

As early as 326 B.C. Chanakya in his “Kautilya’s

Arthasastra” first documented the importance of
minerals. He mentioned “Mines are the sources of
treasury, from treasury comes the power of
Government and the Earth whose armament is by
means of treasury and army”.
Though the legacy of mining in India is very old, the
mineral production was of limited quantity and restricted
to a few minerals only.

The situation did not change much till the end of British
rule in India.

Prior to independence, the country was largely

dependent on imports of commodities such as copper,
lead, zinc, sulphur, graphite, petroleum, etc.

On the eve of Independence, the annual value of mineral

production was merely Rs.0.58 billion, and the inventory
details were available only in respect of few minerals
such as - coal, iron ore, chromite, bauxite, manganese
ore and magnesite.
After the political independence came in the year 1947, the
important role of mines and mineral development in the country’s
economic growth was realized, and an impetus to the
development of the mineral sector was imparted in the country.

The exploration of minerals was intensified and the Geological

Survey of India (GSI) was strengthened for the purpose.

The Indian Bureau of Mines (IBM) was established to look after

the scientific development and conservation of mineral
resources. IBM was also assigned the responsibility of
conducting exploration with more of emphasis on coal, iron ore,
limestone, dolomite, and manganese ore keeping in view the
requirement of the proposed steel plants.

Later, in 1972 when the Mineral Exploration Corporation Limited

(MECL) was established, this function was transferred to it.
Coal was the one to have received the maximum
attention for being the basic fuel for a whole range of
industries such as steel, railways and power plants.

Capacity for large-scale production of various minerals was

created in the public sector such as:
1. National Coal Development Corporation (NCDC) 1956
2. National Mineral Development Corporation (NMDC) 1958,
3. Bharat Aluminium Company (BALCO) 1965,
4. Pyrites, Phosphates and Chemicals Ltd. (PPCL) 1960,
5. Hindustan Zinc Ltd. (HZL) 1966,
6. Neyveli Lignite Corporation Ltd. (NLC) 1957
7. Hindustan Copper Ltd. (HCL) 1967,
8. Bharat Gold Mines Ltd. (BGML) 1972,
9. Steel Authority of India (SAIL), formerly Hindustan Steel
Ltd 1973.
 THE PRESENT SCENARIO
Presently, India produces as many as 89 minerals
comprising 4 fuel minerals, 11 metallic minerals,
52 non-metallic minerals and 22 minor minerals.
In 1999-2000 the aggregate mineral production of
the country was about 550 million tones,
contributed by over 3,100 mines (reporting
mines) producing coal, lignite, limestone, iron
ore, bauxite, copper, lead, zinc, etc.
The mining leases numbering 9,244 were spread
over 21 States on about 13,000 mineral deposits
occupying about 0.7 million hectares which is
0.21 per cent of the total land mass of the
country.
As on 31st March, 2009 the total number of leases for
minerals excluding fuel, atomic and minor minerals was
9308 covering an area of 493000 hectares.

In 2009 India has been the third highest hard coal producing
country (about 526Mt) only after China (2971Mt) and U.S.A.
(919Mt).

But this production was not sufficient to meet the country’s

demand, as a result of which India had to import 67Mt of
coal.

During the financial year 2009 – 10 country’s coal production

target was 535.23 MT of which 416.47 MT was produced up to
January 2010.
 Table 1: Coal production of India During 2009 - 10

2009 -10 Target (in Actual upto Jan. 2010

Company
Million Tonnes) (in Million Tonnes)

CIL 437.40 338.42

SCCL 45.00 41.03

Others 52.83 37.02

Total 535.23 416.47

Lignite production from all Mines of Lignite
Corporation Ltd. during the current
financial year put together at 22.34 MT

The Recoverable reserves of some of the important

minerals/ores in India as on 1970 and 1995 are given
below

(Table 2).
Table 2: Recoverable reserves of some important minerals/ores in India as on 1970 & 1995

Recoverable reserves ( million tones )

Minerals/Ores 1970 1995
(hematite) 8244 10,052
(magnetite) 2025 3,408

Bauxite 233 2,462

Copper 244 461
Lead & Zinc 107 176
Dolomite 1152 4,386
Limestone 73199 75,678
Chromite 9 86
Coal ** 94000 210000
** Total geological reserve
The value of mineral production in India during 1999-2000 was
estimated at Rs.452.3 billion of which the contribution from
public sector was Rs.378.4 billion (84%).

In the total value of mineral production, fuel minerals

accounted for Rs.372.3 billion (82%), metallic minerals at
Rs.34.2 billion (8%) nonmetallic minerals Rs.18.3 billion (4%)
and minor minerals Rs.27.6 billion (6%).

The mineral production in 1970-71, 1990-91 and 1999-2000

are given in the following table (Table 3).

It may be observed from the table that there has been a rapid
growth in the production of coal and lignite, iron ore and
limestone in the past three decades.
 Table 3: Production of some selected minerals in India (by mineral groups)

Mineral Unit 1970-71 1990-91 1999-2000

Non metallic minerals
Limestone Million tonnes 23.8 70.1 127.9
Dolomite Million tonnes 1.1 2.6 2.9
Gypsum Million tonnes NA 1.7 3.3
Diamond (000 Carats) 20 18.0 41

Mineral Unit 1970-71 1990-91 1999-2000

Fuel minerals
Coal Million tonnes 73.7 211.3 300.0
Lignite Million tonnes 3.5 14.0 21.9
Crude oil Million tonnes NA 33.0 32.0
Natural gas NA 18.0 26.4
Metallic minerals
Bauxite Million tonnes 1.4 5.0 6.8
Chromite Million tonnes 0.3 0.9 1.7
Copper ore Million tonnes 0.5 5.3 3.1
Iron ore Million tonnes 31.4 55.5 73.5
Manganese ore Million tonnes 1.7 1.5 1.6
Lead & zinc ore Million tonnes NA NA 2.7
Gold ore Million tonnes NA NA 0.7
Presently India is one of the World’s
top 10 producers of non-petroleum
minerals.
In 1970s, in India, a purposeful thrust was given towards surface
mining to meet the increasing mineral demand, and since then the
country’s mining industry has experienced a phenomenal shift from
underground to surface mining for production of different minerals
in general and coal in particular.

The upsurge of the surface mining activities has resulted in

establishing large size surface coal mines such as:

(Jayant, Nigahi, Dudhichua, Amlohri, Gevra and Dipka, Rajmahal,

Piparwar, Ashoka, etc.) and

surface metal mines (Kudremukh, Malanjkhand, Rampur-Agucha,

etc.), increase in production from existing surface mines, increase
in size of conventional mine equipment and introduction of new
equipment and new technology.
Of the 89 different minerals that are mined today in India, most are coming from surface
mines.

Some of the minerals, produced exclusively or mainly from underground mines earlier,
are currently being produced by surface mines also.

Presently, in the country, the surface mines contribute the major share (more than 88%)
of the coal & lignite production, more than 50% of copper ore and lead & zinc ore and a
considerable amount of manganese ore produced.

Chromite comes from both surface and underground mines.

A small portion (about 10% of the total production) of gold ore is also extracted by
surface mining.

Recently a surface mine has been opened up, and few more are likely to come into
existence in near future, to extract uranium ore in the country.

Only petroleum and natural gas come exclusively from underground mines.
In 2010 – 11 the number of reporting mines (excluding fuel, atomic and minor
minerals) is 2054 and the number of operating underground mines (excluding
fuel, atomic and minor minerals) is 85 only.
Almost 100% of the country’s production of the
minerals other than coal & lignite, copper ore, lead
and zinc ore, uranium ore, chromite, manganese
ore, gold ore, steatite and petroleum and natural
gas comes from surface mines.

More than 80% of the total mineral production, in

terms of both volume and value, of India comes
from surface mines, and the same trend is likely to
continue for the next few decades.
 THE CHALLENGES AHEAD
The main challenge to the surface mining industry
of the present-day as well as of the years to come
is that of extracting minerals from increased
depth while fulfilling the increasing production
demand and maintaining the economy of
operation.

The problems of maintaining the operational

economy are further compounded with the
decrease in mineral grade and increase in
complexities of geological setting.
The average depth of currently operating surface coal mines in the country has been
estimated at 80m.

The currently operating deepest surface coal mine is Amlohri where the deep most
working bench in Turra Seam has reached a depth of 160m.

The Amlohri mine has been planned to be worked by surface mine up to a depth of about
300m.

A number of other surface coal mines – Jayant, Dudhichua, Nigahi and Jhingurda in NCL,
Gevra in SECL, Sonepur-Bazari in ECL and Gautam Khani in SCCL- have been planned
up to depths exceeding 200m.

Malanjkhand and Rampur-Agucha have been planned to go to depths beyond 200m.

Elsewhere in the world, a number of surface mines (Rossing uranium ore mine in
Namibia, iron ore mines is Ural, borax mine of Rio Tinto in California and gold mine in
Finniston, Western Australia) are operating at or planned to go beyond the depth of
350m.

The Ekibastas surface coal mine in Russia has been planned up to a depth of 500m.

The world’s deepest surface mine, the Bringham Canyon copper mine in Utah, USA, is
reaching a depth of 760m.
In general the deep mines are of larger size, and with the increase in mine
size the following problems are generally enhanced.

• The problem of land acquisition and land clearance

Though the area covered by mining leases in India is only about 0.2 to
0.25 percent of the country’s landmass, the land acquisition and clearance
is a problem for various reasons and it is more so if forest areas are
involved.

• The problem of resettlement and rehabilitation

It is necessary to resettle and rehabilitate the persons displaced due to

acquisition of land for mining purposes. This poses a lot of problems as
such and is further enhanced if there is political interference and/or
interference of NGOs.
• The problem of increased stripping ratio
Increase in stripping ratio means increase in overburden/waste rock
handling. This increases the mineral production cost directly as well as
indirectly.

•The problem of increased generation of overburden/waste material and

subsequent overburden/waste dump planning –

With the increase in depth of working and increasing stripping ratio, the quantity
of overburden/waste material that is to be handled to produce a certain quantity
of mineral/ore increases at a faster rate. Proper placement of the
overburden/waste material in dumps, external and/or internal (in case of flat or
gently dipping bedded deposits) calls for integrated planning and design of
overburden/waste dumps.

The dump planning includes the selection of dump site and dump geometry
giving due consideration to the foundation competence and inclination, material
properties (cohesion and effective friction), the likely environmental impacts, the
hazard potential and the overall economics of dump formation and maintenance.
 -The problem of slope stability –

Stability of high wall benches and of overburden/waste dumps is of

major concern in case of deep surface mines.

With the increase in depth of mine workings, the height of high walls
(and that of internal backfills incase of bedded deposits) also
increases.

To have stable slopes in mines, a proper slope stability planning, slope formation
and slope stabilization method is of prime importance.

The deep surface mines are likely to have large external dumps of greater height,
which are more likely to develop instability. To have safe dumps, therefore, proper
planning and design, suitable formation (including zonation) and slope stabilization
methods (including installation of proper drainage system) are to be followed.
More over to assess the stability (or instability) condition of slopes, some form of
continuous slope monitoring method/system needs to be implemented.
A birds eye view of surface mine slopes
Slope stability study in surface mines
 -The problem of increased transport cost –

As the mines are going to be deeper, the vertical lift from

the bottom most benches and the average distance of ore
and/or waste transport will be increasing.

At comparatively lower depth high capacity dumpers may

be used in case of shovel-dumper operation to minimize the
overall transport costs.

However, in case of high depth, the cost of dumper

transport may become prohibitive, and in such cases the
use of in-pit crusher – conveyor (shiftable and/or high
angle conveyor) system may have to be adopted.
 The problem of accumulation of
noxious gasses in the bottom of the
benches –

In deep mines, the carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide gases produced by the
diesel-operated equipments are likely to be accumulated in the bottom benches.

In case of deep surface coal mines, there is also likely hood of accumulation of
methane in the bottom benches. If such a condition arises, suitable artificial
ventilation measures have to be adopted. The other problem areas are:

-The problem of blast vibration and air vibration

-The problem of creation of a large water body at the end of
mining.
-The problem of changes in hydrologic regime.
-The problem of increased level of impacts on physical
environment (land, water, air, flora and fauna) during active mine
life.
 THE DEVELOPMENTS

The challenges of economic extraction of minerals are

being met presently and have to be met in future
through necessary and appropriate developments.

During the last few decades, a number of developments

have taken place in the surface mining industry.

The developments are in terms of improvement of

conventional equipment, introduction of new
equipment, introduction of new system and
introduction of new technology.
 • Conventional Equipment –
In terms of development of conventional equipment, the power and
capacity have been greatly increased and improved and advanced
features have been incorporated.

Presently, in India, the largest size electric rope shovel is being used in
Piparwar Open Cast Project (OCP) of CCL.

The 20m3 shovel fitted with a 25m3 bucket feeds the hopper of a fully
mobile crusher.

At Amlohri OCP of NCL and Rajmahal OCP of ECL, 20m3 shovels are
working in conjunction with 170t dumpers.

The use of 10m3 shovel – 120 t dumpers is becoming a regular feature

in the country’s surface mines.

Hydraulic shovels of bucket capacities 3 to 5m3 are used in many of the

surface mines.
The draglines that are used in Indian Surface coal
mines are mainly of 24m3 – 96m size.

The drills used in dragline benches are of 300 –

325 mm dia range.

In shovel benches drills up to 250 mm dia prevails.

With the increase in size/capacity of the

conventional equipments, the modern ones also
incorporate improved features that optimize their
operational efficiency.
The modern day drills have features like auto-positioning,
auto-levelling, auto-regulation of thrust and r.p.m., semi
automatic handling of drill rods and automatic recording of
drilling data (that may be analyzed latter) through the use
of sensors and pre-programmed chips.

The shovel and draglines are fitted with systems that

automatically records the equipment performance data.

Some of the models of Volvo dumpers have independent

elephant foot suspension system, which improves the
performance of these dumpers to a great extent particularly
in rough conditions.
It is envisaged that the large size draglines of 45 to 55 m3
bucket size with over 100m dumping radius, 40 to 45 m3
capacity rope shovels, 10 to 15 m3 capacity hydraulic
shovels, 850 h.p. dozers and 240 to 320 t dumpers will be
used in some of the large size coal mines in future.

In an effort to increase the coal production of Gevra

project of SECL to about 60 million tones per annum, use
of 62 m3 shovel with matching dumper capacity is under
active consideration.

Elsewhere in the world, the large mines have increasingly

switched over to higher truck sizes of 290 t (Komatsu 930
E), 328 t (Hitachi EH 5000), 345 t (Caterpillar 797B) and
370t (Liebharr T282).
 New Equipments (Surface Miner)

The latest equipment that has been introduced in

Indian surface mining industry is the surface
miner.
The first surface miner was introduced in one of the
lime stone mine of Gujrat Ambuja Cement Ltd in
Feb. 1995.
Since then, the number of surface miners in Indian
Surface mines is steadily increasing and the first
surface miner in Indian surface coal mine was
introduced in Lakhanpur OCP of MCL in June
1999.
Presently, most of the surface miners being used in India are of
Wirtgen Gmbh make.

Only a very few are of Bitelli type, and very recently L & T
surface miners have been commissioned in some of the OCPs of
MCL and some of the lime stone mines in the country.

Though in India the surface miners are used in lime stone mines
and in some coal mines (for extraction of coal only), elsewhere in
the Globe these equipments are used also for mining of iron ore
and other such hard materials. The surface miners are being used
in a stone quarry for production of stone chips also.

It is necessary to conduct necessary studies to assess the

applicability of surface miners for iron ore mines as well as
for excavation of overburden benches in coal mines in India.
 New Systems
In an effort to optimize the dumper performance, truck dispatching
system has been introduced in few surface mines (Jayant OCP of
NCL, West Bokaro mine of TISCO, etc.) of India.

In this system, all dumpers serve all shovels in place of assigning a

group of dumpers to a particular shovel.

The available dumper is routed to the shovel that is either kept idle for
maximum time or is going to be idle first time for want of dumper.
The system may be fully automatic or semi-automatic.

This system offers the advantages of minimizing the waiting time of

dumpers thereby improving their productivity and economizing the
number of dumpers for a particular number of shovels thereby
lowering the required capital investment.
In-pit crushing and conveying offers number of advantages over conventional
dumper transport system (such as, high capacity, better energy utilization, lower
unit transport cost, etc.).

The system may be classified into three main groups – system with permanent in-
pit crusher, system with relocatable in-pit crusher and system with fully mobile
crusher.

In the system with permanent in-pit crusher, the material from all the faces are
transported to the crusher by dumper transport and the crushed material are
transported to destination by belt conveyor network.

In case of relocatable crushers, one crusher serves a group of faces. Here also, the
dumpers are used to transport the material from the faces to the particular crusher
and the crushed material is transported to destination via belt network. This system
offers the advantage of relocating the crusher at an interval of time (usually 3 to 7
years) depending on the movement of the faces.

In case of fully mobile crusher system, the excavator in the face loads directly on
the crusher hopper and the dumpers are totally eliminated from the transport
system. The crushed material is transported to destination via belt network.
In India, a fully mobile in-pit crusher-conveyor system
has been installed in Piparwar OCP of CCL for
handling the coal from the lower most coal seam
(Lowar Dakra) face.

The coal is excavated and loaded by a 20m3 shovel

fitted with 25m3 bucket to the fully mobile crusher
hopper and the crushed coal is directly transported to
the pit head washery via a belt network.

The system handles a production of about 7.5 million

tones per year .
Recent steep hike in diesel price may compel the surface
mining industry to explore the applicability of non-diesel
type of transport systems in the mines, particularly in case
of deeper mines.

In-pit crushing-conveying system is a proven technology

and use of high angle conveyors (to take care of the
vertical lift) and trolley wire assisted truck haulage are
other alternatives to the conventional truck haulage
system.

Trolley wire assisted trucks are operating in many mines

in USA, Canada, South Africa, Zambia and Zimbabwe.
Extraction of developed coal seams by surface
mining method is one of the challenges to the
present day coal mining industry in India.

Several problems such as– uncertain stripping ratio,

dilution of coal quality, inefficient drilling and
blasting and

falling of HEMM to the lower bench are generally

associated with this method, as a result the method
becomes less efficient.
In case, the coal is of low incubation period and/or fire
exists in the developed workings of the coal seam(s), the
problems are further aggravated.

To reduce some of these problems and improve the

safety of operation, the system of integrated blasting of
benches in coal seam(s), parting of contiguous seams
and the last overburden bench has been experimented
and adopted in some of Indian surface coal mines (Wani
OCP of WCL, Gautam Khani OCP of SCCL) extracting
developed coal seams.
 New Technology
Blasting is the predominant method of rock breakage in hard rock
mines. A lot of improvement has taken place in recent years in the
type of explosives and the blasting accessories that are used in
surface mines.

Most of the present-day surface mines use site mixed emulsion

explosives with the help of pump trucks with bulk loading facility.

The use of non-electric initiation systems are also becoming popular.

The electronic delay detonators have been developed recently and its
first trial in an Indian surface mine was carried out in 2004. These
detonators permit high accuracy in delay timing, large number of
delays within the range of 0 to 15000 milliseconds and use of
centralized networked blasting.
Surveying is an important operation in surface mines for
slope monitoring, equipment positioning and
preparation of mine plans including that of dumps apart
from day-to-day jobs of measurement of faces, high
wall benches and dumps.

With the increase in mine size and mine depth, it

assumes a greater importance.

For the surveying operations, the Smart Stations are

gradually becoming popular and replacing Total
Stations.

The Smart Stations provide the facilities of both the

GPS and Total Station.
Monitoring of slopes (high wall and dump) is very
important to assess the slope stability (or
instability) condition in surface mines.

The slope monitoring is important from the points

of view of maintaining a safe working condition
for both men and machine, to provide advance and
accurate information about any impending slope
failure and to provide such information that the
failure mechanism may be understood and the
appropriate remedial or mitigating measures may
be adopted.
The various slope monitoring techniques that are
available may be classified into two main
categories :
– observational techniques and
-- instrumentation techniques.
The observation techniques include terrestrial
surveying, EDM and automatic surveillance and
surveying with GPS.
The instrumentation techniques include use of
movement indicators, convergence meters,
strain meters, joint meters, extensometers,
inclinometers, deflectometers, etc.
However, the most effective slope
monitoring system is through micro-seismic
applications.

In this system, network of geophones is

used to detect the enhanced micro-seismic
activities that may take place in the event
of the slope becomes stressed.

This is a continuous monitoring system and

can provide both the visible and audible
alarm systems.
 CONCLUDING REMARKS
After a purposeful thrust towards surface mining was given in 1970s,
the mineral production from surface mines in India has increased
manifold. This is true for coal as well as for non-coal minerals.
With the increase in mineral demand and depletion of shallower and
higher-grade minerals, the present-day mining industry is
compelled to extract ore bodies of poorer grades from higher
depths and from more complex geological settings.
To maintain the economy of operation the mine size is being
increased to take the advantages of scale of operation, larger size
equipment are being deployed in order to reduce the unit
operation cost, new equipments being introduced to minimize/
reduce the costs of different unit operations and new technologies
are being adopted in order to improve the system efficiency and
improve safety conditions.
 Mining Methods
There are the two basic mining methods usually
practiced world over to exploit mineral resources:
surface mining and underground mining.
The amount of coal recovered and the impact
upon the property are both determined by which
of these mining methods is employed.
RUSSIAN MAKE 10/70 Dragline
BEML (DOZER)
MOTOR GRADER
BEML 1000 -1 WITH DUMPER
SURFACE MINER (WIRTGEN)
WHEEL DOZER G30D
 Surface Mining
In surface mining, the rock and soil above the
coal (the overburden) is drilled and blasted.
Then, the broken overburden is stripped away,
exposing the top of the coal seam.
Broken rock and debris are then cleaned away
and a loader breaks the coal from the seam
and loads it onto trucks.
After the coal is removed, the overburden is
replaced, and the land is reclaimed.
All of these steps can be seen in the illustration
in the subsequent slides.
Surface mining is best used for coal seams that
are close to the surface.
The thicker the seam, the greater the thickness of
overburden that can be economically removed. As a
general rule, about ten feet of overburden can be
removed for each foot of good coal in the seam.
This means that for a five-foot-thick coal seam, about 50
feet of overburden can be economically removed.
If the overburden is thicker, then underground mining
must be used to recover the coal.
One of the greatest disadvantages of surface mining is
that it completely removes the landscape.
A lot of effort and money must then be expended to
reclaim the land to a useful condition.
 Underground Mining
When the coal seam is far below the surface,
underground mining must be used. Using this method,
a vertical shaft is drilled down to the coal and workers
and equipment are lowered down the shaft to work in
the seam.
The coal is removed by driving tunnels with a machine
known as a continuous miner.
A continuous miner is a vehicle with a large cutting drum
mounted on a movable boom on the front of the
machine. The continuous miner is driven up against the
coal seam, and cutting bits on the rotating drum rip the
coal from the seam.
The boom is moved up and down, and the drum cuts coal
from the entire mining height of the seam.
A continuous miner is shown in the next slide.
Underground mining
Underground mining works best in thick coal seams.
When the coal seam is less than about 30 inches in
thickness, it becomes very difficult for people and
equipment to operate in the mine.
Most underground mines are less than 1000 feet
below the surface.
When the coal is deeper, the expenses of sinking a
vertical shaft and providing ventilation within the mine
become unattractive.
One of the greatest disadvantages for underground
mining is that the abandoned mines collapse over
time. This can lead to mine subsidence and damaged
buildings, roads, water wells, and utility services at the
surface.
 Recovery Rates: % of recovery
• Surface mining and underground mining
recover different amounts of coal.
• Because surface mining exposes the seam for
easy access, about 90% of the coal can be
recovered.
• The more restricted conditions of
underground mining, combined with a need
to leave coal in the mine to support the roof,
only allows about 50% of the coal to be
recovered.
Draft Text Book by K. Pathak: Surface Mining

2.2 Development of Benches

2.2.1 Unit Overview

Surface mining involves excavating the overburden and ore deposits or coal seams in layers
called bench. This covers the bench parameters and their selelction criteria for planning and
formation of the benches.

2.2.2 Unit Objectives

After successful completion of this unit you will be able to

• Illustrate the bench parameters with a labeled diagram and explain their significance
• explain the process of bench development from box cut
• explain the influence of the factors affecting the dimension of bench parameters
• determine the dimensions of bench parameters under given conditions

2.2.3 Unit Summary

DEVELOPMENT / FORMATION OF BENCHES

Once the box cut is established upto the 1st bench floor level, the development of the 1st bench is
started. Once the 1st bench is developed over a considerable area, either the existing box cut is widened
and extended or a new cut is made to reach the next bench floor level for development of the same, and
the process continues for development of the mine benches.

Figure 2.2.1 Formation of benches by establishing additional cut

Draft Text Book by K. Pathak: Surface Mining

Figure 2.2.2Formation of benches by extending the first cut

Bench Parameters
A surface mine bench is characterized by the following bench parameters – Bench
height, Bench width, Bench length, Bench face slope and Bench floor slope.
Bench height is the vertical distance between the crest and toe of a bench. As specified by the
Directorate General of Mines Safety (DGMS), it shall not be more than the maximum digging height of
the excavator excavating the bench in case of hard formation, and shall not be more than the maximum
digging height of the excavator excavating the bench + 3m in case of soft formation. From the
operational point of view, the bench height is decided based on the following criteria – Optimum height
for loading efficiency of the excavator, one pass drilling length should preferably be more than the
bench height, and the blending requirement dictated by the geological parameters.

Figure 2.2.3
Draft Text Book by K. Pathak: Surface Mining

Bench width is the horizontal distance between the crest of a bench and the toe of the immediately
upper bench. As specified by the DGMS, it shall be more than the bench height, shall be more than the
maximum width of the largest machine + 2m, and shall be more than three times the width of largest
size dumper that is plying on the bench. From the operational point of view, minimum width of a
working bench should be equal to 0.8 X bench height + dumper width + shovel dimension + 4m.

Bench length in a surface mine is the length (straight or curve as the case may be) measured along the
floor of the bench between its two extremes. It is generally decided based on the operational
requirements and conveniences. The minimum bench length required is generally dictated by the
frequency of primary blasting and the advancement of the face, along the length of the bench, per blast.
The maximum bench length is generally selected on the basis of depositional features and/or transport
requirement.

Bench face slope is the slope of a line (in the vertical plane) that joins the toe and the crest of the bench.
It is generally selected considering the requirement of slope stability and inclined hole blasting, and
criterion of complete removal of blasted material by the excavator excavating the bench.

Bench floor slope: Generally 1% to 2% longitudinal slope is provided on the bench floor to facilitate the
drainage of water to the sump area.

2.2.4 Unit Level Problems

Problem 1

Question:
What are the geometrical parameters of a production bench?

How would you decide the optimum bench height for a shovel face.

Solution:

The geometrical parameters of a production bench are:

Bench Height- It is the vertical distacne between the crest and the toe of a bench. As per the DGMS
requirements the maximum bench height in case of hard rocks should not be more than the maximum
digging height of the smallest size of excavator excavating the bench, and the maximum bench height in
case of soft rocks should not be more than the maximum digging height of the smallest size of
excavator excavating the bench plus 3 meters.

Bench Width- It is the horizontal distance between the crest of the bench and the toe of the immediate
upper bench. As per the DGMS requirements - bench width should not be less than the bench height,
should not be less than 3 times the width of the largest dumper plying through that bench and should
Draft Text Book by K. Pathak: Surface Mining

not be less than the maximum horizontal dimension of the largest equipment working on the bench plus
3 m.

Bench Length - It is the horizontal distance between the two extremities/sides of the bench measured
along the floor. The minimum bench length should not be less than 3 times the weekly longitudinal
advance of the bench face, and the maximum bench length is decided based on the geological features
( such as fault) and the cost of transportation.

Bench Face Slope - It is the slope of a line joining the crest and the toe of a bench from the horizontal. It
depends on the geo-mechanincal properties of the slope.

Bench Floor Slope - It is the slope of the floor of the bench. 1% to 2 % longitudinal slope is maintained on
the floor of the bench to facilitate the drainage of water to the sump.

To determine the face/bench height in case of a shovel bench following steps are followed:

1. Bench material characteristics are studied to determine whether it is soft or hard

type.
2. The maximum and optimum digging height of the shovel selelcted for the bench is
found out.
3. The maximum bench height that is permitted by the safety requirement of the
statutory provisions in force in the country are found out
4. Drilling capability available and constraints should be determined. The single pass
length for the drill preferred if possible. Double pass drilling possible but the second
pass should be properly utilized, the second pass should not be only for 1-2 m. The actual bench
height is determined using the above information.

Normally a high a bench is preferred for safe operations. However, it is limited by characteristics of the
formation. Sometimes thin formations are clubbed together to form a single bench but mining is
undertaken in multi pass operation. Material characteristics and hydrologic conditions also play an
important role in selecting bench height. The maintaining a safe working slope and productivity are main
concern in selecting bench height.

It should be noted that One would prefer as high a bench as possible for safe operations. However, it is
limited by height of the seam or formation also. Sometimes thin formations are clubbed together to
form a single bench but mining is undertaken in multi pass operation. Material characteristics and
hydrologic conditions also play an important role. The idea is that there should be no undercutting and
to have a safe working slope.
OPENCAST COAL MINING
IN INDIA-

PRESENT STATUS AND

FUTURE TRENDS
1. INTRODUCTION

Coal occupies the top most position as a major

fuel for the power generation in India. Its
share in power generation is about 75%. The
scenario will continue to remain the same in
near future also. Today nearly 78% of coal is
consumed by the power sector. The balance
22% caters to the needs of the other
industries such as steel, cement, fertilizers,
chemical etc.
Table: 1 gives the sector wise coal consumption
for the last two and half decades.
Table: 1. Sector wise coal consumption (million tones)

sector 1990-91 2000-01 2005-

06projection
Steel 27.6 19.67 42.05
Power 129.2 250.53 330.93
Fertilizers 3.9 3.18 3.43
Cement 9.7 10.33 20.22
Railways 5.2 - -
Soft coke 1.3 - -
Others 30.7 35.96 49.04
Total 207.6 319.67 445.65
PARADIGM OF SURFACE MINING DOMAIN

Most common surface mining domain is mining of

developed pillars in thick seams, seams with disturbed coal
band or as a fire project with pillars on fire. As the past
pillar mining was extensively in quality coal seams, common
operating domain of such surface mines is over
Ramgundam to Wardha, Talcher to Bokaro and Jharia
coalfields.

Level of mechanization and achievement in terms of

production and productivity in such cases has been
invariably poor said to be because of the disturbed
condition of the seams or strata. The Jharia coalfield
presently working 32 open cast mines is typical example of
production and productivity in such workings (Table 4)
Electrical equipment starting from excavators
to high angle conveyors may make the
surface mining efficient and economical even
to deeper cover.

Poor over all recovery of quality coals with

conventional pillar mining necessitate surface
mining of deeper coal beds up to the following
stripping ratio. Developed and virgin seams of
coking coal 1:10 Superior grade non coking
coal developed and virgin seams 1:10 Power
grade coal - invariably virgin seams 1:8
RECOMMENDED MINING OPTIONS

In the light of limited coal reserve in Indian territory,

limited quality coal reserve, quality coal reserve
within 300m depth cover extensively disturbed by
pillar mining and poor recovery with pillar mining, it
is recommended to go for extensive surface mining
in all the major coal basins up to the stripping ratio of
1:10.

Similarly in case of newly explored power grade coal

bearing basins- Singrauli, Rajmahal, Korba, and
Raigarh, and Talcher etc, it is recommended to go
for surface mining up to 1:8 stripping ratio.
ECO- FRIENDLY MINING ALTERNATIVES

The opencast mining over whole of the major coalfields will have the
following devastating environmental problems; even worst than the
one created by dams and associated flooding of the catchment area.
• Displacement of human population from their homes and villages
• Depriving the society of its culture and heritage
• Deforestation and exodus of bio diversity
• Destruction of green cover and soil nourishing bacteria
• Removal and damage of soil cover and its fertility
• Loss of agriculture land, making the land owners destitute
• Disturbing the environment- air pollution by gases and particulate
matter
• Destruction and pollution of hydraulic regime
 The problem of mining lower seams below the reclaimed,
rehabilitated land and likely subsidence or undulation of the
surface is a problem which can be tackled by the farmers
who are surviving in terrace farming in steep hill slopes.

The civil structures like roads, rails, houses and other such
features could be designed to sustain subsidence or
undulation.

The examples of environmental management are

established under BEST MINING PRACTICE in Australia,
the design of civil structures suitable to sustain subsidence
undulation developed in Germany some 50 years back and
rehabilitation of Peterlee Town with better life quality and
environment in UK were the revealing examples of will to
excel
This is possible only when
the mines run efficiently,
make good profit and spare
humble sum to finance the
eco- friendly mining
alternatives.
2. ASSESSMENT OF FUTURE DEMANDS:

Different estimates of coal demand have been

made from time to time by various agencies
such as planning commission, Ministry of
power, Coal India etc. by taking the overall
GDP growth of 7-8%.
Table: 2 gives the sartorial demand of coal
estimated with an assumption of 7% growth
in GDP in the terminal year of X-plan (2011-
12)
 3.PAST PRODUCTION
TRENDS
India is the third largest producer of coal in the world.

Trend of coal production in last ten years is shown in table: 3

year Production (MT)

1995-1996 273.42
1999-2000 304.1
2004-2005 382.14
2005-2006 405.38 (provisional)
It is interesting to note that opencast
mines have contributed more than 60%
of the total output.
To maintain the trend the opencast mines
have to be planned not only for larger
capacities but also to handle the higher
volumes of overburden and to work out
deep seated coal deposits.
Table: 4 indicate the trend required in
this contest
Table: 4 Trend of future opencast mines.

parameter unit In operation Being planned

Production Million tones 5 10-15
capacity
Depth Meters 120 500
3
Stripping ratio m /t 4-5 10-12
Overburden Million cum. 20-25 100-120
volume
Table: 5 the details of some major O.C mines are given

Table: 5 Some large opencast coal mines

project Capacity (Mt)

Jayanth 10.0
Dadhighua 10.0
Khadia 10.0
Nigali 14.0
amlori 10.0
4. EMPHASIS ON OPENCAST MINES

It is very clear from the above that roughly 350 Mt of

coal output will come from opencast mines with a
corresponding volume of nearly 2450 million cu.m
O..B will be required to be handled, taking average
stripping ratio of 7:1.

This is a gigantic task. The production can be achieved

only by introducing newer technology, and by
improving the existing ones.

Some underground mines have been converted to

open cast mines.
5. NEW TECNOLOGIES/ ADVANCES IN OPENCAST MINES

It has been established that the handling/ transporting rock (m3

mineral+O.B) accounts for 50-55% of the total cost there fore it
can be concluded that any improvement in OC mines with
respect to production and productivity is reduction in cost of
transporting system.

Some of the new technologies which have been developed

elsewhere and would obviously find their way in to India and on
which there should be detailed deliberations are technology
agenda for the future is to achieve accelerated production at
lower cost. The important technical changes that have taken
place over the past two decades may be listed as below.
5.1 UPDATE ON EQUIPMENTS:
• ROPE SHOVELS: The 4.6 m3 rope shovel which was once considered as
standard equipment has been replaced by 10m3 shovel which may
subsequently be replaced by 20 m3. A 20 m3 shovel is already working at
Amlori opencast mine of NCL.

• HYDRAULIC EXCAVATORS: Hydraulic excavators provide serious

competitor to rope shovels although some mine operators are skeptical
of their reliability- especially of their hydraulic circuitry. Hydraulic
excavators of 8.3 m3 are already in operation.

• DRAGLINE: First dragline was commissioned in 1955 in Kurasia-colliery.

This was small one (15m3 bucket and 90m boom). Now there are two
dozens of draglines working in different coal fields with bucket size up to
32 m3.

• DUMPERS: Dumpers of 35-50 tone carrying capacities were a common

mode of transport in OC mines. The large mines are now being planned
with deployment of 85, 100 and 120 tone rear dumpers. In Amlori 170T
capacity dumpers are in operation with 20 m3 Rope shovel.

• DRILLS: For blast hole drilling use of drills of 150-200 mm dia. for coal
benches and 300-330mm dia. for dragline benches in OB are envisaged.
5.2 APPICATION OF NEW TECHNOLOGIES

Move to continuous system: Bucket wheel excavators of 1400 liters

capacity are used in Neyveli for excavating both the OB and
lignite. Studies have been made to introduce the system in some
other mines also. In some other instances the material is blasted
to make it diggable by the bucket wheel excavators.

Continuous surface miners are now available and many mines are
using them such as Kothagudem in Singareni collieries. Several
models of these machines are available such as WIRTGEN
surface miner, EASI miner, KRUPP surface miner, OVOEST
ALPINE surface miner. The manufacturers claim that rock with
Uniaxial compressive strength up to 150 MPa can also be cut by
such machines.

In pit crushing and conveying also called semi-continuous mining

system are shovel-crusher conveyor system makes use of
continuous conveying using belt conveyors. The OB and coal are
crushed before putting them on conveyors
Belt conveyors are more energy efficient because

1. To lift 100T of pay load by 10m conveyor needs about

one unit of electricity where as truck requires 2lts of
diesel.
2. To move 100T pay load horizontally by 1km conveyor
needs about 11 units of electricity where as truck
requires 8liters of diesel.
3. In case of truck only 40% of energy is used for pay
load. Balance 60% is wasted to propel the vehicle
weight as the return trip is empty.
This technology has been successfully used in open cast
Mine –II of Ramagundam area of singareni Collieries
Company limited.

OB bridges and long boom spreaders: These machines

take the O.B right across the mine and dump it in the
areas where the coal has been extracted.
 Other technologies

Mention may be made of the following

• Side casting using explosives

• In-pit electric traction for
trucks.
• High angle conveyors
 CONCLUSION
The opencast coal mines in the coming years will have to
switch over more and more to semi continuous and
continuous mining systems.
Whatever be the system adopted it should be sustainable
to meet the output levels commensurate with
environmental protection, safety, health, conservation
and economies.
It could therefore be summed up that the search for new
technologies should be based on

• Use of continuous miners

• Use of Bucket wheel excavators, conveyors and
spreaders.
• Shovel-crusher and conveyor system
• Application of high angle conveyors, cross-pit
conveyors and O.B bridges
Draft Text of Surface Mining Text Book by K. Pathak

2.1 Box Cut

2.1 Unit Overview

The initial mine cut made for formation of a bench in a surface mine is referred to as box
cut. This is necessary in a surface mine to make an access to the mineral deposit. This unit
provides the definitions and purpose of box cut. The types of box cut and their applicability
as well as selecting the site for the box cut is covered in this unit. The procedure for
calculation of the volume of material removed in developing the box cut is included in this
unit.

2.2 Unit Objectives

After successful completion of this unit you will be able to

• Illustrate different types of box cut

• analyze the geometric configuration of a box cut and determine the volume of box
cut
• discuss the factors affecting the selection of site for initial box cut

2.3 Unit Summary

Box cut is the initial/first cut given for the physical development of a mine. This cut generally
looks like a box having walls on all sides. The main objectives of box cut are – to reach the ore
body, to provide a smooth entry into the pit and to facilitate the development of working
benches.

Figure 2.3.1 Box cut

Draft Text of Surface Mining Text Book by K. Pathak

Objectives
The objectives of box cut are:

• To reach the ore body / coal seam

• To provide a smooth entry to the pit
• To provide space for development of working / production benches

Types and Applicability

Box cuts are of two types – Internal box cut and External box cut.

External box cut

When the box cut is placed totally outside the mineralized zone, it is called an external box cut. This is
applicable only for shallow and gently dipping bedded deposits. The cut is generally located at the
middle of the rise-most side.

Internal box cut

When the box cut is located fully or partially on the mineralized zone, it is called an internal box cut. This
is applicable for all types of deposit. The cut follows a direction that is usually oblique to both the strike
and dip direction. Generally, the direction is so chosen that the haul road ramp formed by this cut and
subsequent cuts will not have unnecessary steep turning at any position.

Volume of Box Cut

The volume of box cut is determined by 3-D geometric analysis of the cut using the standard
mensuration formulae for area and volume calculation.

2.1.4 Unit Level Problems

Problem 1

Question:

What is ‘box-cut’ in surface mining? What are its objectives? With the aid of suitable
sketches, describe the different types of box-cut and also indicate their respective
applicability and limitations.

Discuss briefly the factors that influence the choice of location of box-cut in case of sub-
surface deposits.

Solution:
Box cut is the first /initial cut made for development of a surface mine. The cut for a sub-surface deposit
looks like an open box without the lid, hence the name box cut is attributed to this cut. However,
presently whether it looks like a box or not , the initial cut is called box cut.
Draft Text of Surface Mining Text Book by K. Pathak

Objectives:

1. It provides access to the ore body

2. It provides a smooth entry for men, machines and equipment to the pit
3. It facilitates initiation of subsequent bench (ore and waste) development

Types and applicability:

The box cuts are mainly of two types – external box cut and internal box cut.

External box cut: When the box cut lies ly outside the mineral bearing zone, it is called an
external box cut. It is applicable to shallow and flat bedded deposits.

Internal Box cut: When the box cut lies partially or ly inside the mineral bearing zone, it is
called an internal box cut. It is applicable to all type of deposits.

Figure 2.1.2

Selection of location of box cut: Following factors are required to be considered for the
selection of box cut location for a given deposit.

1. Time to reach the ore body-should be as less as possible

2. Total volume to be excavated to reach the ore body –should be as less as
possible
3. Accessibility of the location-location should be accessible to men and equipment
with minimum site preparation requirement
4. Presence of geological disturbances-the location should be free of any geological
disturbances such as fault, fold, joints, fractures, etc. as far as practicable.
5. Presence of water-location should be free from water accumulation, both from
surface as well as ground water, as far as practicable.
6. Availability of dumping space- sufficient space should be available nearby for
dumping the waste material excavated during formation of box cut.
7. Hindrance to mine development-the location of the box cut should be such that it
does not create any hindrance at any stage of mine development.
8. Compatibility with mine plan and surface lay out-the box cut location should
match with overall planning of the mine and surface layout
9. Transportation cost-when the box cut forms a part of the mine haul road ramp
system, its location should be such that it optimises the ore and waste
transportation cost throughout the mine life.
10. Should facilitate deployment of equipment for steady state operations.
Draft Text of Surface Mining Text Book by K. Pathak

Problem 2

Question: Explain briefly the selection of site for box cut and the method of opening a box
cut in a coal mine.

Solution:

The initial mine cut (IMC) driven into the land, where no open side exists is called a box cut.
The box cut results in a highwall on both sides of the cut. This term applies to cuts made
into the side of a mountain (contour mining) as well as cuts into flat ground (area mining).

In case of coal mine, a box cut is generally made along the exposed outcrop, if
available. However, an outcrop may not be available. The process of opening a box cut
becomes critical in case the seam is at greater depth. The location of the initial mine cut or
pit is selected considering the following:

1. It should be at a place where the over burden height will be minimum

rendering low stripping ratio, so that the development be easy and lesser
quantity of OB to be removed for producing the planned quantity of coal.
2. The box cut location should be such that the seam is thinned out and there
remain no chance of leaving coal to be mined later near the initial box cut.
3. The OB produced from initial mine cut is to be dumped externally. Therefore
the dump location is one of the main criteria in selecting site for box cut.
4. The box cut location should facilitate the subsequent mine development by
expanding towards mine boundary and pit limit. The cost of development of
benches and transport of the materials from the pit should be optimal
throughout the life of the mine. The initial mine cut and establishment of
mine roads, stock yards and dumps are related. Transport facilities and life
cycle costs are to be considered while selecting the location of the box cut.
5. The box cut is so selected that it does not call for immediate diversion of
river, road or villages.
6. Internal rate of return is considered in selecting the initial box cut location.
7. The initial mine cut Should be above HFL levels or else protected by
embankments.
8. The initial mine cut should be so selected that it nomrally allows safe access
to the mine for the entire life for men/machines/materials/ power and water
lines.

The spoil produced during box cut can be placed on one side of the box cut. In case of
deeper seam a borrowed pit is used to place the spoil. In this case a pit is dug nearby and
the materials from there are placed away from the box cut. The box cut material is placed
on the borrowed pit. As shown in the Figure 2.1.3 below.

Figure 2.1.3 Borrower pit

Draft Text of Surface Mining Text Book by K. Pathak

The box cut is normally developed with deploying shovel and dumper. The size of the
equipment is selected based on the dimension of the box cut and total volume to be
removed. Drilling and blasting is also used to develop the initial ram of the box cut.
 1. Overview of Mining and its Impacts
1
Proposed mining projects vary according to the these metal ores are the subject of this Guidebook.
type of metals or materials to be extracted from the The Guidebook does not discuss the mining of
earth. The majority of proposed mining projects ores that are extracted using strip mining methods,
involve the extraction of ore deposits such as including aluminum (bauxite), phosphate, and
copper, nickel, cobalt, gold, silver, lead, zinc, uranium. The Guidebook also does not discuss
molybdenum, and platinum. The environmental mining involving extraction of coal or aggregates,
impacts of large-scale mining projects involving such as sand, gravel, and limestone.

1.1 PHASES OF A MINING PROJECT

There are different phases of a mining project, EIA for the exploratory phase of a mining project
beginning with mineral ore exploration and because the impacts of this phase can be
ending with the post-closure period. What profound and because further phases of mining
follows are the typical phases of a proposed may not ensue if exploration fails to find sufficient
mining project. Each phase of mining is quantities of high-grade mineral ore deposits.
associated with different sets of environmental
impacts. 1.1.2 Development

1.1.1 Exploration If the mineral ore exploration phase proves that

there is a large enough mineral ore deposit, of
A mining project can only commence with sufficient grade, then the project proponent may
knowledge of the extent and value of the mineral begin to plan for the development of the mine.
ore deposit. Information about the location and This phase of the mining project has several
value of the mineral ore deposit is obtained during distinct components.
the exploration phase. This phase includes
surveys, field studies, and drilling test boreholes 1.1.2.1 Construction of access roads
and other exploratory excavations.
The construction of access roads, either to
The exploratory phase may involve clearing of provide heavy equipment and supplies to the
wide areas of vegetation (typically in lines), to mine site or to ship out processed metals and
allow the entry of heavy vehicles mounted with ores, can have substantial environmental impacts,
drilling rigs. Many countries require a separate especially if access roads cut through ecologically

Chapter 1 3
 sensitive areas or are near previously isolated In almost every case, metallic ores are buried
communities. If a proposed mining project under a layer of ordinary soil or rock (called
involves the construction of any access roads, then ‘overburden’ or ‘waste rock’) that must be moved
the environmental impact assessment (EIA) for the or excavated to allow access to the ore deposit.
project must include a comprehensive assessment The first way in which proposed mining projects
of the environmental and social impacts of these differ is the proposed method of moving or
roads. excavating the overburden. What follows are brief
descriptions of the most common methods.

1.1.3.1 Open-pit mining

Open-pit mining is a type of strip mining in which

the ore deposit extends very deep in the ground,
necessitating the removal of layer upon layer of
overburden and ore.

In many cases, logging of trees and clear-cutting

or burning of vegetation above the ore deposit
may precede removal of the overburden. The
use of heavy machinery, usually bulldozers and
dump trucks, is the most common means of
Erosion near a mining road, Pelambres mine, Chile
removing overburden. Open-pit mining often
PHOTO: Rocio Avila Fernandez
involves the removal of natively vegetated areas,
1.1.2.2 Site preparation and clearing and is therefore among the most environmentally-
destructive types of mining, especially within
If a mine site is located in a remote, undeveloped tropical forests.
area, the project proponent may need to begin
by clearing land for the construction of staging
areas that would house project personnel and
equipment. Even before any land is mined,
activities associated with site preparation and
clearing can have significant environmental
impacts, especially if they are within or adjacent
to ecologically sensitive areas. The EIA must
assess, separately, the impacts associated with site
preparation and clearing.

1.1.3 Active mining

Open-pit mine in Cerro de Pasco, Peru
Once a mining company has constructed PHOTO: Centro de Cultura Popular LABOR, Peru

access roads and prepared staging areas that Because open-pit mining is employed for ore
would house project personnel and equipment, deposits at a substantial depth underground, it
mining may commence. All types of active usually involves the creation of a pit that extends
mining share a common aspect: the extraction below the groundwater table. In this case,
and concentration (or beneficiation) of a metal groundwater must be pumped out of the pit to
from the earth. Proposed mining projects allow mining to take place. A pit lake usually
differ considerably in the proposed method for forms at some point in time after mining stops and
extracting and concentrating the metallic ore. the groundwater pumps are turned off.

4 Guidebook for Evaluating Mining Project EIAs

1.1.3.2 Placer mining off-site. Mining projects that only involve the
reworking of abandoned mine waste piles avoid
Placer mining is used when the metal of interest the environmental impacts of open-pit mining
is associated with sediment in a stream bed or and placer mining, but still entail environmental
floodplain. Bulldozers, dredges, or hydraulic jets impacts associated with purification (beneficiation)
of water (a process called ‘hydraulic mining’) of metals from the waste piles.
are used to extract the ore. Placer mining is
usually aimed at removing gold from stream 1.1.4 Disposal of overburden and
sediments and floodplains. Because placer waste rock
mining often occurs within a streambed, it is
an environmentally-destructive type of mining, In almost every project, metallic ores are buried
releasing large quantities of sediment that can under a layer of ordinary soil or rock (called
impact surface water for several miles downstream ‘overburden’ or ‘waste rock’) that must be moved
of the placer mine. or excavated to allow access to the metallic ore
deposit. For most mining projects, the quantity
1.1.3.3 Underground mining of overburden generated by mining is enormous.
The ratio of the quantity of overburden to the
In underground mining, a minimal amount of quantity of mineral ore (called the ‘strip ratio’)
overburden is removed to gain access to the ore is usually greater than one, and can be much
deposit. Access to this ore deposit is gained by higher. For example, if a proposed mining project
tunnels or shafts. Tunnels or shafts lead to a more involves the extraction of 100 million metric tons
horizontal network of underground tunnels that of mineral ore, then the proposed mining project
directly access the ore. In an underground mining could generate more than one billion metric tons
method called ‘stoping’ or ‘block caving,’ sections of overburden and waste rock.
or blocks of rock are removed in vertical strips
that leave a connected underground cavity that is These high-volume wastes, sometimes containing
usually filled with cemented aggregate and waste significant levels of toxic substances, are usually
rock. deposited on-site, either in piles on the surface
or as backfill in open pits, or within underground
Although underground mining is a less mines. Therefore, the EIA for a proposed mining
environmentally-destructive means of gaining project must carefully assess the management
access to an ore deposit, it is often more costly options and associated impacts of overburden
and entails greater safety risks than strip mining, disposal.
including open-pit mining. While most large-
scale mining projects involve open-pit mining,
1.1.5 Ore extraction
many large underground mines are in operation
around the world.
After a mining company has removed overburden,
extraction of the mineral ore begins using
1.1.3.4 Reworking of inactive or
specialized heavy equipment and machinery,
abandoned mines and tailings
such as loaders, haulers, and dump trucks, which
transport the ore to processing facilities using
Some mining projects involve the reworking
haul roads. This activity creates a unique set
of waste piles (often tailings) from inactive or
of environmental impacts, such as emissions of
abandoned mines, or older waste piles at active
fugitive dust from haul roads, which an EIA for a
mines. Typically, this is proposed when more
proposed mining project should assess separately.
efficient methods of metal beneficiation have
made it economical to re-extract metals from
old mining waste. The material from the piles
may be sent to processing facilities on-site or

Chapter 1 5
 1.1.6 Beneficiation

Although metallic ores contain elevated levels of

metals, they generate large quantities of waste.
For example, the copper content of a good
grade copper ore may be only one quarter of
one percent. The gold content of a good grade
gold ore may be only a few one-hundredths of
a percent. Therefore, the next step in mining is
grinding (or milling) the ore and separating the
relatively small quantities of metal from the non-
metallic material of the ore in a process called
‘beneficiation.’ Heap leach, Bighorn gold mine, CA
PHOTO: Bender Environmental Consulting

Milling is one of the most costly parts of 1.1.7 Tailings disposal

beneficiation, and results in very fine particles that
allow better extraction of the metal. However, As previously discussed, even high-grade mineral
milling also allows a more complete release ores consist almost entirely of non-metallic
of contaminants when these particles become materials and often contain undesired toxic
tailings. Tailings are what remains following metals (such as cadmium, lead, and arsenic).
milling of the ore to fine particles and extraction of The beneficiation process generates high-volume
the valuable metal(s). waste called ‘tailings,’ the residue of an ore that
remains after it has been milled and the desired
Beneficiation includes physical and/or metals have been extracted (e.g., with cyanide
chemical separation techniques such as gravity (gold) or sulfuric acid (copper)).
concentration, magnetic separation, electrostatic
separation, flotation, solvent extraction, If a mining project involves the extraction of a few
electrowinning, leaching, precipitation, and hundred million metric tons of mineral ore, then
amalgamation (often involving the use of the mine project will generate a similar quantity
mercury). Wastes from these processes include of tailings. How a mining company disposes of
waste rock dumps, tailings, heap leach materials this high-volume toxic waste material is one of
(for gold and silver operations), and dump leach the central questions that will determine whether
materials (for copper leach operations). a proposed mining project is environmentally
acceptable. The key long-term goal of tailings
Leaching involving the use of cyanide is a kind disposal and management is to prevent the
of beneficiation process, usually used with gold, mobilization and release into the environment of
silver, and copper ores, that merits separate toxic constituents of the tailings.
attention because of the serious environmental
and public safety impacts. With leaching, finely An entire section of this Guidebook is devoted to
ground ore is deposited in a large pile (called a detailed comparison of tailings disposal options
a ‘leach pile’) on top of an impermeable pad, (see Section 3.2.1.3). These options include: (1)
and a solution containing cyanide is sprayed on the use of a wet tailings impoundment facility or
top of the pile. The cyanide solution dissolves ‘tailings pond’; (2) dewatering and disposal of
the desired metals and the ‘pregnant’ solution dry tailings as backfill; and (3) sub-marine tailings
containing the metal is collected from the bottom disposal.
of the pile using a system of pipes.
The first option (a tailings pond) is by far the most
commonly used option, but the second option

6 Guidebook for Evaluating Mining Project EIAs

(dry tailings disposal) is, in most circumstances, 1.1.8 Site reclamation and closure
the environmentally-preferable option. The third
option (sub-marine tailings disposal) is sometimes When active mining ceases, mine facilities and
proposed with mine sites located near deep sea the site are reclaimed and closed. The goal of
environments, or in rare instances in freshwater mine site reclamation and closure should always
lakes. Sub-marine tailings disposal has a poor be to return the site to a condition that most
environmental record in the few instances where it resembles the pre-mining condition. Mines that
has been practiced. are notorious for their immense impact on the
environment often made impacts only during the
Before the adoption of environmental laws closure phase, when active mining operations
and standards, many mining companies simply ceased. These impacts can persist for decades
dumped tailings in the nearest convenient and even centuries. Therefore, the EIA for every
location, including nearby rivers and streams. proposed mining project must include a detailed
Some of the worst environmental consequences discussion of the mine Reclamation and Closure
of mining have been associated with the open Plan offered by the mining proponent.
dumping of tailings, a practice now nearly
universally rejected. The International Finance Mine reclamation and closure plans must describe
Corporation (IFC)/World Bank Group explains: in sufficient detail how the mining company will
restore the site to a condition that most resembles
“Riverine (e.g., rivers, lakes, and lagoons) pre-mining environmental quality; how it will
or shallow marine tailings disposal is not prevent – in perpetuity – the release of toxic
considered good international industry contaminants from various mine facilities (such as
practice. By extension, riverine dredging which abandoned open pits and tailings impoundments);
requires riverine tailings disposal is also not and how funds will be set aside to insure that the
considered good international practice.”1 costs of reclamation and closure will be paid for.

An entire section of this Guidebook is devoted

to a discussion of how to evaluate whether the
Reclamation and Closure Plan offered by a mining
proponent is adequate (see Section 3.7).

Wet tailings disposal at a mine in Peru

PHOTO: Centro de Cultura Popular LABOR, Peru

1 IFC/World Bank (December 2007) “Environmental,

Health and Safety Guidelines for Mining.” http://www.ifc.org/
ifcext/sustainability.nsf/AttachmentsByTitle/gui_EHSGuide-
lines2007_Mining/$FILE/Final+-+Mining.pdf

Chapter 1 7
 1.2 ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIAL IMPACTS OF MINING
The remainder of this chapter describes the
most important environmental impacts of mining
projects.

1.2.1 Impacts on water resources

Perhaps the most significant impact of a mining

project is its effects on water quality and
availability of water resources within the project
area. Key questions are whether surface and
groundwater supplies will remain fit for human
consumption, and whether the quality of surface
waters in the project area will remain adequate to Acid mine drainage
support native aquatic life and terrestrial wildlife. PHOTO: SOSBlueWaters.org
As Earthworks explains:
1.2.1.1 Acid mine drainage and
contaminant leaching “Acid mine drainage is considered one
of mining’s most serious threats to water
The potential for acid mine drainage is a key resources. A mine with acid mine drainage has
question. The answer will determine whether the potential for long-term devastating impacts
a proposed mining project is environmentally on rivers, streams and aquatic life.
acceptable. When mined materials (such as
the walls of open pits and underground mines, “HOW DOES IT FORM? Acid mine drainage
tailings, waste rock, and heap and dump leach is a concern at many metal mines, because
materials) are excavated and exposed to oxygen metals such as gold, copper, silver and
and water, acid can form if iron sulfide minerals molybdenum, are often found in rock with
(especially pyrite, or ‘fools gold’) are abundant sulfide minerals. When the sulfides in the rock
and there is an insufficient amount of neutralizing are excavated and exposed to water and air
material to counteract the acid formation. The during mining, they form sulfuric acid. This
acid will, in turn, leach or dissolve metals and acidic water can dissolve other harmful metals
other contaminants from mined materials and in the surrounding rock. If uncontrolled, the
form a solution that is acidic, high in sulfate, and acid mine drainage may runoff into streams
metal-rich (including elevated concentrations of or rivers or leach into groundwater. Acid mine
cadmium, copper, lead, zinc, arsenic, etc.) drainage may be released from any part of
the mine where sulfides are exposed to air and
Leaching of toxic constituents, such as arsenic, water, including waste rock piles, tailings, open
selenium, and metals, can occur even if acidic pits, underground tunnels, and leach pads.
conditions are not present. Elevated levels of
cyanide and nitrogen compounds (ammonia, “HARM TO FISH & OTHER AQUATIC LIFE: If
nitrate, nitrite) can also be found in waters at mine mine waste is acid-generating, the impacts to
sites, from heap leaching and blasting. fish, animals and plants can be severe. Many
streams impacted by acid mine drainage have
Acid drainage and contaminant leaching is the a pH value of 4 or lower – similar to battery
most important source of water quality impacts acid. Plants, animals, and fish are unlikely to
related to metallic ore mining. survive in streams such as this.

8 Guidebook for Evaluating Mining Project EIAs

 “TOXIC METALS: Acid mine drainage also According to a study commissioned by the
dissolves toxic metals, such as copper, European Union:
aluminum, cadmium, arsenic, lead and
mercury, from the surrounding rock. These “Because of the large area of land disturbed
metals, particularly the iron, may coat the by mining operations and the large quantities
stream bottom with an orange-red colored of earthen materials exposed at sites, erosion
slime called yellowboy. Even in very small can be a major concern at hardrock mining
amounts, metals can be toxic to humans and sites. Consequently, erosion control must be
wildlife. Carried in water, the metals can travel considered from the beginning of operations
far, contaminating streams and groundwater through completion of reclamation. Erosion
for great distances. The impacts to aquatic life may cause significant loading of sediments
may range from immediate fish kills to sub- (and any entrained chemical pollutants) to
lethal, impacts affecting growth, behavior or nearby waterbodies, especially during severe
the ability to reproduce. storm events and high snow melt periods.

“Metals are particularly problematic because “Sediment-laden surface runoff typically

they do not break down in the environment. originates as sheet flow and collects in
They settle to the bottom and persist in the rills, natural channels or gullies, or artificial
stream for long periods of time, providing conveyances. The ultimate deposition of the
a long-term source of contamination to the sediment may occur in surface waters or it may
aquatic insects that live there, and the fish that be deposited within the floodplains of a stream
feed on them. valley. Historically, erosion and sedimentation
processes have caused the build-up of thick
“PERPETUAL POLLUTION: Acid mine drainage layers of mineral fines and sediment within
is particularly harmful because it can continue regional flood plains and the alteration of
indefinitely causing damage long after mining aquatic habitat and the loss of storage capacity
has ended. Due to the severity of water within surface waters. The main factors
quality impacts from acid mine drainage, many influencing erosion includes the volume and
hardrock mines across the west require water velocity of runoff from precipitation events,
treatment in perpetuity. Even with existing the rate of precipitation infiltration downward
technology, acid mine drainage is virtually through the soil, the amount of vegetative
impossible to stop once the reactions begin. cover, the slope length or the distance from
To permit an acid generating mine means that the point of origin of overland flow to the point
future generations will take responsibility for where deposition begins, and operational
a mine that must be managed for possibly erosion control structures.
hundreds of years.”2
“Major sources of erosion/sediment loading
at mining sites can include open pit areas,
1.2.1.2 Erosion of soils and mine wastes heap and dump leaches, waste rock and
into surface waters overburden piles, tailings piles and dams,
haul roads and access roads, ore stockpiles,
For most mining projects, the potential of soil vehicle and equipment maintenance areas,
and sediment eroding into and degrading surface exploration areas, and reclamation areas. A
water quality is a serious problem. further concern is that exposed materials from
mining operations (mine workings, wastes,
contaminated soils, etc.) may contribute
sediments with chemical pollutants, principally
heavy metals. The variability in natural
2 Earthworks Fact Sheet: Hardrock Mining and Acid Mine
Drainage. http://www.earthworksaction.org/pubs/FS_AMD.pdf

Chapter 1 9
 site conditions (e.g., geology, vegetation, the slope to be revegetated either naturally or
topography, climate, and proximity to and with human assistance.”3
characteristics of surface waters), combined
with significant differences in the quantities and
characteristics of exposed materials at mines,
preclude any generalisation of the quantities
and characteristics of sediment loading.

“The types of impacts associated with erosion

and sedimentation are numerous, typically
producing both short-term and long-
term impacts. In surface waters, elevated
concentrations of particulate matter in the
water column can produce both chronic and
acute toxic effects in fish.
Overburden drainage at an Australian mine
“Sediments deposited in layers in flood plains PHOTO: Peripitus
or terrestrial ecosystems can produce many
impacts associated with surface waters, ground Environment Australia summarizes the problem as
water, and terrestrial ecosystems. Minerals follows:
associated with deposited sediments may
depress the pH of surface runoff thereby “Potentially adverse effects of inadequate
mobilising heavy metals that can infiltrate minesite water management and design
into the surrounding subsoil or can be carried include: unacceptably high levels of suspended
away to nearby surface waters. The associated solids (Non-Filterable Residue) and dissolved
impacts could include substantial pH solids (Filterable Residue) in surface runoff
depression or metals loading to surface waters [and] bed and bank erosion in waterways. It
and/or persistent contamination of ground is self-evident that a Sediment and Erosion
water sources. Contaminated sediments may Control Plan is a fundamental component of a
also lower the pH of soils to the extent that Minesite Water Management Plan.”4
vegetation and suitable habitat are lost.
1.2.1.3 Impacts of tailing impoundments,
“Beyond the potential for pollutant impacts on waste rock, heap leach, and dump leach
human and aquatic life, there are potential facilities
physical impacts associated with the increased
runoff velocities and volumes from new land The impacts of wet tailings impoundments,
disturbance activities. Increased velocities and waste rock, heap leach, and dump leach
volumes can lead to downstream flooding, facilities on water quality can be severe. These
scouring of stream channels, and structural impacts include contamination of groundwater
damage to bridge footings and culvert entries. beneath these facilities and surface waters.
In areas where air emissions have deposited Toxic substances can leach from these facilities,
acidic particles and the native vegetation percolate through the ground, and contaminate
has been destroyed, runoff has the potential groundwater, especially if the bottom of these
to increase the rate of erosion and lead to facilities are not fitted with an impermeable liner.
removal of soil from the affected area. This
3 MINEO Consortium (2000) “Review of potential envi-
is particularly true where the landscape is ronmental and social impact of mining” http://www2.brgm.fr/
characterised by steep and rocky slopes. Once mineo/UserNeed/IMPACTS.pdf
the soils have been removed, it is difficult for 4 Environment Australia (2002) “Overview of Best Practice
Environmental Management in Mining.” http://www.ret.gov.au/
resources/Documents/LPSDP/BPEMOverview.pdf

10 Guidebook for Evaluating Mining Project EIAs

Tailings (a by-product of metallic ore processing) in a study commissioned by the European Union:
is a high-volume waste that can contain harmful
quantities of toxic substances, including arsenic, “Mine water is produced when the water table
lead, cadmium, chromium, nickel, and cyanide is higher than the underground mine workings
(if cyanide leaching is used). Although it is rarely or the depth of an open pit surface mine.
the environmentally-preferable option, most When this occurs, the water must be pumped
mining companies dispose of tailings by mixing out of the mine. Alternatively, water may be
them with water (to form a slurry) and disposing pumped from wells surrounding the mine to
of the slurry behind a tall dam in a large wet create a cone of depression in the ground
tailings impoundment. Because the ore is usually water table, thereby reducing infiltration. When
extracted as a slurry, the resulting waste contains the mine is operational, mine water must be
large amounts of water, and generally forms continually removed from the mine to facilitate
ponds at the top of the tailings dams that can be the removal of the ore. However, once mining
a threat to wildlife. Cyanide tailings in precious operations end, the removal and management
metals mines are particularly dangerous. of mine water often end, resulting in possible
accumulation in rock fractures, shafts, tunnels,
Ultimately, tailing ponds will either dry, in arid and open pits and uncontrolled releases to the
climates, or may release contaminated water, in environment.
wet climates. In both cases, specific management
techniques are required to close these waste “Ground water drawdown and associated
repositories and reduce environmental threats. impacts to surface waters and nearby wetlands
can be a serious concern in some areas.
During periods of heavy rain, more water may
enter a tailings impoundment than it has the “Impacts from ground water drawdown may
capacity to contain, necessitating the release of include reduction or elimination of surface
tailings impoundment effluent. Since this effluent water flows; degradation of surface water
can contain toxic substances, the release of this quality and beneficial uses; degradation of
effluent can seriously degrade water quality of habitat (not only riparian zones, springs, and
surrounding rivers and streams, especially if the other wetland habitats, but also upland habitats
effluent is not treated prior to discharge. such as greasewood as ground water levels
decline below the deep root zone); reduced or
Dozens of dam breaks at wet tailings eliminated production in domestic supply wells;
impoundments have created some of the worst water quality/quantity problems associated
environmental consequences of all industrial with discharge of the pumped ground water
accidents. When wet tailings impoundments back into surface waters downstream from
fail, they release large quantities of toxic waters the dewatered area. The impacts could
that can kill aquatic life and poison drinking last for many decades. While dewatering is
water supplies for many miles downstream of the occurring, discharge of the pumped water,
impoundment. after appropriate treatment, can often be used
to mitigate adverse effects on surface waters.
1.2.1.4 Impacts of mine dewatering However, when dewatering ceases, the cones
of depression may take many decades to
When an open pit intersects the water table, recharge and may continue to reduce surface
groundwater flows into the open pit. For mining flows …. Mitigation measures that rely on the
to proceed, mining companies must pump and use of pumped water to create wetlands may
discharge this water to another location. Pumping only last as long as dewatering occurs.”5
and discharging mine water causes a unique set
of environmental impacts that are well described 5 MINEO Consortium (2000) “Review of potential envi-
ronmental and social impact of mining” http://www2.brgm.fr/
mineo/UserNeed/IMPACTS.pdf

Chapter 1 11
 1.2.2 Impacts of mining projects materials that generate hazardous air pollutants
on air quality such as particulate matter, heavy metals, carbon
monoxide, sulfur dioxide, and nitrogen oxides.
Airborne emissions occur during each stage of
the mine cycle, but especially during exploration, 1.2.2.1 Mobile sources
development, construction, and operational
activities. Mining operations mobilize large Mobile sources of air pollutants include heavy
amounts of material, and waste piles containing vehicles used in excavation operations, cars that
small size particles are easily dispersed by the transport personnel at the mining site, and trucks
wind. that transport mining materials. The level of
polluting emissions from these sources depends
The largest sources of air pollution in mining on the fuel and conditions of the equipment. Even
operations are: though individual emissions can be relatively
small, collectively these emissions can be of real
• Particulate matter transported by the concern. In addition, mobile sources are a major
wind as a result of excavations, blasting, source of particulate matter, carbon monoxide,
transportation of materials, wind erosion and volatile organic compounds that contribute
(more frequent in open-pit mining), fugitive significantly to the formation of ground-level
dust from tailings facilities, stockpiles, ozone.
waste dumps, and haul roads. Exhaust
emissions from mobile sources (cars, 1.2.2.2 Stationary sources
trucks, heavy equipment) raise these
particulate levels; and The main gaseous emissions are from combustion
of fuels in power generation installations, and
• Gas emissions from the combustion drying, roasting, and smelting operations. Many
of fuels in stationary and mobile sources, producers of precious metals smelt metal on-site,
explosions, and mineral processing. prior to shipping to off-site refineries. Typically,
gold and silver is produced in melting/fluxing
furnaces that may produce elevated levels of
Once pollutants enter the atmosphere, they
airborne mercury, arsenic, sulfur dioxide, and
undergo physical and chemical changes before
other metals.
reaching a receptor (Figure 1). These pollutants
can cause serious effects to people’s health and to
1.2.2.3 Fugitive emissions
the environment.
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency defines
Large-scale mining has the potential to contribute
‘fugitive emissions’ as “those emissions which
significantly to air pollution, especially in the
could not reasonably pass through a stack,
operation phase. All activities during ore
chimney, vent or other functionally-equivalent
extraction, processing, handling, and transport
depend on equipment, generators, processes, and

Figure 1.
Impacts
Emissions Atmosphere Human health,
Mobile and stationary sources. Pollutants are transported, diluted, Environment (water, soil, wildlife),
(Can be measured and controlled) undergo physical and chemical changes Infrastructure,
Global climate

12 Guidebook for Evaluating Mining Project EIAs

opening.”6 Common sources of fugitive emissions Volatilization of mercury from active heaps and
include: storage and handling of materials; mine tailings facilities has recently been identified as
processing; fugitive dust, blasting, construction another substantial source of mercury emitted to
activities, and roadways associated with mining the atmosphere. This process should be assessed
activities; leach pads, and tailing piles and ponds; and controlled. Overall, mercury present in gold
and waste rock piles. Sources and characteristics ore may be released to the land (in disposed air
of fugitive emissions dust in mining operations pollution control wastes and spent ore tailings),
vary in each case, as do their impacts. Impacts to the air (not removed by air pollution control
are difficult to predict and calculate but should devices, or from tailings or heaps), or in the gold
be considered since they could be a significant product (i.e., as an impurity).
source of hazardous air pollutants.
1.2.2.5 Noise and vibration
1.2.2.4 Incidental releases of mercury
Noise pollution associated with mining may
Mercury is commonly present in gold ore. include noise from vehicle engines, loading and
Although concentrations vary substantially, even unloading of rock into steel dumpers, chutes,
within a specific ore deposit, mercury is found power generation, and other sources. Cumulative
in gold ore and associated waste materials. If impacts of shoveling, ripping, drilling, blasting,
the content of mercury in a gold ore is 10 mg/ transport, crushing, grinding, and stock-piling can
kg, and one million tons of ore is processed at a significantly affect wildlife and nearby residents.
particular mine (not unusual concentrations), 10
tons of mercury are potentially released to the Vibrations are associated with many types of
environment. This is a major source of mercury equipment used in mining operations, but blasting
and should be controlled. is considered the major source. Vibration has
affected the stability of infrastructures, buildings,
In some gold mining projects, gold-containing and homes of people living near large-scale
ore is crushed and then, if necessary, heated open-pit mining operations. According to a study
and oxidized in roasters or autoclaves to remove commissioned by the European Union in 2000:
sulfur and carbonaceous material that affects gold
recovery. Mercury that is present in the ore is “Shocks and vibrations as a result of blasting
vaporized, particularly in roasters, which are some in connection with mining can lead to noise,
of the largest sources of mercury emitted to the dust and collapse of structures in surrounding
atmosphere. inhabited areas. The animal life, on which the
local population may depend, might also be
Following roasting or autoclaving, the ore is disturbed.”7
mixed with water and reacted with a cyanide leach
solution, where gold and mercury are dissolved 1.2.3 Impacts of mining projects
and solids removed via filtration. The purified on wildlife
solution is sent to an electrowinning process,
where the gold is recovered. In this process, Wildlife is a broad term that refers to all plants
mercury must also be recovered and collected. If and any animals (or other organisms) that are not
not collected by air pollution control devices, this domesticated. Mining affects the environment
mercury could be released to the atmosphere and and associated biota through the removal of
impact the environment and public health. vegetation and topsoil, the displacement of fauna,
the release of pollutants, and the generation of
noise.
6 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Title 40 Code of
Federal Regulations, Section 70.2. http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/ 7 MINEO Consortium (2000) “Review of potential envi-
pkg/CFR-2009-title40-vol15/xml/CFR-2009-title40-vol15- ronmental and social impact of mining” http://www2.brgm.fr/
part70.xml mineo/UserNeed/IMPACTS.pdf

Chapter 1 13
 1.2.3.1 Habitat loss example, sediment contamination of rivers and
streams is common with surface mining.
Wildlife species live in communities that depend
on each other. Survival of these species can 1.2.3.2 Habitat fragmentation
depend on soil conditions, local climate, altitude,
and other features of the local habitat. Mining Habitat fragmentation occurs when large areas
causes direct and indirect damage to wildlife. The of land are broken up into smaller and smaller
impacts stem primarily from disturbing, removing, patches, making dispersal by native species from
and redistributing the land surface. Some impacts one patch to another difficult or impossible, and
are short-term and confined to the mine site; cutting off migratory routes. Isolation may lead to
others may have far-reaching, long-term effects. local decline of species, or genetic effects such as
inbreeding. Species that require large patches of
The most direct effect on wildlife is destruction or forest simply disappear.
displacement of species in areas of excavation
and piling of mine wastes. Mobile wildlife 1.2.4 Impacts of mining projects
species, like game animals, birds, and predators,
on soil quality
leave these areas. More sedentary animals, like
invertebrates, many reptiles, burrowing rodents,
Mining can contaminate soils over a large area.
and small mammals, may be more severely
Agricultural activities near a mining project may
affected.
be particularly affected. According to a study
commissioned by the European Union:
If streams, lakes, ponds, or marshes are filled
or drained, fish, aquatic invertebrates, and
“Mining operations routinely modify the
amphibians are severely impacted. Food supplies
surrounding landscape by exposing previously
for predators are reduced by the disappearance of
undisturbed earthen materials. Erosion of
these land and water species.
exposed soils, extracted mineral ores, tailings,
and fine material in waste rock piles can result
Many wildlife species are highly dependent on
in substantial sediment loading to surface
vegetation growing in natural drainages. This
waters and drainage ways. In addition, spills
vegetation provides essential food, nesting sites,
and leaks of hazardous materials and the
and cover for escape from predators. Any activity
deposition of contaminated windblown dust
that destroys vegetation near ponds, reservoirs,
can lead to soil contamination.
marshes, and wetlands reduces the quality and
quantity of habitat essential for waterfowl, shore
“SOIL CONTAMINATION: Human health
birds, and many terrestrial species.
and environmental risks from soils generally
fall into two categories: (1) contaminated
The habitat requirements of many animal species
soil resulting from windblown dust, and (2)
do not permit them to adjust to changes created
soils contaminated from chemical spills and
by land disturbance. These changes reduce living
residues. Fugitive dust can pose significant
space. The degree to which animals tolerate
environmental problems at some mines. The
human competition for space varies. Some
inherent toxicity of the dust depends upon
species tolerate very little disturbance. In instances
the proximity of environmental receptors
where a particularly critical habitat is restricted,
and type of ore being mined. High levels
such as a lake, pond, or primary breeding area, a
of arsenic, lead, and radionucleides in
species could be eliminated.
windblown dust usually pose the greatest
risk. Soils contaminated from chemical spills
Surface mining can degrade aquatic habitats with
and residues at mine sites may pose a direct
impacts felt many miles from a mining site. For
contact risk when these materials are misused

14 Guidebook for Evaluating Mining Project EIAs

 as fill materials, ornamental landscaping, or “The displacement of settled communities
soil supplements.”8 is a significant cause of resentment and
conflict associated with large-scale mineral
1.2.5 Impacts of mining projects development. Entire communities may be
on social values uprooted and forced to shift elsewhere, often
into purpose-built settlements not necessarily of
The social impacts of large-scale mining their own choosing. Besides losing their homes,
projects are controversial and complex. Mineral communities may also lose their land, and
development can create wealth, but it can also thus their livelihoods. Community institutions
cause considerable disruption. Mining projects and power relations may also be disrupted.
may create jobs, roads, schools, and increase the Displaced communities are often settled in
demands of goods and services in remote and areas without adequate resources or are
impoverished areas, but the benefits and costs left near the mine, where they may bear the
may be unevenly shared. If communities feel brunt of pollution and contamination. Forced
they are being unfairly treated or inadequately resettlement can be particularly disastrous
compensated, mining projects can lead to social for indigenous communities who have strong
tension and violent conflict. cultural and spiritual ties to the lands of their
ancestors and who may find it difficult to
EIAs can underestimate or even ignore the impacts survive when these are broken.”9
of mining projects on local people. Communities
feel particularly vulnerable when linkages with 1.2.5.2 Impacts of migration
authorities and other sectors of the economy are
weak, or when environmental impacts of mining According to the International Institute for
(soil, ai, and water pollution) affect the subsistence Environment and Development:
and livelihood of local people.
“One of the most significant impacts of mining
Power differentials can leave a sense of activity is the migration of people into a mine
helplessness when communities confront area, particularly in remote parts of developing
the potential for change induced by large countries where the mine represents the single
and powerful companies. The EIA process most important economic activity. For example,
should enforce mechanisms that enable local at the Grasberg mine in Indonesia the local
communities to play effective roles in decision- population increased from less than 1000 in
making. Mineral activities must ensure that the 1973 to between 100,000 and 110,000 in
basic rights of the individual and communities 1999. Similarly, the population of the squatter
affected are upheld and not infringed upon. settlements around Porgera in PNG, which
These must include the right to control and use opened in 1990, has grown from 4000 to over
land; the right to clean water, a safe environment, 18,000.10 This influx of newcomers can have
and livelihood; the right to be free from a profound impact on the original inhabitants,
intimidation and violence; and the right to be and disputes may arise over land and the
fairly compensated for loss. way benefits have been shared. (These were
among the factors that led to violent uprisings
1.2.5.1 Human displacement and at Grasberg in the 1970s and the 1990s.)
resettlement
“Sudden increases in population can also
According to the International Institute for lead to pressures on land, water, and other
Environment and Development: 9 International Institute for Environment and Development
(2002) “Breaking New Ground: Mining, Minerals and Sustain-
able Development: Chapter 9: Local Communities and Mines.
Breaking New Grounds.” http://www.iied.org/pubs/pdfs/
8 Ibid. G00901.pdf

Chapter 1 15
 resources as well as bringing problems of contamination is transferred to other economic
sanitation and waste disposal. activities, such as agriculture and fishing. The
situation is made worse when mining activities
“Migration effects may extend far beyond take place in areas inhabited by populations
the immediate vicinity of the mine. Improved historically marginalized, discriminated against, or
infrastructure can also bring an influx of excluded.
settlers. For instance, it is estimated that
the 80- meter-wide, 890-kilometre-long Proponents of mining projects must insure that
transportation corridor built from the Atlantic the basic rights of affected individuals and
Ocean to the Carajas mine in Brazil created communities are upheld and not infringed
an area of influence of 300,000 square upon. These include rights to control and use
kilometres.”10 land, the right to clean water, and the right to
livelihood. Such rights may be enshrined in
1.2.5.3 Lost access to clean water national law, based on and expressed through a
range of international human rights instruments
According to scientists at the University and agreements. All groups are equal under
of Manchester (UK) and the University of the law, and the interests of the most vulnerable
Colorado(U.S.): groups (low-income and marginalized) need to be
identified and protected.
“Impacts on water quality and quantity
are among the most contentious aspects 1.2.5.5 Impacts on public health
of mining projects. Companies insist
that the use of modern technologies will EIAs of mining projects often underestimate
ensure environmentally friendly mining the potential health risks of mining projects.
practices. However, evidence of the negative Hazardous substances and wastes in water, air,
environmental impacts of past mining activity and soil can have serious, negative impacts on
causes local and downstream populations to public health. The World Health Organization
worry that new mining activities will adversely (WHO) defines health as a “state of complete
affect their water supply. ... physical, mental and social well-being, and not
merely the absence of disease or infirmity.”12
“There are major stakes in these conflicts,
affecting everything from local livelihood The term ‘hazardous substances’ is broad and
sustainability to the solvency of national includes all substances that can be harmful to
governments. Fears for water quantity people and/or the environment. Because of the
and quality have triggered numerous and quantity, concentration, or physical, chemical or
sometimes violent conflicts between miners and infectious characteristics, hazardous substances
communities.”11 may (1) cause or contribute to an increase of
mortality or an increase in serious irreversible or
1.2.5.4 Impacts on livelihoods incapacitating illness; or (2) pose a substantial
present or potential hazard to human health or
When mining activities are not adequately the environment when improperly treated, stored,
managed, the result is degraded soils, water, transported, disposed of, or otherwise managed.
biodiversity, and forest resources, which are
critical to the subsistence of local people. When
contamination is not controlled, the cost of the
10 Ibid.
11 Bebbington, A., & Williams, M. (2008) “Water and
Mining Conflicts in Peru.” Mountain Research and Develop- 12 World Health Organization. 1946. Preamble to the
ment. 28(3/4):190-195 http://snobear.colorado.edu/Markw/ Constitution of the World Health Organization. Official Records
Research/08_peru.pdf of the World Health Organization No. 2, p. 100.

16 Guidebook for Evaluating Mining Project EIAs

Frequent public health problems related to mining • Visual impacts due to clearing of
activities include: vegetation, large excavations, dust, and
the presence of large-scale equipment,
• Water: Surface and ground water
and vehicles.
contamination with metals and elements;
microbiological contamination from 1.2.6 Climate change
sewage and wastes in campsites and mine
considerations
worker residential areas;
• Air: Exposure to high concentrations Every EIA for a project that has the potential to
of sulfur dioxide, particulate matter, heavy change the global carbon budget should include
metals, including lead, mercury and an assessment of a project’s carbon impact.
cadmium; and Large-scale mining projects have the potential to
alter global carbon in at least the following ways:
• Soil: Deposition of toxic elements from
air emissions. Lost CO2 uptake by forests and vegetation that
is cleared. Many large-scale mining projects are
Mining activities can suddenly affect quality of life
proposed in heavily forested areas of tropical
and the physical, mental, and social well-being of
local communities. Improvised mining towns and regions that are critical for absorbing atmospheric
camps often threaten food availability and safety, carbon dioxide (CO2) and maintaining a healthy
increasing the risk of malnourishment. Indirect balance between CO2 emissions and CO2 uptake.
effects of mining on public health can include Some mining projects propose long-term or even
increased incidence of tuberculosis, asthma, permanent destruction of tropical forests. EIAs for
chronic bronchitis, and gastrointestinal diseases. mining projects must include a careful accounting
of how any proposed disturbance of tropical
1.2.5.6 Impacts to cultural and aesthetic forests will alter the carbon budget. The EIA
resources should also include an analysis of the potential for
the host country to lose funding from international
Mining activities can cause direct and indirect consortiums that have and will be established to
impacts to cultural resources. Direct impacts conserve tropical forests.
can result from construction and other mining
activities. Indirect impacts can result from soil CO2 emitted by machines (e.g., diesel-
erosion and increased accessibility to current or powered heavy vehicles) involved in extracting
proposed mining sites. Mining projects can affect and transporting ore. The EIA should include
sacred landscapes, historical infrastructures, and a quantitative estimate of CO2 emissions from
machines and vehicles that will be needed during
natural landmarks. Potential impacts include:
the life of the mining project. These estimates can
be based on the rate of fuel consumption (typically
• Complete destruction of the resource
diesel fuel) multiplied by a conversion factor that
through surface disturbance or excavation;
relates units (typically liters or gallons) of fuel that
• Degradation or destruction, due is consumed and units (typically metric tons) of
to topographic or hydrological pattern CO2 that is emitted.
changes, or from soil movement (removal,
erosion, sedimentation); CO2 emitted by the processing of ore into
metal (for example, by pyro-metallurgical versus
• Unauthorized removal of artifacts or hydro-metallurgical techniques). An example is
vandalism as a result of increased access found in an assessment by CSIRO minerals of
to previously inaccessible areas; and Australia which used the Life Cycle Assessment
methodology to estimate the life cycle emissions
of greenhouse gases from copper and nickel

Chapter 1 17
 production, including mining. This assessment electrowinning.13 The bottom line is that metal
found that Life Cycle greenhouse gas emissions mining generates more than 1 kg of greenhouse
from copper and nickel production range from gas for every 1 kg of metal that is produced, and
3.3 kilograms (kg) of CO2 per kg of metal for this does not take into account lost carbon uptake
copper produced by smelting to 16.1 kg of CO2 of cleared forests.
per kg of metal for nickel produced by pressure 13 T. E. Norgate and W. J. Rankin (2000) “Life Cycle Assess-
acid leaching followed by solvent extraction and ment of Copper and Nickel Production, Published in Proceedings,
Minprex 2000, International Conference on Minerals Processing
and Extractive Metallurgy, pp133-138. http://www.minerals.csiro.
au/sd/CSIRO_Paper_LCA_CuNi.htm

18 Guidebook for Evaluating Mining Project EIAs

Mining Methods
5th December 2008

VENKAT M.
PlotMaker
Team Lead – Minex, INDIA
 Mining Methods
• Coal is mined by two main methods - surface
or ‘opencast’ mining and ‘underground’
mining.
• The choice of method is largely determined by
the depth, geology of the coal deposit and
other factors.
• The majority of the world's coal production is
coming from Opencast mines.
• This scenario is same in India also.
 Mining Process OPENCAST

Drilling Drill machines (rotary/percussive)

| |
Blasting SMS, emulsion, Primer, Nonel, etc
| |
Loading Shovels, Draglines, etc
| |
Hauling Front-end loader, etc
| |
Transporting Dumpers, Conveyors, etc
| |
Processing/Washing Coal washeries…
Mining Process OPENCAST

Drilling
|
Blasting
|
Loading
| DRAG LINE
Hauling
|
Transporting
|
Processing/Washing
Mining Process OPENCAST

Drilling
SURFACE MINER
|
Blasting
|
Loading
|
Hauling
|
Transporting
|
Processing/Washing
Mining Process OPENCAST

Drilling
|
Blasting
|
Loading
IN-PIT CRUSHING &
| CONVEYING
Hauling
|
Transporting
|
Processing/Washing
 Mining Process UNDERGROUND

Drilling Coal drill

| |
Blasting Permitted explosives
Supporting | |
Ventilation Loading Manual/ SDL/ LHD/Scraper
Pumping
| |
Hauling Manual/ SDL/ LHD/Scraper
| |
Transporting Tubs, Conveyors, etc
| |
Processing/Washing Coal washeries…
Mining Process UNDERGROUND

Drilling
ROAD HEADERS
| CONTINUOUS MINERS
Blasting
|
Loading
|
Hauling
|
Transporting
|
Processing/Washing
Mining Process UNDERGROUND

Drilling
|
Blasting
|
Loading
| SDL/ LHD/
Hauling SCRAPER
|
Transporting
|
Processing/Washing
Mining Process UNDERGROUND

Drilling
|
Blasting
|
Loading LONGWALL
|
Hauling
|
Transporting
|
Processing/Washing
 Selection of Mining Equipment
• Stripping Ratio – in case of Opencast.
• Life of the mine
• Infrastructure available
• Proposed annual output
• Technology available
OPENCAST
MINING
 Different OC Machinery

1. Shovel + Dumper
2. Dragline
3. Surface Miner
4. Bucket Wheel Excavator
5. In-pit crushing + Spreader
Schematic diagram of Opencast
Heavy blasting in open cast benches
 Shovel + Dumper

1. Multi seam extraction

2. More flexibility

3. Can work in steep gradients upto 1 in 5

Shovel + Dumper
Rope Shovel and Dumper
Hydraulic Shovel and Dumper
 Surface Miner
1. Selective mining.

2. Particularly suitable for coal having

compressive strength below 250 kg/cm2.

3. Suitable in gradient of 1 in 10 and flatter.

Surface Miner
Surface Miner
 Bucket wheel excavator

1. Used mainly for lignite extraction.

2. Particularly suitable for coal having low

compressive strength upto 100 kg/cm2.
Bucket wheel excavator
 DRAGLINE
1. Gradients flatter than 1 in 6.
2. Seams should be free of faults & other
geological disturbances.
3. Deposits with Major Strike length.
4. A hilly property is not suitable.
5. Deposit should have atleast 15 years life.
DRAGLINE
Giant Dragline bucket
In-pit crusher conveyor technology
In-pit crusher conveyor technology
In-pit crusher conveyor technology
UNDERGROUND MINING
Incline entry into a seam.
Entry through a shaft
 Entry
through a
shaft
Man riding systems in the mines
A well supported underground roadway
Coal train - 1919, Pennsylvania
Drilling operation in the coal face
MANUAL COAL LOADING
LOAD HAUL DUMPER

Capacity – 2/2.7 Cu.M

Production – 150/200 Tonnes/day
For seams of 1 in 6 gradient and flatter
Thickness of 2.0 m to 4.0 m
SIDE DUMP LOADER

Capacity – 1.0 Cu.M

Production – 120 Tonnes/day
For seams of 1 in 5 gradient and flatter
Thickness of 2.0 m to 3.5 m
 MECHANISED DRIVAGE MACHINES

Rate of drivage –6 meters/day

Production –150 Tonnes/day
For seams of 1 in 4 gradient and flatter
Thickness of 2.0 m to 4.0 m
 Continuous Miner

Rate of drivage –50 meters/day

Production –1500 Tonnes/day
For seams of 1 in 5 gradient and flatter
Thickness of 3.0 m to 4.0 m
Mechanised Roof Bolter

Bolting -240 bolts/day

For seams of 1 in 5 gradient and flatter
Thickness of 2.0 m to 5.0 m
 LONGWALL GENERAL LAYOUT
TOP Gate

FACE

Dip direction

Bottom
Gate
- Longwall mining method includes drivage of two long roadways in coal and joining them
at the end by a perpendicular drivage forming a face.
LONGWALL MINING
SHEARER WORKING AT LONGWALL FACE
SHEARER WORKING AT LONGWALL FACE
POWERED ROOF SUPPORT AT LONGWALL FACE
LONGWALL MAIN GATE
 NEW CONCEPTS
(Going to be implemented in INDIA)
 Highwall Mining

Bench Mining

Trench Mining
Highwall Mining
Highwall Mining
Punch Longwall
Punch Longwall
Advantages

• Step change in cost and productivity

• More production capacity
• High productivity & low cost
• Longer term and higher % of reserves extraction
• Easy logistics – near surface
• High gate road development rates feasible
• Higher and faster returns on investment
• Total investment ~ $100 million – compared with > $300
millions UG
Punch Longwall
Punch Longwall
Erection of Arches
Erection of Arches
Meshing & Lagging with special sleepers
Punch Longwall
Longwall Top Coal Caving (LTCC)

Technical Principle Of Top Caving

Rock stress 1st pressure Low stress Stress 2nd pressure Compact
peak abrupt drop peak stress

Pressure curve of top coalseam

Fracture
Virgin
5600

Coal Broken Coal

coal goaf

caving
2800

Working
Height

Front AFC Rear AFC

back
Longwall Top Coal Caving (LTCC)
 PED schematic operation

Antenna
(Surface or
Underground)
Link Data Link

PC for Modulator Transmitter

entering Ultra Low Frequency Transmission

messages. Through Rock

PED Receivers can be:

• BeltPED Personal Receiver (shown)
• AutoPED Vehicle Receiver
• ControlPED for Equipment Switching
• BlastPED for Remote Blast Initiation
PED receiver cap lamps
Questions…
Please
VENKAT M.
TL-Minex-INDIA