AC 00-6A

•••
• •
•• •• ••
..• •• • ••
•• ••
••• • • • ••• •• ••
•• ••
•• ••
•• ••• • • • • ••• •••
••• ••• •• ••• ••• •• •• • ••• •••
•• • ••• • •• ••• •• • ••• •• •••
•• •
••• •
•
•• •• • ••• •
•• •• •• •• ••• •• ••
• •• ••• •••
••• ••• • ••• ••• •• • •
•• • • •• •• • •• •• •• •
• •• ••

AVIATION"
WEATH ER
 AC 00-6A

For Pil sand

Flight perations Personnel

Revised 1975

DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORTATION
FEDERAL AVIATION ADMINISTRATION
FI ight Standards Service

DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE
NATIONAL OCEANIC AND ATMOSPHERIC ADMINISTRATION
National Weather Service

Washington, D.C.

Reprinted by asa PUBLICATIONS

 Editoria 1 Note:

Figures 137 through 139 and 142 on pages 160,

161, and 165 have been rearranged to align with
their proper legends. Corresponding corrections
have been made in the Contents, page XII.

Editorial Note: (9/82)

Figures 137 through 139 on pages 160 and 161
have been rearranged in order to flow in
proper sequence with the text. Corresponding
corrections have been made in the Contents,
page XII.

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office

Washington, D.C. 20402
 Preface

AVIATION WEATHER is published jointly by the FAA Flight Standards Service

and the National Weather Service (NWS). The publication began in 1943 as CAA
Bulletin No. 25, "Meteorology for Pilots," which at the time contained weather
knowledge considered essential for most pilots. But as aircraft flew farther, faster,
and higher and as meteorological knowledge grew, the bulletin became obsolete. It
was revised in 1954 as "Pilots' Weather Handbook" and again in 1965 under its
present title.
All these former editions suffered from one common problem. They dealt in
part with weather services which change continually in keeping with current tech-
niques and service demands. Therefore, each edition became somewhat outdated
almost as soon as published; and its obsolescence grew throughout the period it
remained in print.
To alleviate this problem, the new authors have completely rewritten this edition
streamlining it into a clear, concise, and· readable book and omitting all reference
to specific weather services. Thus, the text will remain valid and adequate for many
years. A companion manual, AVIATION WEATHER SERVICES, Advisory Circular 00-45,
supplements AVIATION WEATHER. This supplement (AC 00-45) periodically is updated
to reflect changes brought about by latest techniques, capabilities, and service demands.
It explains current weather services and the formats and uses of weather charts and
printed weather messages. The two manuals are sold separately; so at a nominal cost,
a pilot can purchase a copy of the supplement (AC 00-45) periodically and keep
current in aviation weather services.
C. Hugh Snyder, National Weather Service Coordinator and Training Con-
sultant at the FAA Academy, directed the preparation of AVIATION WEATHER and
AVIATION WEATHER SERVICES. He and his assistant, John W. Zimmerman, Jr., did
much of the writing and edited the final manuscripts. Recognition is given to these
meteorologists on the NWS Coordinator's staff who helped write the original manu-
script, organize the contents, and plan illustrations: Milton Lee Harrison, Edward
A. Jessup, Joe L. Kendall, and Richard A. Mitchem. Beatrice Emery deserves special
recognition for her relentless effort in typing, retyping, proofing, correcting, and
assembling page after page of manuscript. Many other offices and individuals have
contributed to the preparation, editing, and publication of the two volumes.

III
 Contents
Page
Preface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . III
Introduction ......................................................... XIII

PART I. WHAT YOU SHOULD KNOW ABOUT WEATHER

CHAPTER 1. THE EARTH'S ATMOSPHERE. . . . . • . . . . . • . . • . . • . . . . . • . . . . . . . . 1
Composition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Vertical Structure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
The Standard Atmosphere. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Density and Hypoxia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

CHAPTER 2. TEMPERATURE........................................... 5
Temperature Scales. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Heat and Temperature. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Temperature Variations.... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
In Closing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

CHAPTER 3. ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE AND ALTIMETRY. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

Atmospheric Pressure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Altimetry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
In Closing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

CHAPTER 4. W I N D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Convection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Pressure Gradient Force. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Coriolis Force. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
The General Circulation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Friction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
The Jet Stream. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Local and Small Scale Winds. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Wind Shear. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Wind, Pressure Systems, and Weather. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

CHAPTER 5. MOISTURE, CLOUD FORMATION, AND PRECIPITATION. . . . . . . . . . 37

Water Vapor. . ... .. . ... ... .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. ... ... .. .. . ... 37
Change of State.... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . 39
Cloud Formation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Precipitation ................ , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Land and Water Effects .......................... " . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . 43
In Closing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

CHAPTER 6. STABLE AND UNSTABLE AIR . . . . . , ..•.. ,. .•. .. . .. .•.. .• . .•. . 47

Changes Within Upward and Downward Moving Air.... . .. . .. ..... .. 47
Stability and Instability. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
What Does It All Mean? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . 52

v
 Page
CHAPTER 7. CLOUDS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Identification. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Signposts in the Sky. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
CHAPTER 8. Am MASSES AND FRONTS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Air Masses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Fronts ............ , .. , .................... , ......... . ..... . .... . 64
Fronts and Flight Planning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

CHAPTER 9. TURBULENCE............................................ 79
Convective Currents. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Obstructions to Wind Flow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Wind Shear. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Wake Turbulence ... , ..... , .... '" " ................ " . .. .... .... 88
In Closing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
CHAPTER 10. ICING................................................. 91
Structural Icing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Induction System Icing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Instrument Icing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Icing and Cloud Types. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Other Factors in Icing .......................................... " 100
Ground Icing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 102
Frost .... , ........................... '" ..................... '" 102
In Closing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............................ " 102
CHAPTER 11. THUNDERSTORMS........................................ 105
Where and When? ............................................. " 105
They Don't Just Happen.......................................... 111
The Inside Story ............................................... " 111
Rough and Rougher ............................................ " 112
Hazards. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Thunderstorms and Radar. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 120
Do's and Don'ts of Thunderstorm Flying .......................... " 121
CHAPTER 12. COMMON IFR PRODUCERS. . . . . . . . . .. . .. . . . . . . .. . .. . . .... 125
Fog............................................................ 126
Low Stratus Clouds. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 128
Haze and Smoke ..... , ...... '" '" ................. , ... , '" .... " 129
Blowing Restrictions to Visibility. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 129
Precipitation .................................................. " 130
Obscured or Partially Obscured Sky .............................. " 130
In Closing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... " 130

PART II. OVER AND BEYOND

CHAPTER 13. HIGH ALTITUDE WEATHER ............................. " 135
The Tropopause ............................................... " 136
The Jet Stream. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 136
Cirrus Clouds .................................................. " 139
Clear Air Turbulence... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. 142
Condensation Trails ............................................ " 143

VI
 Page
Haze Layers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 144
Canopy Static. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 145
Icing ....................... " . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . .. 145
Thunderstorms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 145
CHAPTER 14. ARCTIC WEATHER ••••••..•..•..•••••••..•••......•• " • •. 147
Climate, Air Masses, and Fronts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 148
Arctic Peculiarities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 152
Weather Hazards ................. " ... . .. . ... ... .. ... . .. ... . . ... 153
Arctic Flying Weather. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 154
In Closing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 155
CHAPTER 15. TROPICAL WEATHER..... ..• •.•• •• ..•. •.. .•.... ...•. ....• 157
Circulation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 158
Transitory Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 162
CHAPTER 16. SOARING WEATHER.... . •• . .• ..•. .. . .• . •• .•• . .• . .•• •.. .•• 171
Thermal Soaring. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 172
Frontal Soaring. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 191
Sea Breeze Soaring. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 191
Ridge or Hill Soaring.. .. . . . . .. . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. . .. . . . . .. . . . . . . .. 195
Mountain Wave Soaring. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 198
In Closing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 200

Glossary of Weather Terms.. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. 201

Index. . . . .. ...... ...... ........................ ... ... .......... . ... 215

VII
 III ustrations
Figure Page
1. Composition of a dry atmosphere. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2. The atmosphere divided into layers based on temperature. . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
3. The two temperature scales in common use. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
4. World-wide average surface temperatures in July. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
5. World-wide average surface temperatures in January. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
6. Temperature differences create air movement and, at times, cloudiness. . 9
7. Inverted lapse rates or "inversions" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
8. The mercurial barometer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
9. The aneroid barometer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
10. The standard atmosphere. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
11. Three columns of air showing how decrease of pressure with height varies
with temperature. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
12. Reduction of station pressure to sea leveL.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
13. Pressure systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
14. Indicated altitude depends on air temperature below the aircraft. . . . . . . 17
15. When flying from high pressure to lower pressure without adjusting your
altimeter, you are losing true altitude.... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
16. Effect of temperature on altitude. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
17. Effect of density altitude on takeoff and climb. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
18. Convective current resulting from uneven heating of air by contrasting
surface temperatures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
19. Circulation as it would be on a nonrotating globe. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
20. Apparent deflective force due to rotation of a horizontal platform. . . . . . . 26
21. Effect of Coriolis force on wind relative to isobars. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
22. In the Northern Hemisphere, Coriolis force turns equatorial winds to
westerlies and polar winds to easterlies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
23. Mean world-wide surface pressure distribution in July. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
24. Mean world-wide surface pressure distribution in January. . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
25. General average circulation in the Northern Hemisphere. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
26. Air flow around pressure systems above the friction layer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
27. Surface friction slows the wind and reduces Coriolis force; winds are
deflected across the isobars toward lower pressure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
28. Circulation around pressure systems at the surface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
29. The "Chinook" is a katabatic (downslope) wind. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
30. Land and sea breezes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
31. Wind shear. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
32. Blue dots illustrate the increased water vapor capacity of warm air. . . . . 38
33. Relative humidity depends on both temperature and water vapor. . . . . . 39
34. Virga. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
35. Heat transactions when water changes state. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
36. Growth of raindrops by collision of cloud droplets. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
37. Lake effects ...................................... , ........... , . . 43
38. Strong cold winds across the Great Lakes absorb water vapor and may
carry showers as far eastward as the Appalachians. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
39. A view of clouds from 27,000 feet over Lake Okeechobee in southern
Florida ............... , . . . . .. . .. . ..... . ..... . .. . .. . .. . ..... . .. 45

IX
Figure Page
40. Decreasing atmospheric pressure causes the balloon to expand as it rises 48
41. Adiabatic warming of downward moving air produces the warm Chinook
wind......................................................... 49
42. Stability related to temperatures aloft and adiabatic cooling. . . . . . . . . . . 50
43. When stable air is forced upward, cloudiness is flat and stratified. When
unstable air is forced upward, cloudiness shows extensive vertical
development. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
44. Cloud base determination. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
45. Cirrus..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
46. Cirrocumulus. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
47. Cirrostratus............................................. .. . .. . . . 55
48. Altocumulus. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
49. Altostratus.... . .. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . 56
50. Altocumulus castella nus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
51. Standing lenticular altocumulus clouds. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
52. Nimbostratus. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
53. Stratus.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
54. Stratocumulus..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
55. Cumulus. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
56. Towering cumulus.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
57. Cumulonimbus ........ , ................ '" '" ............. " .. . . 61
58. Horizontal uniformity of an air mass. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
59. Cross section of a cold front with the weather map symbol. . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
60. Cross section of a warm front with the weather map symbol. . . . . . . . . . . 67
61. Cross section of a stationary front and its weather map symbol. . . . . . . . . 68
62. The life cycle of a frontal wave. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
63. Cross section of a warm-front occlusion and its weather map symbol. . . . 70
64. Cross section of a cold-front occlusion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
65. Frontolysis of a stationary front. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
66. Frontogenesis of a stationary front. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
67. A cold front underrunning warm, moist, stable air. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
68. A cold front underrunning warm, moist, unstable air. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
69. A warm front with overrunning moist, stable air. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
70. A slow-moving cold front underrunning warm, moist, unstable air. . . . . . 74
71. A warm front with overrunning warm, moist, unstable air. . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
72. A fast moving cold front underrunning warm, moist, unstable air... . . . . 75
73. A warm front occlusion lifting warm, moist, unstable air. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
74. A cold front occlusion lifting warm, moist, stable air. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
75. An aerial view of a portion of a squall line. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
76. Effect of convective currents on final approach. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
77. Avoiding turbulence by flying above convective clouds.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
78. Eddy currents formed by winds blowing over uneven ground or over
obstructions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
79. Turbulent air in the landing area. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
80. Wind flow in mountain areas... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
81. Schematic cross section of a mountain wave. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
82. Standing lenticular clouds associated with a mountain wave. . . . . . . . . . . 85
83. Standing wave rotor clouds marking the rotary circulation beneath
mountain waves .......................................... , . . . . 86
84. Mountain wave clouds over the Tibetan Plateau photographed from a
manned spacecraft. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87

x
Figure Page
85. Satellite photograph of a mountain wave and the surface analysis for
approximately the same time. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
86. Wind shear in a zone between relatively calm wind below an inversion and
strong wind above the inversion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
87. Wake turbulence wing tip vortices developing as aircraft breaks ground. 89
88. Planning landing or takeoff to avoid heavy aircraft wake turbulence. . . . 90
89. Effects of structural icing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
90. Clear, rime, and mixed icing on airfoils.. . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . 93
91. Clear wing icing (leading edge and underside). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
92. Propeller icing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
93. Rime icing on the nose of a Mooney "Mark 21" aircraft. . . .. . . . . . . .. . 96
94. External icing on a pitot tube. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
95. Carburetor icing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
96. Internal pitot tube icing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
97. Clear ice on an aircraft antenna mast. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 100
98. Freezing rain with a warm front and a cold front. . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .. 101
99. Frost on an aircraft. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 103
100. The average number of thunderstorms each year. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 106
101. The average number of days with thunderstorms during spring. . . . . . . .. 107
102. The average number of days with thunderstorms during summer. . . . . .. 108
103. The average number of days with thunderstorms during fall. . . . . . . . . .. 109
104. The average number of days with thunderstorms during winter. . . . . . .. 110
105. The stages of a thunderstorm... . .. . . . . .. . . . . .. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. 112
106. Schematic of the mature stage of a steady state thunderstorm cell ..... " 113
107. A tornado. . . .. . .. ......... . ... ... .. ....... .. ... . .. . ........ .... 114
108. A waterspout. . . . . . .. . ..... . ......... .. .......... ........... .... 114
109. Funnel clouds. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 115
110. Cumulonimbus Mamma clouds.................................... 116
111. Tornado incidence by State and area. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 117
112. Squall line thunderstorms.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 118
113. Schematic cross section of a thunderstorm.. . . . . . . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . . . . .. 119
114. Hail damage to an aircraft... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .. . .. . . . . . .. 120
115. Radalphotograph of a line of thunderstorms ....... '. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 121
116. Use of airborne radar to avoid heavy precipitation and turbulence. . . . .. 122
117. Ground fog as seen from the air ................................. " 126
118. Advection fog in California. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 127
119. Advection fog over the southeastern United States and Gulf Coast. . . . .. 128
120. Smoke trapped in stagnant air under an inversion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 129
121. Aerial photograph of blowing dust approaching with a cold front. . . . . .. 130
122. Difference between the ceiling caused by a surface-based obscuration and
the ceiling caused by a layer aloft. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 131
123. A cross section of the upper troposphere and lower stratosphere. . . . . . .. 136
124. Artist's concept of the jet stream. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 137
125. Ajet stream segment... . .. . . . . ......... ....................... ... 137
126. Multiple jet streams. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 138
127. Mean jet positions relative to surface systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 139
128a. Satellite photograph of an occluded system. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
128b. Infrared photograph of the system shown in figure 128a.. . . . . . . . . . . .. 141
129. A frequent CAT location is along the jet stream north and northeast of a
rapidly deepening surface low. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 142
130. Contrails....................................................... 144

XI
Figure Page
131. The Arctic... .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 148
132. Sunshine in the Northern Hemisphere .................. " . .. . . . . . .. 149
133. The permanent Arctic ice pack ............... , . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 150
134. Average number of cloudy days per month (Arctic) ................. , 151
135. Visibility reduced by blowing snow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 154
136. A typical frozen landscape of the Arctic.. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 154
137. Vertical cross section illustrating convection in the Intertropical 'Con-
vergence Zone. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 160
138. Prevailing winds throughout the Tropics in July. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 161
139. Prevailing winds in the Tropics in January. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 161
140. A shear line and an induced trough caused by a polar high pushing into
the subtropics .................... " . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. 163
141. A trough aloft across the Hawaiian Islands. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 164
142. A Northern Hemisphere easterly wave ......... " . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 165
143. Vertical cross section along line A-B in figure 142.. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .... 165
144. Principal regions where tropical cyclones form and their favored direc-
tions of movement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 166
145. Radar photograph of hurricane "Donna". . . .. . .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . .. 168
146. A hurricane observed by satellite. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 169
147. Thermals generally occur over a small portion of an area while down-
drafts predominate. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 172
148. Using surface dust and smoke movement as indications of a thermal. . .. 174
149. Horizontal cross section of a dust devil rotating clockwise ..... '" .. . ... 174
150. Cumulus clouds grow only with active thermals.. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 176
151. Photograph of a dying cumulus... . .. .... .. .... .. . .. ...... . .. . . . ... 177
152. Altocumulus castellanus clouds are middle level convective clouds. . . . .. 178
153. Experience indicates that the "chimney" thermal is the most prevalent
type ........ , . . . . .. . .. . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. 179
154. Thermals may be intermittent "bubbles" ............... " . . . . . . . . .. 179
155. It is believed that a bubble thermal sometimes develops a vortex ring. .. 180
156. Wind causes thermals to lean. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 181
157. Photograph of cumulus clouds severed by wind shear. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 181
158. Conditions favorable for thermal streeting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 182
159. Cumulus clouds in thermal streets photographed from a satellite high
resolution camera.... . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .. . .. 183
160. The Pseudo-Adiabatic Ohart. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 184
161. An early morning upper air observation plotted on the pseudo-adiabatic
chart ................................... '" .......... " . .. ... 185
162. Computing the thermal index (TI).... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 187
163. Another example of computing TI's and maximum height of thermals... 188
l64. An upper air observation made from an aircraft called an airplane
observation or APOB. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 189
165. Schematic cross section through a sea breeze front. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 192
166. Sea breeze flow into the San Fernando Valley ....... " ............. , 193
167. Sea breeze convergence zone, Cape Cod, Massachusetts. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 194
168. Schematic cross section of airflow over a ridge. ...................... 195
169. Strong winds flowing around an isolated peak. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 196
170. Wind flow over various types of terrain. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 197
171. Schematic cross section of a mountain wave. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 198
172. Wave length and amplitude... . .. . . . . ..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. 199

XII
 Introduction

Weather is perpetual in the state of the atmosphere. All flying takes place in
the atmosphere, so flying and weather are inseparable. Therefore, we cannot treat
aviation weather purely as an academic subject. Throughout the book, we discuss
each aspect of weather as it relates to aircraft operation and flight safety. However,
this book is in no wayan aircraft operating manual. Each pilot must apply the
knowledge gained here to his own aircraft and flight capabilities.
The authors have devoted much of the book to marginal, hazardous, and violent
weather which becomes a vital concern. Do not let this disproportionate time devoted
to hazardous weather discourage you from flying. By and large, weather is generally
good and places little restriction on flying. Less frequently, it becomes a threat to
the VFR pilot but is good for IFR flight. On some occasions it becomes too violent
even for the IFR pilot.
It behooves every pilot to learn to appreciate good weather, to recognize and
respect marginal or hazardous weather, and to avoid violent weather when the atmo-
sphere is on its most cantankerous behavior. For your safety and the safety of those
with you, learn to recognize potential trouble and make sound flight decisions before
it is too late. This is the real purpose of this manual.
AVIATION WEATHER is in two parts. Part I explains weather facts every piiot
should know. Part II contains topics of special interest discussing high altitude,
Arctic, tropical, and soaring weather. A glossary defines terms for your reference
while reading this or other weather writings. To get a complete operational study,
you will need in addition to this manual a copy of AVIATION WEATHER SERVICES,
AC 00-45, which is explained in the Preface.
We sincerely believe you will enjoy this book and at the same time increase
your flying safety and economy and, above all, enhance the pleasure and satisfaction
of using today's most modem transportation.

XIII
 o

Part ONE

WHAT YOU SHOULD KNOW

ABOUT WEATHER
Chapter 1
HE EARTH'S ATMOSPHERE
Planet Earth is unique in that its atmosphere stantly in motion as it strives to reach equilibrium.
sustains life as we know it. Weather-the state of These never-ending air movements set up chain
the atmosphere-at any given time and place reactions which culminate in a continuing variety
strongly influences our daily routine as well as our of weather. Later chapters in this book delve into
general life patterns. Virtually all of our activities the atmosphere in motion. This chapter looks brief-
are affected by weather, but of all man's endeav- ly at our atmosphere in terms of its composition;
ors, none is influenced more intimately by weather vertical structure; the standard atmosphere; and of
than aviation. special concern to you, the pilot, density and
Weather is complex and at times difficult to un- hypoxia.
derstand. Our restless atmosphere is almost con-
 COMPOSITION
Air is a mixture of several gases. When com-
pletely dry, it is about 78% nitrogen and 21 % oxy-
OTHER GASES
gen. The remaining 1% is other gases such as
Argon, Carbon Dioxide, Neon, Helium, and others. .1/
Figure 1 graphs these proportions. However, in na-
ture, air is never completely dry. It always contains
some water vapor in amounts varying from almost OXYGEN
zero to about 5% by volume. As water vapor con-
tent increases, the other gases decrease propor-
tionately.

NITROGEN

FIGURE 1. Composition of a dry atmosphere. Nitrogen

comprises about 78%; oxygen, about 21 %; and other
gases, about 1 %. When water vapor is added, the per-
centages decrease proportionately. Water vapor varies
from almost none to about 5% by volume.

VERTICAL STRUCTURE
We classify the atmosphere into layers, or 65,000 feet over the Equator; and it is higher in
spheres, by characteristics exhibited in these lay- summer than in winter.
ers. Figure 2 shows one division which we use in At the top of the troposphere is the TROPO-
this book. Since most weather occurs in the tropo- PAUSE, a very thin layer marking the boundary
sphere and since most flying is in the troposphere between the troposphere and the layer above. The
and stratosphere, we restrict our discussions mostly height of the tropopause and certain weather phe-
to these two layers. nomena are related. Chapter 13 discusses in detail
The TROPOSPHERE is the layer from the sur- the significance of the tropopause to flight.
face to an average altitude of about 7 miles. It is Above the tropopause is the STRATOSPHERE.
characterized by an overall decrease of temperature This layer is typified by relatively small changes in
with increasing altitude. The height of the tropo- temperature with height except for ' a warming
sphere varies with latitude and seasons. It slopes trend near the top.
from about 20,000 feet over the poles to about

THE STANDARD ATMOSPHERE

Continual fluctuations of temperature and pres- specified sea-level temperature and pressure and
sure in our restless atmosphere create some prob- specific rates of change of temperature and pres-
lems for engineers and meteorologists who require sure with height. It is the standard for calibrating
a fixed standard of reference. To arrive at a stan- the pressure altimeter and developing aircraft per-
dard, they averaged conditions throughout the at- formance data. We refer to it often throughout this
mosphere for all latitudes, seasons, and altitudes. book.
The result is a STANDARD ATMOSPHERE with

2
 T
19-22 mi.

STRA TOSPHERE

MESOSPHERE

THERMOSPHERE

FIGURE 2. The atmosphere divided into layers based on temperature. This book concentrates on the lower two layers, the
troposphere and the stratosphere.

DENSITY AND HYPOXIA

Air is matter and has weight. Since it is gaseous, air. The atmosphere is about one-fifth oxygen, so
it is compressible. Pressure the atmosphere exerts the oxygen pressure is about one-fifth the total
on the surface is the result of the weight of the air pressure at any given altitude. Normally, our lungs
above. Thus, air near the surface is much more are accustomed to an oxygen pressure of about 3
dense than air at high altitudes. This decrease of pounds per square inch. But, since air pressure de-
density and pressure with height enters frequently creases as altitude increases, the oxygen pressure
into our discussions in later chapters. also decreases. A pilot continuously gaining alti-
The decrease in air density with increasing height tude or making a prolonged flight at high altitude
has a physiological effect which we cannot ignore. without supplemental oxygen will likely suffer from
The rate at which the lungs absorb oxygen depends HYPOXIA-a deficiency of oxygen. The effects
on the partial pressure exerted by oxygen in the are a feeling of exhaustion; an impairment of

3
vision and judgment; and finally, unconsciousness. not have oxygen, descend to a lower altitude. If
Cases are known where a person lapsed into un- fatigue or drowsiness continues after descent, it is
consciousness without realizing he was suffering caused by something other than hypoxia.
the effects. A safe procedure is to use auxiliary oxygen dur-
When flying at or above 10,000 feet, force ing prolonged flights above 10,000 feet and for
yourself to remain alert. Any feeling of drowsiness even short flights above 12,000 feet. Above about
or undue fatigue may be from hypoxia. If you do 40,000 feet, pressurization becomes essential.

4
Chapter 2
TEMPERATURE
Since early childhood, you have expressed the be critical to some flight operations. As a founda-
comfort of weather in degrees of temperature. tion for the study of temperature effects on avia-
Why, then, do we stress temperature in aviation tion and weather, this chapter describes commonly
weather? Look at your flight computer; tempera- used temperature scales, relates heat and tempera-
ture enters into the computation of most param- ture, and surveys temperature variations both at
eters on the computer. In fact, temperature can the surface and aloft.

5
 TEMPERATURE SCALES
Two commonly used temperature scales are
Celsius (Centigrade) and Fahrenheit. The Celsius
scale is used exclusively for upper air temperatures
and is rapidly becoming the world standard for
surface temperatures also.
Traditionally, two common temperature refer-
ences are the melting point of pure ice and the
boiling point of pure water at sea level. The melt-
ing point of ice is 0° C or 32° F; the boiling point
of water is 100° C or 212° F . Thus, the difference
between melting and boiling is 100 degrees Celsius
or 180 degrees Fahrenheit; the ratio between de-
grees Celsius and Fahrenheit is 100/180 or 5/9.
Since 0° F is 32 Fahrenheit degrees colder than 0°
C, you must apply this difference when comparing
temperatures on the two scales. You can convert
from one scale to the other using one of the
following formulae:

5
C = 9(F - 32)

F = 2c
5
+ 32

where C is degrees Celsius and F is degrees Fahren-

heit. Figure 3 compares the two scales. Many flight
computers provide for direct conversion of temper-
ature from one scale to the other. Section 16, AVIA-
TION WEATHER SERVICES has a graph for temper-
ature conversion.
Temperatllre we measure with a thermometer.
But what makes a thermometer work? Simply the FIGURE 3. The two temperature scales in common use
addition or removal of heat. Heat and temperature are the Fahrenheit and the Celsius. 9 degrees on the
are not the same; how are they related? Fahrenheit scale equalS degrees on the Celsius.

HEAT AND TEMPERATURE

Heat is a form of energy. When a substance con- of heat is added, the land surface becomes hotter
tains heat, it exhibits the property we measure as than the water surface. Conversely, with equal heat
temperature-the degree of "hotness" or "cold- loss, the land becomes colder than the water.
ness." A specific amount of heat absorbed by or The Earth receives energy from the sun in the
removed from a substance raises or lowers its tem- form of solar radiation. The Earth and its atmo-
perature a definite amount. However, the amount sphere reflect about 55 percent of the radiation
of temperature change depends on characteristics and absorb the remaining 45 percent converting it
of the substance. Each substance has its unique to heat. The Earth, in turn, radiates energy, and
temperature change for the specific change in heat. this outgoing radiation is "terrestrial radiation." It
For example, if a land surface and a water surface is evident that the average heat gained from in-
have the same temperature and an equal amount coming solar radiation must equal heat lost through

6
terrestrial radiation in order to keep the earth regional and local imbalances which create temper-
from getting progressively hotter or colder. How- ature variations.
ever, this balance is world-wide; we must consider

TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS
The amount of solar energy received by any re- Since the Earth is essentially spherical, the sun is
gion varies with time of day, with seasons, and with more nearly overhead in equatorial regions than at
latitude. These differences in solar energy create higher latitudes. Equatorial regions, therefore, re-
temperature variations. Temperatures also vary ceive the most radiant energy and are warmest.
with differences in topographical surface and with Slanting rays of the sun at higher latitudes deliver
altitude. These temperature variations create forces less energy over a given area with the least being
that drive the atmosphere in its endless motions. received at the poles. Thus, temperature varies with
latitude from the warm Equator to the cold poles.
DIURNAL VARIATION You can see this average temperature gradient in
Diurnal variation is the change in temperature figures 4 and 5.
from day to night brought about by the daily rota-
tion of the Earth. The Earth receives heat during VARIATIONS WITH TOPOGRAPHY
the day by solar radiation but continually loses Not related to movement or shape of the earth
heat by terrestrial radiation.Warming and cooling are temperature variations induced by water and
depend on an imbalance of solar and terrestrial terrain. As stated earlier, water absorbs and radi-
radiation. During the day, solar radiation exceeds ates energy with less temperature change than does
terrestrial radiation and the surface becomes land. Large, deep water bodies tend to minimize
warmer. At night, solar radiation ceases, but ter- temperature changes, while continents favor large
restrial radiation continues and cools the surface. changes. Wet soil such as in swamps and marshes
Cooling continues after sunrise until solar radiation is almost as effective as water in suppressing tem-
again exceeds terrestrial radiation. Minimum tem- perature changes. Thick vegetation tends to control
perature usually occurs after sunrise, sometimes as temperature changes since it contains some water
much as one hour after. The continued cooling and also insulates against heat transfer between the
after sunrise is one reason that fog sometimes forms ground and the atmosphere. Arid, barren surfaces
shortly after the sun is above the horizon. We will permit the greatest temperature changes.
have more to say about diurnal variation and topo- These topographical influences are both diurnal
graphic surfaces. and seasonal. For example, the difference between
a daily maximum and minimum may be 10° or
SEASONAL VARIATION less over water, near a shore line, or over a swamp
In addition to its daily rotation, the Earth re- or marsh, while a difference of 50° or more is
volves in a complete orbit around the sun once each common over rocky or sandy deserts. Figures 4
year. Since the axis of the Earth tilts to the plane and 5 show the seasonal topographical variation.
of orbit, the angle of incident solar radiation varies Note that in the Northern Hemisphere in July,
seasonally between hemispheres. The Northern temperatures are warmer over continents than over
Hemisphere is warmer in June, July, and August oceans; in January they are colder over continents
because it receives more solar energy than does the than over oceans. The opposite is true in the South-
Southern Hemisphere. During December, January, ern Hemisphere, but not as pronounced because of
and February, the opposite is true; the Southern more water surface in the Southern Hemisphere.
Hemisphere receives more solar energy and is To compare land and water effect on seasonal
warmer. Figures 4 and 5 show these seasonal sur- temperature variation, look at northern Asia and at
face temperature variations. southern California near San Diego. In the deep
continental interior of northern Asia, July average
VARIATION WITH LATITUDE temperature is about 50° F; and January average,
The shape of the Earth causes a geographical about -30° F. Seasonal range is about 80° F. Near
variation in the angle of incident solar radiation. San Diego, due to the proximity of the Pacific

7
FIGURE 4. World-wide average surface temperatures in July. In the Northern Hemisphere, continents generally are
warmer than oceanic areas at corresponding latitudes. The reverse is true in the Southern Hemisphere, but the contrast
is not so evident because of the sparcity of land surfaces.

100 120 140 160 180 160 140 120 "'0 60 60 40 20 20 40 60 60 100

FIGURE 5. World-wide average surface temperatures in January when the Northern Hemisphere is in the cold season and
the Southern Hemisphere is warm. Note that in the Northern Hemisphere, continents are colder than oceanic areas at
corresponding latitudes, and in the Southern Hemisphere continents are warmer than oceans.

8
Ocean, July average is about 70° F and January av- VARIATION WITH ALTITUDE
erage, 50° F. Seasonal variation is only about 20° F.
In chapter 1, we learned that temperature nor-
Abrupt temperature differences develop along mally decreases with increasing altitude throughout
lake and ocean shores. These variations generate the troposphere. This decrease of temperature with
pressure differences and local winds which we will altitude is defined as lapse rate. The average de-
study in later chapters. Figure 6 illustrates a possi- crease of temperature-average lapse rate-in the
ble effect. troposphere is 2° C per 1,000 feet. But since this
Prevailing wind is also a factor in temperature is an average, the exact value seldom exists. In
controls. In an area where prevailing winds are fact, temperature sometimes increases with height
from large water bodies, temperature changes are through a layer. An increase in temperature with
rather small. Most islands enjoy fairly constant altitude is defined as an inv,ersion, i.e., lapse rate
temperatures. On the other hand, temperature is inverted.
changes are more pronounced where prevailing An inversion often develops near the ground on
wind is from dry, barren regions. clear, cool nights when wind is light. The ground
Air transfers heat slowly from the surface up- radiates and cools much faster than the overlying
ward. Thus, temperature changes aloft are more air. Air in contact with the ground becomes cold
gradual than at the surface. Let's look at tempera- while the temperature a few hundred feet above
ture changes with altitude. changes very little. Thus, temperature increases

WARMED

FIGURE 6. Temperature differences create air movement and, at times, cloudiness.

9
with height. Inversions may also occur at any alti- near the surface produces an inversion aloft. Figure
tude when conditions are favorable . For example, 7 diagrams temperature inversions both surface and
a current of warm air aloft overrunning cold air aloft. Inversions are common in the stratosphere.

UP

INVERSION

ALOFT ----

FIGURE 7. Inverted lapse rates or "inversions." A lapse rate is a decrease of temperature with height. An inversion is an
increase of temperature with height, i.e., the lapse rate is inverted. Shown here are a surface inversion and an inversion
aloft.

IN CLOSING
Temperature affects aircraft performance and is 4. Diurnal cooling is conducive to fog (chap-
critical to some operations. Following are some op- ter 5).
erational pointers to remember, and most of them 5. Lapse rate contributes to stability (chapter
are developed in later chapters: 6) , cloud formation (chapter 7), turbulence
1. The aircraft thermometer is subject to in- (chapter 9), and thunderstorms (chapter
accuracies no matter how good the instru- 11) .
ment and its installation. Position of the 6. An inversion aloft permits warm rain to fall
aircraft relative to the sun can cause errors through cold air below. Temperature in the
due to radiation, particularly on a parked cold air can be critical to icing (chapter
aircraft. At high speeds, aerodynamical ef- 10) .
fects and friction are basically the causes of 7. A ground based inversion favors poor visi-
inaccuracies. bility by trapping fog, smoke, and other
2. High temperature reduces air density and restrictions into low levels of the atmo-
reduces aircraft performance (chapter 3). sphere ( chapter 12).
3. Diurnal and topographical temperature
variations create local winds (chapter 4).

10
Chapter 3
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
AND ALTIMETRY
When you understand pressure, its measure- pressure, you can more readily grasp the signif-
ment, and effects of temperature and altitude on icance of pressure and its application to altimetry.

ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
Atmospheric pressure is the force per unit area MEASURING PRESSURE
exerted by the weight of the atmosphere. Since air
is not solid, we cannot weigh it with conventional The instrument Toricelli designed for measuring
scales. Yet, Toricelli proved three centuries ago pressure is the barometer. Weather services and the
that he could weigh the atmosphere by balancing aviation community use two types of barometers in
it against a column of mercury. He actually mea- measuring pressure-the mercurial and aneroid.
sured pressure converting it directly to weight.

11
The Mercurial Barometer use water, but at sea level the water column would
be about 34 feet high.
The mercurial barometer, diagrammed in figure
8, consists of an open dish of mercury into which The Aneroid Barometer
we place the open end of an evacuated glass tube.
Essential features of an aneroid barometer illus-
Atmospheric pressure forces mercury to rise in the
trated in figure 9 are a flexible metal cell and the
tube. At stations near sea level, the column of mer-
registering mechanism. The cell is partially evac-
cury rises on the average to a height of 29.92 inches
uated and contracts or expands as pressure changes.
or 760 millimeters. In other words, a column of
One end of the cell is fixed, while the other end
mercury of that height weighs the same as a col-
moves the registering mechanism. The coupling
umn of air having the same cross section as the
mechanism magnifies movement of the cell driving
column of mercury and extending from sea level
an indicator hand along a scale graduated in pres-
to the top of the atmosphere.
sure units.
Why do we use mercury in the barometer? Mer-
cury is the heaviest substance available which re- Pressure Units
mains liquid at ordinary temperatures. It permits
Pressure is expressed in many ways throughout
the instrument to be of manageable size. We could
the world. The term used depends somewhat on its
application and the system of measurement. Two
popular units are "inches of mercury" or "milli-
meters of mercury." Since pressure is force per unit
ATMOSPHERIC area, a more explicit expression of pressure is
"pounds per square inch" or "grams per square
PRESSURE centimeter." The term "millibar" precisely ex-
presses pressure as a force per unit area, one milli-
bar being a force of 1,000 dynes per square
-+--- VAC UUM centimeter. The millibar is rapidly becoming a
universal pressure unit.

COLUMN Station Pressure

Obviously, we can measure pressure only at the
OF point of measurement. The pressure measured at a
station or airport is "station pressure" or the actual
pressure at field elevation. We know that pressure
at high altitude is less than at sea level or low alti-
tude. For instance, station pressure at Denver is
less than at New Orleans. Let's look more closely
at some factors influencing pressure.

PRESSURE VARIATION
Pressure varies with altitude and temperature of
the air as well as with other minor influences which
we neglect here.

Altitude
As we move upward through the atmosphere,
weight of the air above becomes less and less. If
we carry a barometer with us, we can measure a
decrease in pressure as weight of the air above de-
creases. Within the lower few thousand feet of the
FIGURE 8. The mercurial barometer. Atmospheric pres-
sure forces mercury from the open dish upward into the troposphere, pressure decreases roughly one inch
evacuated glass tube. The height of the mercury column for each 1,000 feet increase in altitude. The higher
is a measure of atmospheric pressure. we go, the slower is the rate of decrease with height.

12
 HIGH LOW
H

FIGURE 9. The aneroid barometer. The aneroid consists of a partially evacuated metal cell, a coupling mechanism, and an
indicator scale. The cell contracts and expands with changing pressure. The coupling mechanism drives the indicator
along a scale graduated in pressure units.

Figure 10 shows the pressure decrease with height Sea Level Pressure
in the standard atmosphere. These standard alti-
tudes are based on standard temperatures. In the Since pressure varies with altitude, we cannot
real atmosphere, temperatures are seldom standard, readily compare station pressures between stations
so let's explore temperature effects. at different altitudes. To make them comparable,
we must adjust them to some common level. Mean
sea level seems the most feasible common reference.
Temperature
In figure 12, pressure measured at a 5,000-foot sta-
Like most substances, air expands as it becomes tion is 25 inches; pressure increases about 1 inch
warmer and shrinks as it cools. Figure 11 shows for each 1,000 feet or a total of 5 inches. Sea level
three columns of air---one colder than standard, pressure is approximately 25 + 5 or 30 inches. The
one at standard temperature, and one warmer than weather observer takes temperature and other ef-
standard. Pressure is equal at the bottom of each fects into account, but this simplified example ex-
column and equal at the top of each column. plains the basic principle of sea level pressure
Therefore, pressure decrease upward through each reduction.
column is the same. Vertical expansion of the warm We usually express sea level pressure in millibars.
column has made it higher than the column at Standard sea level pressure is 1013.2 millibars,
standard temperature. Shrinkage of the cold col- 29.92 inches of mercury, 760 millimeters of mer-
umn has made it shorter. Since pressure decrease cury, or about 14.7 pounds per square inch. Figures
is the same in each column, the rate of decrease of 23 and 24 in chapter 4 show world-wide averages
pressure with height in warm air is less than stan- of sea level pressure for the months of July and
dard; the rate of decrease of pressure with height January. Pressure changes continually, however,
in cold air is greater than standard. You will soon and departs widely from these averages. We use a
see the importance of temperature in altimetry and sequence of weather maps to follow these changing
weather analysis and on aircraft performance. pressures.

13
FIGURE 10. The standard atmosphere. Note how pressure decreases with increasing height; the rate of decrease with height
is greatest in lower levels.

14
 able, organized pressure patterns. Five pressure
systems are shown in figure 13 and are defined as
follow:
1. LOW-a center of pressure surrounded on
all sides by higher pressure; also called a
cyclone. Cyclonic curvature is the curvature
of isobars to the left when you stand with
lower pressure to your left.
WARM
2. HIGH-a center of pressure surrounded on
STANDARD
all sides by lower pressure, also called an
COLD
anticyclone. Anticyclonic curvature is the
curvature of isobars to the right when you
stand with lower pressure to your left.
3. TROUGH-an elongated area of low pres-
sure with the lowest pressure along a line
marking maximum cyclonic curvature.
4. RIDGE-an elongated area of high pres-
sure with the highest pressure along a line
marking maximum anticyclonic curvature.
FIGURE 11. Three columns of air showing how decrease
of pressure with height varies with temperature. Left 5. COL-the neutral area between two highs
column is colder than average and right column, warmer and two lows. It also is the intersection of
than average. Pressure is equal at the bottom of each a trough and a ridge. The colon a pressure
column and equal at the top of each column. Pressure surface is analogous to a mountain pass on
decreases most rapidly with height in the cold air and
a topographic surface.
least rapidly in the warm air.
Upper air weather maps reveal these same types
of pressure patterns aloft for several levels. They
Pressure Ana lyses also show temperature, moisture, and wind at each
level. In fact, a chart is available for a level within
We plot sea level pressures on a map and draw a few thousand feet of your planned cruising alti-
lines connecting points of equal pressure. These tude. AVIATION WEATHER SERVICES lists the approx-
lines of equal pressure are isobars. Hence, the sur- imate heights of upper air maps and shows details
face map is an isobaric analysis showing identifi- of the surface map and each upper air chart.

A Pressure
at 5000' of
'25 INCHES
- - - - - - - - - - -0::..::=_---------

When reduced to
sea-level is 25+5=30 Inches

FIGURE 12. Reduction of .station pressure to sea level. Pressure increases about 1 inch per 1,000 feet from the station
elevation to sea level.

15
 FIGURE 13. Pressure systems.

Chapter 4 of this book ties together the surface The National Weather Service and military
chart and upper air charts into a three-dimensional weather services take routine scheduled upper air
picture. observations-sometimes called soundings. A bal-
An upper air map is a constant pressure analysis. loon carries aloft a radiosonde instrument wh.ich
But, what do we mean by "constant pressure"? consists of miniature radio gear and sensing ele-
Constant pressure simply refers to a specific pres- ments. While in flight, the radiosonde transmits
sure. Let's arbitrarily choose 700 m.illibars. Every- data from which a specialist determines wind, tem-
where above the earth's surface, pressure decreases perature, moisture, and height at selected pressure
with height; and at some height, it decreases to this surfaces.
constant pressure of 700 millibars. Therefore, there We routinely collect these observations, plot the
is a "surface" throughout the atmosphere at which heights of a constant pressure surface on a map,
pressure is 700 millibars. We call this the 700- and draw lines connecting points of equal height.
m.illibar constant pressure surface. However, the These lines are height contours. But, what is a
height of this surface is not constant. Rising pres- height contour?
sure pushes the surface upward into highs and First, consider a topographic map with contours
ridges. Falling pressure lowers the height of the showing variations in elevation. These are height
surface into lows and troughs. These systems mi- contours of the terrain surface. The Earth surface
grate continuously as "waves" on the pressure sur- is a fixed reference and we contour variations in
face. Remember that we chose this constant its height.
pressure surface arbitrarily as a reference. It in no The same concept applies to height contours on
way defines any discrete boundary. a constant pressure chart, except our reference is a

16
constant pressure surface. We simply contour the pressure patterns and systems applies equally to an
heights of the pressure surface. For example, a 700- isobaric or a contour analysis.
millibar constant pressure analysis is a contour Low pressure systems quite often are regions of
map of the heights of the 700-millibar pressure sur- poor flying weather, and high pressure areas pre-
face. While the contour map is based on variations dominantly are regions of favorable flying weather.
in height, these variations are small when com- A word of caution, however-use care in applying
pared to flight levels, and for all practical pur- the low pressure-bad weather, high pressure-good
poses, you may regard the 700-millibar chart as a weather rule of thumb; it all too frequently fails.
weather map at approximately 10,000 feet or 3,048 When planning a flight, gather all information pos-
meters. sible on expected weather. Pressure patterns also
A contour analysis shows highs, ridges, lows, and bear a direct relationship to wind which is the sub-
troughs aloft just as the isobaric analysis shows such ject of the next chapter. But first, let's look at pres-
systems at the surface. What we say concerning sure and altimeters.

ALTIMETRY
The altimeter is essentially an aneroid barometer. air below you. Indicated altitude is the altitude
The difference is the scale. The altimeter is grad- above mean sea level indicated on the altimeter
uated to read increments of height rather than when set at the local altimeter setting. But what is
units of pressure. The standard for graduating the altimeter setting?
altimeter is the standard atmosphere.

ALTITUDE
Altitude seems like a simple term; it means INDICATED ALTITUDE 10,000 feet
height. But in aviation, it can have many meanings.

True Altitude
Since existing conditions in a real atmosphere w
are seldom standard, altitude indications on the o
:::::>
altimeter are seldom actual or true altitudes. True l-
altitude is the actual or exact altitude above mean I-
~
sea level. If your altimeter does not indicate true « 10,000
altitude, what does it indicate? w
:::::>
a::
Indicated Altitude I-
LU
Look again at figure 11 showing the effect of (!)
mean temperature on the thickness of the three «
a:
columns of air. Pressures are equal at the bottoms LU o
> ~
and equal at the tops of the three layers. Since the « o
altimeter is essentially a barometer, altitude indi- u
cated by the altimeter at the top of each column
would be the same. To see this effect more clearly,
study figure 14. Note that in the warm air, you fly 29.92 in.
at an altitude higher than indicated. In the cold
air, you are at an altitude lower than indicated. FIGURE 14. Indicated altitude depends on air tempera-
Height indicated on the altimeter also changes ture below the aircraft. Since pressure is equal at the
bases and equal at the tops of each column, indicated
with changes in surface pressure. A movable scale
altitude is the same at the top of each column. When air
on the altimeter permits you to adjust for surface is colder than average (right), the altimeter reads higher
pressure, but you have no means of adjusting the than true altitude. When air is warmer than standard
instrument for mean temperature of the column of (left), the altimeter reads lower than true altitude.

17
r
Altimeter Setting rather than true altitude, and your altimeter read-
ings are compatible. If flying in cold weather over
Since the altitude scale is adjustable, you can set mountainous areas, however, you must take this dif-
the altimeter to read true altitude at some specified ference between indicated and true altitude into
height. Takeoff and landing are the most critical account. You must know that your true altitude
phases of flight; therefore, airport elevation is the assures clearance of terrain, so you compute a cor-
most desirable altitude for a true reading of the rection to indicated altitude.
altimeter. Altimeter setting is the value to which
the scale of the pressure altimeter is set so the al- Corrected (Approximately True) Altitude
timeter indicates true altitude at field elevation. If it were possible for a pilot always to determine
In order to ensure that your altimeter reading is mean temperature of the column of air between
compatible with altimeter readings of other aircraft the aircraft and the surface, flight computers would
in your vidnity, keep your altimeter setting current. be designed to use this mean temperature in com-
Adjust it frequently in flight to the altimeter set- puting true altitude. However, the only guide a
ting reported by the nearest tower or weather re- pilot has to temperature below him is free air
porting station. Figure 15 shows the trouble you temperature at his altitude. Therefore, the flight
can encounter if you are lax in adjusting your al- computer uses outside air temperature to correct
timeter in flight. Note that as you fly from high indicated altitude to approximate true altitude.
pressure to low pressure, you are lower than your Corrected altitude is indicated altitude corrected
altimeter indicates. for the temperature of the air column below the
Figure 16 shows that as you fly from warm to cold aircraft, the correction being based on the esti-
air, your altimeter reads too high-you are lower mated departure of the existing temperature from
than your altimeter indicates. Over flat terrain this standard atmospheric temperature. It is a close
lower than true reading is no great problem; other approximation to true altitude and is labeled true
aircraft in the vicinity also are flying indicated altitude on flight computers. It is close enough to

'94mb ~>"'. LOWERS

YOU ARE LOWER
Enro ute-
THAN YOUR ALTIMETER
INDICATES
"/ I 1\ \ '
998mb

1006mb

29.85~~) ~ 1010mb 29.96"

(1010./ (1014.6mb)

FIGURE 15. When flying from high pressure to lower pressure without adjusting your altimeter, you are losing true altitude.

18
 When temperoture
LOWERS enroufe;=Y.OU ," \ \\0I I / //'
I

LOWER thon yOQ,l" lIltJrn:rs:ter

are ~ 7 ~ I 2...<
____
indicates
ALTIMETER READS -
/'TOO
/
LOW'
,
I I I \\

TRUE AND INDICATED ALTITUDE

ARE SAME
I \\ "

FIGURE t 6. Effect of temperature on altitude. When air is warmer than average, you are higher than your altimeter indi-
cates. When temperature is colder than average, you are lower than indicated. When flying from warm to cold air at a
constant indicated altitude, you are losing true altitude.

true altitude to be used for terrain clearance pro- sure surface defines a constant pressure altitude.
vided you have your altimeter set to the value re- When you fly a constant pressure altitude, you are
ported from a nearby reporting station. flying a constant pressure surface.
Pilots have met with disaster because they failed You can always determine pressure altitude from
to allow for the difference between indicated and your altimeter whether in flight or on the ground.
true altitude. In cold weather when you must clear Simply set your altimeter at the standard altimeter
high terrain, take time to compute true altitude. setting of 29.92 inches, and your altimeter indicates
FAA regulations require you to fly indicated alti- pressure altitude.
tude at low levels and pressure altitude at high A conflict sometimes occurs near the altitude
levels (at or above 18,000 feet at the time this book separating flights using indicated altitude from
was printed). What is pressure altitude? those using pressure altitude. Pressure altitude on
one aircraft and indicated altitude on another may
Pressure Altitude indicate altitude separation when, actually, the two
In the standard atmosphere, sea level pressure is are at the same true altitude. All flights using pres-
29.92 inches of mercury or 1013.2 millibars. Pres- sure altitude at high altitudes are IFR controlled
sure falls at a fixed rate upward through this hypo- flights. When this conflict occurs, air traffic control-
thetical atmosphere. Therefore, in the standard lers prohibit IFR flight at the conflicting altitudes.
atmosphere, a given pressure exists at any specified
altitude. Pressure altitude is the altitude in the DENSITY ALTITUDE
standard atmosphere where pressure is the same as What is density altitude? Density altitude simply
where you are. Since at a specific pressure altitude, is the altitude in the standard atmosphere where
pressure is everywhere the same, a constant pres- air density is the same as where you are. Pressure,

19
temperature, and humidity determine air density. or a jet has less mass of gases to spit out the ex-
On a hot day, the air becomes "thinner" or lighter, haust. (3) It reduces lift because the light air
and its density where you are is equivalent to a exerts less force on the airfoils.
higher altitude in the standard atmosphere-thus You cannot detect the effect of high density alti-
the term "high density altitude." On a cold day, tude on your airspeed indicator. Your aircraft lifts
the air becomes heavy; its density is the same as off, climbs, cruises, glides, and lands at the prescribed
that at an altitude in the standard atmosphere indicated airspeeds. But at a specified indicated
lower than your altitude-"low density altitude." airspeed, your true airspeed and your groundspeed
Density altitude is not a height reference; rather, increase proportionally as density altitude becomes
it is an index to aircraft performance. Low density higher.
altitude increases performance. High density alti- The net results are that high density altitude
tude is a real hazard since it reduces aircraft per- lengthens your takeoff and landing rolls and re-
formance. It affects performance in three ways. duces your rate of climb. Before lift-off, you must
(1) It reduces power because the engine takes in attain a faster groundspeed, and therefore, you
less air to support combustion. (2) It reduces thrust need more runway; your reduced power and thrust
because the propeller gets less grip on the light air add a need for still more runway. You land at a

DENSITY ALTITUDE 1500

SEA LEVEL
RATE OF CLIMB

--
1300' / MIN
.."..
1000

T/ 0 ROLL 1300'
- / -

>-

... _...
- 500 cc
~
Z

-
:::l
a:::
.....
>
Q
2000' 3000' 4000' QO
<
~
.....
.....
......
Z

1500 .....
DENSITY ALTITUDE
5000 FEET c
RA TE OF CLI MB ::I
~
1000' /MI N ~
-J
cc
1000
T/O ROLL 1800'

--- -- 500

- - - - - - - r - - - --- --- --- 0

1000' 2000' 3000' 4000' 5000'

FIGURE 17. Effect of density altitude on takeoff and climb. High density altitude lengthens takeoff roll
and reduces rate of climb.

20
faster groundspeed and, therefore, need more room feet. (Check this on your flight computer.) Your
to stop. At a prescribed indicated airspeed, you are aircraft will perform as though it were at 12,700
flying at a faster true airspeed, and therefore, you indicated with a normal temperature of _8° C.
cover more distance in a given time which means To compute density altitude, set your altimeter
climbing at a more shallow angle. Add to this the at 29.92 inches or 1013.2 millibars and read pres-
problems of reduced power and rate of climb, and sure altitude from your altimeter. Read outside air
you are in double jeopardy in your climb. Figure temperature and then use your flight computer to
17 shows the effect of density altitude on takeoff get density altitude. On an airport served by a
distance and rate of climb. weather observing station, you usually can get den-
High density altitude also can be a problem at sity altitude for the airport from the observer. Sec-
cruising altitudes. When air is abnormally warm, tion 16 of AVIATION WEATHER SERVICES has a
the high density altitude lowers your service ceiling. graph for computing density altitude if you have
For example, if temperature at 10,000 feet pres- no flight computer handy.
sure altitude is 20° C, density altitude is 12,700

IN CLOSING
Pressure patterns can be a clue to weather causes 5. When flying over high terrain in cold
and movement of weather systems, but they give weather, compute your true altitude to en-
only a part of the total weather picture. Pressure sure terrain clearance.
decreases with increasing altitude. The altimeter is 6. When your aircraft is heavily loaded, the
an aneroid barometer graduated in increments of temperature is abnormally warm, and/or
altitude in the standard atmosphere instead of units the pressure is abnormally low, compute
of pressure. Temperature greatly affects the rate of density altitude. Then check your aircraft
pressure decrease with height; therefore, it influ- manual to ensure that you can become air-
ences altimeter readings. Temperature also deter- borne from the available runway. Check
mines the density of air at a given pressure (density further to determine that your rate of climb
altitude). Density altitude is an index to aircraft permits clearance of obstacles beyond the
performance. Always be alert for departures of end of the runway. This procedure is ad-
pressure and temperature from normals and com- visable for any airport regardless of altitude.
pensate for these abnormalities. 7. When planning takeoff or landing at a
Following are a few operational reminders: high altitude airport regardless of load,
1. Beware of the low pressure-bad weather, determine density altitude. The procedure
high pressure-good weather rule of thumb. is especially critical when temperature is
It frequently fails. Always get the complete abnormally warm or pressure abnormally
weather picture. low. Make certain you have sufficient run-
2. When flying from high pressure to low pres- way for takeoff or landing roll. Make sure
sure at constant indicated altitude and with- you can clear obstacles beyond the end of
out adjusting the altimeter, you are losing the runway after takeoff or in event of a
true altitude. go-around.
3. When temperature is colder than standard, 8. Sometimes the altimeter setting is taken
you are at an altitude lower than your al- from an instrument of questionable reli-
timeter indicates. When temperature is ability. However, if the instrument can
warmer than standard, you are higher than cause an error in altitude reading of more
your altimeter indicates. than 20 feet, it is removed from service.
4. When flying cross country, keep your altim- When altimeter setting is estimated, be pre-
eter setting current. This procedure assures pared for a possible 10- to 20-foot differ-
more positive altitude separation from other ence between field elevation and your al-
aircraft. timeter reading at touchdown.

21