Swami Vivekananda University

Telinipara, Barasat - Barrackpore Road

Bara Kanthalia, West Bengal – 700121

M. Tech in Mechanical Engineering

(With specialization in Manufacturing Technology)

ADVANCED MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY LABORATORY

1.0 Experiment No: SVU/MMT-191/AMT/05

2.0 Name of Experiment: Laser Beam Machining.
3.0 Objective:
➢ To study the Laser Hardening process.
➢ To understand the effect of variation of Beam power, Beam spot diameter leading towards variation
in desired output.
➢ To understand the effect of variation of Beam power, Beam spot diameter leading towards variation
in desired output.
4.0 Principle: The use of electron beams and laser beams in surface treatment have opened up new
industrial possibilities that can lead to finished product quality improvement. These beams, which can
concentrate energy on very small area, produce power densities three to four times the order of
magnitude higher than conventional processes. This results in special interactions between the beam
and the workpiece leading to thermal cycles and consequently to metallurgical characteristics those
are difficult to produce with conventional processes.
High energy density infrared light beams complement advantageously the conventional process of
treatment. A large number of applications to complex geometrical forms, which are difficult to treat
by conventional means can be handled successfully with beam techniques [2]. The use of high power
density heating sources for the localized surface treatment of components offers the potential for
energy efficiency, low distortion and higher rates of self-quenching which yield useful metallurgical
microstructures [3].
Laser transformation surface hardening or laser hardening is an autogenous method of producing
wear-resistant patterns on discrete surface regions of the components. A shaped laser beam is scanned
across the surface of component to heat without any melt. A temperature rise of about 1200º C is ideal.
The underlying bulk material acts as efficient heat sink for the damped energy, and causing rapid
cooling. The hardness, strength, wear, fatigue and lubrication properties of the surface can be
improved, while desirable bulk properties such as toughness and ductility remain unaffected [4]. Laser
surface hardening is an industrial treatment used to provide hardened surfaces in iron and steel through
a solid-state transformation [5]. Ferrous alloys are particularly suitable for laser hardening because
fast quenching produces hard martensite. Depending on the material, hardness value up to about 1000
Hv can be achieved to a depth of around 1.5 mm, before surface melting occurs [6]. The process may
be used for other materials in which a hardening phase change is induced by a thermal cycle [4].
Until the mid-1990s, only CO2 lasers were able to deliver the power density required for economic
rates of hardening large areas. Then Multikilowatt Nd:YAG and (a few years later) diode laser sources
became available, which produce beams that are absorbed more readily by the metal surfaces, resulting
in improvements in process efficiency and which led to an increase in the scope of application for its
pulsed form. The principal objective of laser hardening is to produce a surface with a required hardness
 Swami Vivekananda University
Telinipara, Barasat - Barrackpore Road
Bara Kanthalia, West Bengal – 700121

M. Tech in Mechanical Engineering

(With specialization in Manufacturing Technology)
to a prescribed depth with the highest coverage rate possible [3].
4.1 Principles of laser transformation hardening
The principles of laser hardening are similar to those of conventional hardening. The time scales
involved in the former are, however, typically an order of magnitude shorter. Conventionally heating
is induced by a furnace, flame, arc or induction coil, whereas the laser beam is shaped into a suitable
pattern and scanned over the component.
Induction hardening is growing because it is a fast and clean method well suited for on-line
applications in the workshop. Laser hardening has many features common with induction hardening.
M Melander et al [10] developed computer programs for induction hardening and laser hardening and
some results obtained with them. The experimental results in some cases are comparable.

Fig. 1 Principle of laser hardening: thermal cycles at two points in 0.35% C steel [6]
The surface is heated rapidly to a temperature between a critical solid-state transformation temperature
and the melting temperature. This is illustrated for carbon steel in fig 1. The large volume of adjacent
material acts as an efficient heat sink, which cools the surface rapidly. Surface hardening is achieved
through phase transformations, notably the formation of martensite in ferrous alloys. The structural
properties of the bulk material, such as toughness and fracture resistance are retained, thus producing
an ideal composite structure [6].
4.1.1 Beam- material interaction
During solid-state transformations laser heating, the fraction of the beam power absorbed depends on
the absorptivity of the material surface [8]. In uncoated ferrous alloys, the photons of the laser beam
interact with free electrons in the substrate in a layer approximately 100 µm thick. Energy is
transferred into bulk of the substrate by classical thermal conduction. Absorption of the laser beam
 Swami Vivekananda University
Telinipara, Barasat - Barrackpore Road
Bara Kanthalia, West Bengal – 700121

M. Tech in Mechanical Engineering

(With specialization in Manufacturing Technology)
may be increased by the application of an absorbing layer [6].
In many cases, the absorptivity is relatively low, especially for CO2 laser radiation. Special absorption
coatings such as graphite and molybdenum disulfide through a thin layer of paint have been shown
effective since most organic materials have high absorptivity for CO2 laser light [8]. In many industrial
applications of lasers, material processing relies on the heating effect due to absorption of high-power
beams incident on opaque mediums. The process of laser-material interaction is fairly well studied
and can be adequately described in a wide range of power densities up to 109W/cm2 in terms of the
heat model, by which one can conditionally divide the process of laser interaction into a few
characteristic stages:
1.absorption of laser beam and conservation of its energy to thermal lattice vibrations;
2.heating without material damage;
3.onset of vaporization in the interaction region and scatter of disintegration products; and
4.cooling (quenching) after the laser interaction ceases.
Along with these stages, diffusion and chemical processes take place and phase transformations occur,
which have a considerable effect on the character of laser-material interactions. The amount of
absorbed energy depends on the optical and thermal properties of materials, especially on the
properties of metals; it decreases with increasing wavelength [1].
4.1.2 Microstructural homogenization
In ferrous alloy materials, the formation of homogenous austenite facilitates hardening by distributing
carbon uniformly to transform martensite on cooling. The extent of austenite homonogenization is
dependent on the kinetic effect of thermal cycle experienced at a given point in the heated region. The
kinetic effect is essentially a measure of the amount of diffusion that occurs during the thermal cycle.
Homogenization of austenite may be controlled by diffusion of carbon; from dissolved pearlite
colonies in hypoeutectoid steels or diffusion of metallic elements, from dissolving carbides in highly
alloyed steels.
4.1.3 Phase transformation in cooling
In ferrous alloys, austenite transforms into ferrite, pearlite, bainite or martensite depending on the
severity of cooling portion of the thermal cycle. The phase transformations on cooling can be predicted
by using appropriate continuous cooling transformation (CCT) diagram. When considering the use of
CCT diagrams, it is important to note that they are constructed for a particular prior austenite grain
size and since austenite grain growth is limited during laser hardening, a diagram relevant for a small
grain size should be used [6].
Under slow cooling conditions, this high-temperature austenite phase reverts to ferrite and carbide
structure. The rate of cooling affects this reaction. A more finely divided distribution of carbides in
ferrite with increased tensile strength is produced as the cooling rate increases. If the cooling rate
exceeds a critical value, the reaction to carbide and ferrite is suppressed and austenite is retained down
 Swami Vivekananda University
Telinipara, Barasat - Barrackpore Road
Bara Kanthalia, West Bengal – 700121

M. Tech in Mechanical Engineering

(With specialization in Manufacturing Technology)
to much lower temperatures. Processes that produce these rapid cooling rates are often called
“quenching”. If austenite is retained below a critical temperature Ms, a structure called martensite is
formed. The reaction to form martensite is not time dependent, and depend only the temperature which
austenite reaches. The cooler the temperature the greater the percentage of martensite formed. Because
martensite is harder than the other crystalline structures, the result of rapid heating and quenching
process is a surface layer with a high value of hardness.

Fig. 2 TTT Diagram for 0.8% C steel [8]

Time-Temperature-Transformation (TTT) diagram shown in figure 2 is used to indicate the reaction
rates and the transformation products produced for 0.8% carbon steel. The two “C” shaped curves
represent the time of the beginning and the completion of the reaction of austenite to ferrite and
carbide. The values of Rockwell hardness are indicated for the various structures as RC. It is apparent
that the martensite has a substantially higher value of hardness than the other crystalline forms [8].
The transformation of austenite to martensite is accompanied by a 4% increase in volume, which
induces compressive residual stresses in the transformed region, imparting high fatigue resistance.
However, high concentrations of carbon and other austenite stabilizing elements such as nickel and
manganese reduce the start and finish temperatures for martensite formation, which may result in the
presence of retained austenite in the room temperature [6].
 Swami Vivekananda University
Telinipara, Barasat - Barrackpore Road
Bara Kanthalia, West Bengal – 700121

M. Tech in Mechanical Engineering

(With specialization in Manufacturing Technology)
Laser hardening using NdYAG laser system

1.Sorption of laser beam and conservation of its energy to thermal lattice vibrations;
2. Heating without material damage;
3. Onset of vaporization in the interaction region and scatter of disintegration products
4. Cooling (quenching) after the laser interaction ceases.
The schematic diagram of laser system along with 3-axis gantry used during experimentation is as
shown in the Fig 3 is the actual photograph of the system.

Fig.3 Photograph of Nd: YAG laser system with 3-axis gantry

The specifications of the laser head and 3-axis gantry attached with the system are as below.
Laser head specifications
Laser type- Pulsed Nd: YAG
Wavelength- 1.06µm
Maximum average output power-200 watts
Pulse repetition rate- 1~200Hz
Maximum power per pulse @20msec pulse width- 80Joules
Pulse width- 100µsec to 20msec
Beam divergence – 20mrad
Maximum Beam diameter-8mm
Beam expander- 2X to 8X with input aperture of maximum 20mm
Power supply- 3 phase 440 V AC mains input power supply with 32 Amp of current
Pulse shaping- increasing and decreasing steps for welding
 Swami Vivekananda University
Telinipara, Barasat - Barrackpore Road
Bara Kanthalia, West Bengal – 700121

M. Tech in Mechanical Engineering

(With specialization in Manufacturing Technology)
3-axis gantry specifications
Multi- Axis CNC motion systems
Model: SLP- CNC1824SS
Table Area: - X = 200, Y = 200, Z = 50 & with θ (Rotary axis)
All axes precision pre-loaded ball screws.
Resolution: - 2 microns
Motors: Micro stepping motors 2 phase.
Micro stepping motor with gearbox, on all axes

The conclusions derived from the experiment are summarized as below:

➢ Microstructure analysis reveals that laser hardening of Cast Iron using Nd: YAG laser is quite
feasible.
➢ No abnormal metallurgical change is witnessed during the process.
➢ The process parameters like laser power density, spot size, beam energy distribution as well as
the thermo physical properties of the material affect the process, independently.
➢ The increase in surface hardness from 240 Hv to 600 to 700 Hv is normally observed. The
material removal rate increases with increase in current density.

5.0 Applications:

• Lasers can be used for welding, cladding, marking, surface treatment, drilling, and cutting among
other manufacturing processes.
• It is used in the automobile, shipbuilding, aerospace, steel, electronics, and medical industries for
precision machining of complex parts.
• Laser welding is advantageous in that it can weld at speeds of up to 100 mm/s as well as the ability to
weld dissimilar metals.
• Drilling and cutting with lasers is advantageous in that there is little to no wear on the cutting tool as
there is no contact to cause damage.

6.0 Limitations:

• The initial cost of acquiring a laser beam is moderately high.

• Handling and maintaining the machining requires highly trained individuals.
• Laser beams are not designed to produce mass metal processes.
• Laser beam machining consumes a lot of energy.
• Complex electrodes can require long lead times for fabrication
• Deep cuts are difficult with workpieces with high melting points and usually cause a taper.
 Swami Vivekananda University
Telinipara, Barasat - Barrackpore Road
Bara Kanthalia, West Bengal – 700121

M. Tech in Mechanical Engineering

(With specialization in Manufacturing Technology)

Viva Questions:
1. Laser is a ----- manufacturing process
a) flexible
b) Ideal
c) Selective
d) Chip less

2) Laser radiation by itself is a

a) Thermal process
b) Non thermal
c) Ultrasonic
d) Monochromatic light

3) Laser material processing of materials is a

a) ultrasonic.
b) Non thermal.
c) Thermal.
d) ablation.

4) Laser material processing is associated with

a) Absorption of total energy.
b) Adsorption.
c) Transmission
d) Reflection

5) Efficiency of Laser systems for machining is generally

a) 0.5% to 1%.
b) 3% to 5%.
c) 10% to 20%
d) 30% to 50%

6) Performance of Laser spot hardening process is affected by

a) Welding speed,
b) Focal length of the beam and focusing lens
c) Work piece position
d) All of the above

7) Which of the following conditions need to be satisfied for laser hardening?

a) Highly accurate positioning of the components
b) Accurate positioning of the components
c) in the focus of the laser to prevent large variations in the irradiance
d) All of the above
 Swami Vivekananda University
Telinipara, Barasat - Barrackpore Road
Bara Kanthalia, West Bengal – 700121

M. Tech in Mechanical Engineering

(With specialization in Manufacturing Technology)

8) Laser hardening can be performed using

a) Pulsed NdYAG system
b) Continuous wave NdYAG system
c) Pulsed Fiber laser system
d) All of the above

9) Laser cannot effectively machine

a) Refractory materials.
b) WC (Tungsten carbides).
c) Copper and Aluminium
d) Steels

10) Surface texturing can be carried out using

a) EDM
b) Laser machining
c) Electro forming
d) B and C