Rock Mechanics Laboratory Manual

DEPARTMENT OF MINING ENGINEERING,

UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING AND
TECHNOLOGY, PESHAWAR

LABORATORY MANUAL

ROCK MECHANICS LAB.

 Rock Mechanics Laboratory Manual

INTRODUCTION

The test procedures collected in this manual are based on ISRM Suggested Methods, on ASTM,
French and British Standards. However, in various cases the test procedures were adapted to the type
of equipment generally used in a rock mechanics laboratory. This means that often a realistic
compromise had to be found between strict requirements and practical possibilities.

Test procedures are continuously updated as a result of further development of rock mechanics.
This manual reflects the situation at the time that the manual was prepared.

Warning: Whenever tests have to be performed following a prescribed standard, always

Consult that standard before testing.

References: ISRM: "Rock Characterization, Testing and Monitoring", ISRM Suggested Methods,
Editor E.T. Brown. Pergamon press 1981
ASTM: "1985 Annual Book of ASTM Standards", Volume 04.08: Soil and Rock;
Building Stones. Published by ASTM in 1986.
BS: 812: Published by British Standards Institution.
 Rock Mechanics Laboratory Manual

Contents
1.1 PREPARATION OF CORE SAMPLE: ............................................................................................. 4
1.2 STANDARD TEST PROCEDURE FOR THE DETERMINATION OF ROCK
MATERIAL DRY DENSITY. ......................................................................................................................... 6
1.3: STANDARD TEST PROCEDURE FOR THE DETERMINATION OF THE (NATURAL)
WATER CONTENT OF ROCK MATERIAL. ......................................................................................... 8
1.4: STANDARD TEST PROCEDURE FOR THE DETERMINATION OF POROSITY OF
ROCK MATERIAL. ....................................................................................................................................... 10
1.5: STANDARD PROCEDURE FOR THE DETERMINATION OF SCHMIDT HAMMER
REBOUND HARDNESS............................................................................................................................. 12
1.6: STANDARD LABORATORY TEST PROCEDURE TO DETERMINE THE
ULTRASONIC VELOCITY IN ROCK. .................................................................................................... 15
1.7: STANDARD TEST PROCEDURE FOR THE DETERMINATION OF ROCK
MATERIAL TOUGHNESS IN THE LABORATORY ......................................................................... 18
1.8 STANDARD TEST PROCEDURE FOR THE DETERMINATION OF ROCK
SWELLING PROPERTIES. ....................................................................................................................... 19
1.9: STANDARD TEST PROCEDURE FOR THE DETERMINATION OF THE SLAKE
DURABILITY. .................................................................................................................................................. 21
1.10: STANDARD TEST PROCEDURE FOR THE DETERMINATION OF THE POINT
LOAD STRENGTH OF ROCK MATERIAL .......................................................................................... 23
1.11 STANDARD PROCEDURE FOR THE DETERMINATION OF ROCK MATERIAL
INDIRECT TENSILE STRENGTH BY THE BRAZILIAN TEST .................................................... 30
1.12: STANDARD TEST PROCEDURE FOR THE DETERMINATION OF UNCONFINED
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF ROCK MATERIAL. .................................................................... 32
1.13: STANDARD TEST PROCEDURE FOR THE DETERMINATION OF THE
STRENGTH OF ROCK MATERIAL IN TRI-AXIAL COMPRESSION......................................... 34
1.14: STANDARD TEST PROCEDURE FOR THE DETERMINATION OF THE SHEAR
STRENGTH OF ROCK MATERIAL IN DIRECT SHEAR ............................................................... 37
1.15: SHEAR STRENGTH OF ROCK DISCONTINUITIES WITH GOLDER SHEAR BOX
.............................................................................................................................................................................. 40
1.16: STANDARD TEST PROCEDURE FOR THE DETERMINATION OF THE
MODULUS OF ELASTICITY ..................................................................................................................... 42
1.17 STANDARD TEST PROCEDURE FOR THE DETERMINATION OF THE POISSON
RATIO ................................................................................................................................................................ 45
1.18 ROCK BOLTS AS SUPPORT SYSTEMS ................................................................................... 48
APPENDIX I: ROCK CORE PREPARATION ..................................................................................... 62
Appendix 2: Table with indications of strength properties of rock.......................... 65
 Rock Mechanics Laboratory Manual

1.1 PREPARATION OF CORE SAMPLE:

Introduction:
In order to carry tests on the rocks i.e. to determine the index properties (UCS, shear strength,
etc.) of rocks, we first have to prepare a core sample which will be the representative of the rock
being tested. The core sample is prepared by the following process:
i. Extraction of core
ii. Cutting of the core
iii. Grinding and Polishing of the core
Extraction of core:

The first process of core sample preparation is the extraction of core. This process is carried out
by using a core drilling machine which extracts core from the rock. The core drilling machine
consists of a diamond bit which drills through the rock and a core of 54mm dia. in accordance
with the NX standards.
For the extraction of core we selected a rock and placed it under the core drilling machine. After
fixing the rock we attached a pipe to the core drilling machine for the supply of water. Here water
carries out two main functions:
i. Cooling of the drill bit
ii. Cleaning the surface of rock
iii.
After fixing the rock, we turned on the core drill machine and slowly lowered it to touch
the surface of the rock. Slowly and gradually lowering of the drill bit started drilling of the rock
and in about 5 minutes we obtained the core of the rock. The core was still intact with the rock so
in order to separate it we used a steel rod, lowered it to the end of the core and struck it with a
hammer. This freed the core from the rock and we obtained a core sample.
Cutting of core:

After the extraction of core, we got a core sample but it was not fully prepared for testing because
it had uneven bases and with such a sample we can’t get a proper result from the tests. Moreover,
the core sample must have a cylindrical ratio of (2-2.5:1). So for this purpose, we have to cut it
using a core cutting machine. The core cutting machine consists of a platform where the core
sample is kept, the platform can be moved longitudinally using a screw, and a cutter which rotates
and cuts the core sample.
We took the core sample to the core cutting machine and placed it on the platform, its rough end
facing the cutter. We turned on the core cutting machine, pressed the core sample hard against the
platform and slowly and gradually rotated the screw which moves the platform. The core sample
was cut by the cutter. During the cutting process water was poured over the cutter to keep it cool
and clean. After cutting, the ends of the core are made even and leveled by the cutter to make it
suitable for subsequent operations i.e. grinding and polishing.
 Rock Mechanics Laboratory Manual

Grinding and polishing of core:

The final stage of the core preparation is the grinding and polishing of the core sample which is
done to make the surface of the core smooth and grain-free. This process is done by a core
grinding machine which consists of sand paper that smoothens the surface of the core. According
to standards; the clearance of the minor axis of the core should be less than 0.005mm.
We took the core sample and turned on the core grinding machine. As in the previous processes,
here we also need water supply. When the machine turned on, the sand paper started rotating, we
pressed the core sample over the sand paper and it started smoothening the surface of the core
sample. The machine contains three different sand papers of different sizes to ensure fine
smoothening of the core sample.
Core preparation Standard:

 The sides of the specimen should be generally smooth and free of abrupt irregularities
with all elements straight to within 0.1 mm over the full length of the specimen.
 The ends of the specimens should be parallel to each other and at right angles to the
longitudinal axis.
 The end surface should be ground or lapped flat to 0.02 mm and should not depart from
perpendicularity to the axis of the specimen by more than 0.001 radians.
 The specimen should have an h/d ratio between 2 to 2.5.
 The specimen’s diameter should not be less than NX core size, 54 mm.
 Rock Mechanics Laboratory Manual

1.2 STANDARD TEST PROCEDURE FOR THE DETERMINATION OF ROCK

MATERIAL DRY DENSITY.

Scope of the test

The objective of the test is to measure the dry density of samples of cylindrical or other regular form. (For
samples of irregular form see Remarks). The dry density is expressed in units of mass (kg or g) per unit of
volume (m³ or cm³ or mm³). All individual steps for this test are also contained in the porosity
determination test.

Apparatus used

- Oven (24 hours at 105 C° +/- 5 C°)

- Desiccator
- Calliper with accuracy of 0.1mm
- Balance with accuracy of 0.01 g and range of 100 g
- Sample container (not-corrodible) with airtight lid.

Procedure

- Prepare three specimens of regular form from a representative sample of rock. The size of the
specimens should be such that both following conditions are fulfilled:
-the specimen mass should be at least 50 g (cube of 3x3x3cm³, or cylinder with diameter of 2.5 cm and
length 5 cm.)
The minimum specimen dimension should be at least ten times the maximum grain size of the rock.
- The specimen volume (V) is calculated from the average value of several calliper readings (3 at least,
with an accuracy of 0.1 mm) for each dimension of the specimens.
- The specimen is located in a container (to avoid loss of mass during subsequent specimen handling), but
without the lid, and dried in an oven to constant mass (generally 24 hours is enough) at a temperature of 105
C°. After replacing the lid, the specimen is cooled in a desiccator for 30 minutes. The mass (C) of the
container (and lid) with the specimen is determined with an accuracy of 0.1 g.(d) The container with the lid
is cleaned and dried and its mass (A) is determined.

Calculation

Dry density:
dry mass C - A
ρd = = (in kg/ m3 or g/ cm3 or g/ mm3 )
volume V

(dry unit weight = ρd x 9.8 (in kN/m³))

Reporting

The report shall include the following information:

(a) Data on the sampling:
- Project name, location, date of sampling, sample number, depth below terrain (in case of
borehole)
- Type of sample (core, block, disturbed, or other), sample dimensions
- Lithology, weathering grade, grain size, natural water content
- Sample transport and storage conditions.
(b) Data on the specimens:
- Form, dimensions and weight of all specimens.
 Rock Mechanics Laboratory Manual

(c) Data on the testing procedure:

- The individual results for the three specimens (or more) per rock sample should be reported,
together with the average result for the sample. Density values should be given to the nearest
10 kg/m³. The report should specify that bulk volume was obtained by calliper measurement.

Remarks

If irregular samples are used the volume can be determined by measurement of the saturated-submerged
mass (Msub) and the saturated mass (Msat)of the samples. The volume is then calculated as follows

V = Msat - Msub
ρ water

It should be specified in the report that the volume was determined by measurement of the
saturated submerged mass.

Reference

International Society for Rock Mechanics Suggested Methods "Rock Characterisation, Testing
and Monitoring" Editor E.T. Brown, Pergamon Press 1981, pages 81 - 85

ASTM Standard Test Method C97-83

 Rock Mechanics Laboratory Manual

1.3: STANDARD TEST PROCEDURE FOR THE DETERMINATION OF

THE (NATURAL) WATER CONTENT OF ROCK MATERIAL.

Scope of the test

The objective of the test is to determine the water content of the rock material as it was retrieved in the
field. For the accurate determination of the in-situ water content, the sampling, storage, transport and
handling precautions should be such that the water content remains within 1% of the in situ value.

Apparatus used

- Oven (24 hours at 105° C +/- 5°C)

- Desiccator
- Calliper with accuracy of 0.1 mm
- Balance with accuracy of 0.1 g and range of 1000 g
- Sample container (non-corrodible) with airtight lid.

Procedure

- A representative sample must consist of at least 10 lumps, fulfilling the following conditions:
- the mass of each lump should be at least 50 g
- the minimum lump dimension should be at least ten times the maximum grain size of the rock.
- The lumps are located in a container, the lid placed, and the mass (B) is determined with an
accuracy of 0.1 g.
- The lumps are kept in the container, but with the lid removed, and dried in an oven to constant mass
(generally 24 hours is enough) at a temperature of 105°C. After replacing the lid the lumps are
cooled in a desiccator for 30 minutes. The mass (C) of the container with the lumps is determined
with an accuracy of 0.1 g.
- The container with the lid is cleaned and dried, and its mass (A) is determined.

Calculation

Water Content:

porewatermass B−C
w= ×100% = ×100%
grainmass C−A

Reporting

The report includes the following information:

(a) Data on the sampling:

- Project name, location, date of sampling, sample number, depth below terrain (in case
of borehole).
- Type of sample (core, block, disturbed, or other), sample dimensions.
- Lithology, weathering grade, grain size, natural water content.
- Sample transport and storage conditions.
(b) Data on the specimens:
- Form, dimensions and weight of all specimens.
- Density and water content during testing.
(c) Data on the testing procedure.

6
 Rock Mechanics Laboratory Manual

The water content should be reported to the nearest 0.1 %. It should be stated whether this
corresponds to "in-situ" water content. If this is the case then the precautions which were taken
to preserve the natural water content during sampling and storage should be specified.

Reference

International Society for Rock Mechanics Suggested Methods "Rock Characterization, Testing
and Monitoring" Editor E.T. Brown, Pergamon Press 1981, pages 83

ASTM Standard Test Method D2216-80.

 Rock Mechanics Laboratory Manual

1.4: STANDARD TEST PROCEDURE FOR THE DETERMINATION OF

POROSITY OF ROCK MATERIAL.
Scope of the test

The objective of the test is to measure the porosity of rock specimens of cylindrical or other regular
form.(For samples of irregular form see Remarks). The porosity is the volume of the pores in the
rock expressed as a percentage of the total volume of the rock.

Apparatus used

- Oven (24 hours at 105°C +/-5°C)

- Desiccator
- Calliper with an accuracy of 0.1 mm
- Balance with an accuracy of 0.01 g and a range up to 200 g
- Sample container (non-corrodible) with airtight lid
- Vacuum chamber with pressure less than 800 Pa (6 Torr)

Procedures

- Prepare three specimens of regular form from a representative sample of rock. The size of
the specimens should be such that both following conditions are fulfilled:
- the specimen mass should be at least 50 g (a cube of 3x3x3 cm³, or a cylinder with a diameter of
2.5 cm and a length of 5 cm).
- the minimum specimen dimension should be at least ten times the maximum grain size of the rock.
- The specimen bulk volume (V) is calculated from the average value of several calliper readings (3
at least, with an accuracy of 0.1 mm) for each dimension of the specimen.
- The specimen is saturated by water immersion in a vacuum of less than 800 Pa (6 torr) for a period
of at least 1 hour, with periodic agitation to remove trapped air.
- The specimen is removed from the water and surface dried using a moisten cloth, care being taken
to remove only surface water and to ensure that no fragments are lost. The specimen is located in
a container to avoid loss of mass during subsequent sample handling. The mass of specimen plus
container (B) is determined with an accuracy of 0.01 g.
- The specimen (in the open container) is dried in an oven to constant mass (generally 24 hours is
enough) at a temperature of 105°C. After closure of the container and cooling in a desiccator for 30
minutes, the mass (C) of the dry sample with the container (and lid) is determined with an accuracy
of 0.01 g.
- The container with the lid is cleaned and dried and its mass (A) is determined with an accuracy
of 0.01 g.

Calculation

Saturated surface dry mass Msat = B − A

Dry specimen mass Ms = C − A

Msat − Ms
Pore volume Vv =
Density ⋅ water

Vv
Porosity n= ×100%
V
 Rock Mechanics Laboratory Manual

Reporting

The report shall include the following information:

(a) Data on the sampling:

- Project name, location, date of sampling, sample number, depth below terrain (in case
of borehole).
- Type of sample (core, block, disturbed, or other), sample dimensions.
- Lithology, weathering grade, grain size, natural water content.
- Sample transport and storage conditions.
(b) Data on the specimens:
- Form, dimensions and weight of all specimens.
(c) Data on the testing procedure:
- The individual results for the three specimens (or more) per rock sample should be reported,
together with the average result for the sample. Porosity values should be given to the nearest
0.1 %.
- The report should specify that bulk volume was obtained by calliper measurement, and
that porosity was obtained by water saturation.

Remarks

If irregular samples are used the volume can be determined by measurement of the saturated-
submerged mass (Msub) and the saturated mass (Msat) of the samples. The volume in this case is:

It shall be specified in the report if the volume has been determined with the saturated-submerged mass.

Reference

International Society for Rock Mechanics Suggested Methods "Rock Characterisation, Testing
and Monitoring" Editor E.T. Brown, Pergamon press 1981, pages 81 to 85.

ASTM Standard Test method C97-83

 Rock Mechanics Laboratory Manual

1.5: STANDARD PROCEDURE FOR THE DETERMINATION OF

SCHMIDT HAMMER REBOUND HARDNESS.

Scope of the test

The rebound value of the Schmidt Hammer is used as an index value for the intact strength of rock
material, but it is also used to give an indication of the compressive strength of rock material. The
Schmidt Hammer is essentially a field instrument but it may be used as well in the laboratory. When
used in the laboratory special attention has to be given to the connection of the sample with the V-
block and the base, and to the connection with the supporting table, as these factors have a great
influence on the testing results. The method is of limited use on very soft and on very hard rocks.

Apparatus used

- A standard Schmidt Hammer of the L-type having an impact energy of 0.74 Nm.
- A calibration test anvil for the calibration of the test hammer rebound numbers.
- A steel base of minimum weight of 20 kg with a steel V block for cylindrical samples and with a
clamping device. Such a base can also be used if irregularly formed samples (lumps) should be
tested in the laboratory.
- A vertically oriented cradle to guide the Schmidt Hammer in a vertical downward direction
during the testing.

Test Procedure

- Prior to the testing sequence, the Schmidt Hammer should be calibrated using the calibration
anvil supplied by the manufacturer of the Schmidt Hammer for that purpose. The average value
of 10 readings on the test anvil should be obtained.
- The specimens obtained for the laboratory testing should be representative and characteristic for the
rock material to be studied. The type-L hammer should be used on NX (54 mm) or larger diameter
core samples or on block samples having an edge length of at least 60 mm. The specimens must be
securely clamped to a rigid base to adequately secure the specimen against vibration and movement
during the test. The base must be placed on a flat surface that provides firm support.
- The test surface of all specimens in the laboratory and testing locations in the field should be
smooth and flat over the area of contact with the plunger. This area and the rock material beneath
the surface to a depth of 60 mm shall be free from cracks, or any discontinuity in the rock.
- The hardness values obtained will be affected by the orientation of the hammer. In the laboratory
the vertical cradle will hold the Schmidt Hammer in vertical downwards position during the
testing. During in-situ testing in the field the testing direction must always be perpendicular to the
surface tested. The orientation of the Schmidt Hammer in that case should be recorded and
reported in the results. With the Schmidt Hammer a chart is provided to make corrections for non-
vertical measurements.
- At least 20 individual tests must be conducted on any rock sample. The test locations shall be
separated by at least the diameter of the plunger. Any test that causes cracking or any other visible
failure of the rock should be rejected. Errors in specimen preparation and testing tend to produce
low hardness values.
 Rock Mechanics Laboratory Manual

Rock and aggregate laboratory manual

Fig.2.1.1: Relation between the Schmidt Hammer Hardness, type L hammer and the
Uniaxial Compressive Strength of Rock (ISRM).
 Rock Mechanics Laboratory Manual

Rock and aggregate laboratory manual

Calculation

- The correction value is calculated as follows

- For tests in the laboratory on rock material of uniform strength the measured test values for the
sample must be ranked in descending value. The lower 50% of the values should be discarded and
the average calculated of the upper 50% values. This average shall be multiplied by the correction
factor to obtain the Schmidt Rebound Hardness.

- When a number (15 to 20) readings is taken in the field to characterize a unit with some variation
of hardness and strength, the same procedure for reporting as used with point load strength testing
can be applied, which involves ranking, discarding of the upper and lower 2 or 3 values and
averaging of the remaining values. The maximum and minimum of the remaining values are
recorded as the range of the Schmidt Hammer Rebound Value. (For the influence of rough surface
conditions in situ see remarks)

Reporting

The report shall include the following information:

(a) Data on the sampling:

- Project name, location, date of sampling, sample number, depth below terrain (in case
of borehole)
- Type of sample (core, block, broken, in situ or other), sample dimensions
- Lithology, weathering grade, grain size, natural water content
- Sample transport and storage conditions
(b) Data on the specimens:
- Form, dimensions and weight of all specimens
- Density and water content during testing
(c) Data on the testing procedure:
- Orientation of the Schmidt Hammer during every test in the field
- Method of clamping used in the laboratory
- The Schmidt Hammer Rebound Hardness value as obtained from the calculations
explained above.
- Indication of the value of uniaxial compressive strength in Mpa +/- the average dispersion as
read from the graph in figure 2.1.1, with reference to the fact that the graph has been used for
this purpose. The rock density (test nr.1.1) must be known when this graph is used.

Remarks

When measurements are taken in situ, the testing location is usually not as flat as is required. By
repetition of the test several times at exactly the same location the rebound value usually is observed
to increase until a constant value is reached. This is due to cracking of points of the surface
asperities and the subsequent increase of the contact area between the plunger and the rock surface.
The reading must be taken after it has reached a stable value.

References

International Society for Rock Mechanics Suggested Methods "Rock Characterization, Testing
and Monitoring" Editor E.T. Brown, Pergamon Press 1981, pages 101 and 102.
 Rock Mechanics Laboratory Manual

1.6: STANDARD LABORATORY TEST PROCEDURE TO DETERMINE

THE ULTRASONIC VELOCITY IN ROCK.

Scope of the test

This test is used to determine the velocity of propagation of elastic compression- and shear waves in
rock samples in the laboratory. The ultrasonic (dynamic) elastic constants of a rock can be
determined from the compression and shear wave velocities and the rock density for isotropic or
slightly anisotropic rock.

Apparatus used

- A pulse generator unit. Three different types of pulse generators are used for three different types
of test procedures:
- high frequency ultrasonic pulse technique
- low frequency ultrasonic pulse technique
- sine wave resonant technique
- The transducers consist of a transmitter which converts electrical pulses into mechanical pulses
and a receiver, which converts mechanical pulses into electrical pulses. Environmental conditions
such as average temperature, air moisture and impact should be considered in selecting the
transducer element. Piezoelectric elements are usually recommended, but magnetostrictive
elements may de suitable.
- Display and timing unit. An oscilloscope is needed for the display of the transmitted and received
pulse, which is necessary to separate arrivals of compression and shear waves. The timing unit
must be capable of measuring time intervals between 2 micro seconds and 5 milliseconds to an
accuracy of 1% .
- Measuring calliper with an accuracy of 0.1 mm
- Acoustical bench which can keep the sample and the transducers properly aligned along one axis
with the required contact pressure between transducers and sample.
- Contact fluid to ensure a good contact between the transducers and the flat and polished rock surface.

Test procedure

- Sample preparation. Care should be taken that core drilling, handling, storage, sawing, grinding
and lapping does not cause mechanical damage of the test sample. As sample form a cylinder
with perpendicular and flat end faces is usually applied.
- Three different types of test procedure are possible:
- The high frequency technique, in which pulses with a frequency of 100 kHz to 2 MHz
are used. Rectangular blocks, cylindrical cores or even spheres can be used. The lateral
minimum dimension (perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation) is
recommended to be not smaller than 10 times the wave-length. The travel distance of
the pulse through the rock must be at least 10 times the average grain size. The
positioning of the transducers on the sample is illustrated in figure 2.2.1.
In case the velocities of compression and shear waves are calculated from the measured travel
time and the distance between transmitter and receiver. In case b the distance between
transmitter and receiver is varied. The velocities of compression and shear waves are
calculated from the curves of travel time vs. distance.
- The low frequency technique, in which pulses with a frequency of 2 to 30 kHz are used. This
method is suitable for samples which are long compared to the diameter (length to diameter
ratio > 3). The wave length of the pulse must be long compared with the diameter (ratio > 5).
The positioning of the transducers is in principle the same as in figure 2.3.1., when measuring
compression wave velocity, but figure 2.3.2 shows the preferred arrangement for positioning
when measuring the shear wave velocity.
 Rock Mechanics Laboratory Manual

The velocities of compression and shear waves are determined as in the high frequency technique.
- The sine wave resonant technique. Samples of cylindrical form with a length to diameter ratio
> 3 and a wavelength to diameter ratio > 6 can be used in this method. Positioning of
transducers is as shown in fig 2.2.1. for the determination of compression wave velocity, and
as shown in figure 2.2.2. for shear wave velocity.

Figure 2.3.1.: Positioning of transmitter and receiver on the test sample used in the high frequency
technique.

Figure 2.3.2.; Positioning of transducers when measuring shear wave velocity with the low frequency
technique.

Calculation

For the high frequency and low frequency techniques the velocities are calculated from the travel time
(tp and ts) and the distance between transmitter and receiver (d), by using the following equations:

d
velosity compression wave Vp = (in M / sec)
ts

and

d
velosity shear wave Vs = (in m / sec)
ts
If the seismic profiling technique was used (positioning of transducers as in figure 2.2.1.b) the
velocities are given by the slope of the curve travel time versus distance d. For the resonant technique
the following calculation is used

Vd = 2 × L × f 0 (in m / sec)

Where Vd is the wave velocity, L is the length of the sample, and f0 is the resonant frequency of
zero mode of either longitudinal (compressional) or shear (torsional) vibrations.

The following so called ultrasonic (dynamic) elastic constants can be calculated if the density of
the material is determined and if the sample is isotropic or very slightly anisotropic:
 Rock Mechanics Laboratory Manual

D * Vs2 * ( 3Vs2 - 4 Vs2 )

Modulus of elasticity E= (in Mpa )
Vp2 - Vs2

Modulus of rigidity G = D x Vs2 (in Mpa)

2 2
′ Vp - 2 Vs
2 2
P oissons ratio ν = 2(Vp - Vs )

′ 2 2

L ames constant λ = D (Vp - 2Vs ) (inMpa)

D (3 Vp2 - 4 Vs2 )
Bulk modulus K= (inMpa)
3
In these formulas D is the rock material density in kg/m³.

Reporting

The report should include the following information:

(a) Data on the sampling:
- Project name, location, date of sampling, sample number, depth below terrain (in case
of borehole).
- Type of sample (core, block, disturbed, or other), sample dimensions.
- Lithology, weathering grade, grain size, natural water content.
- Sample transport and storage conditions.
(b) Data on the specimens:
- Form, dimensions and weight of all specimens.
- Density and water content during testing.
(c) Data on the testing procedure:
- Description of experimental technique and of electronic equipment used.
- Tables with the values of the velocities measured and the calculated ultrasonic elastic constants.

Remarks

More detailed information on the electronic equipment can be found in the ISRM and ASTM
standard procedure (see references).

References

International Society for Rock Mechanics Suggested Methods "Rock Characterisation, Testing
and Monitoring" Editor E.T. Brown, Pergamon Press 1981, pages 107 to 110.

ASTM standard D2845-83

 Rock Mechanics Laboratory Manual

1.7: STANDARD TEST PROCEDURE FOR THE

DETERMINATION OF ROCK MATERIAL TOUGHNESS IN
THE LABORATORY.

Scope of the test

The objective of the test is to determine the resistance of rock material against impact by a
falling hammer.

Apparatus used

- ASTM standard testing machine for the drop impact toughness test.

Test procedure

- Samples needed for this test are cylindrical in form, with flat end faces, which are perpendicular
to the axis of the cylinder. The length of the sample is 25 mm, the diameter must be 24 to 25
mm. The test samples should be free of cracks or weakness zones.
- The sample is placed with one of its end planes on an iron anvil. A weight of 2 kg is permitted to
fall vertically between parallel guides upon a spherical-ended plunger weighing 1 kg, which rests
on top of the specimen. The height of the first blow is 1 cm and each successive blow thereafter is
increased in height by 1 cm, until the sample fails.
- The height in cm of the fall which caused failure of the sample is recorded as the toughness of
the material.
- At least six specimens of the same rock material, three being prepared so that the direction of impact is
perpendicular, and three parallel to the plane of structural weakness if such a plane is apparent.

Reporting

The report shall include the following information:

(a) Data on the sampling:
- Project name, location, date of sampling, sample number, depth below terrain (in case
of borehole).
- Type of sample (core, block, disturbed, or other), sample dimensions.
- Lithology, weathering grade, grain size, natural water content.
- Sample transport and storage conditions.
(b) Data on the specimens:
- Form, dimensions and weight of all specimens.
- Density and water content during testing.
(c) Data on the testing procedure:
- The individual and the average toughness of the three specimens in each set are
separately reported.

References

ASTM Standard Testing Technique ASTM D-3-18

Deere, D.U. and R.P Miller : "Engineering Classification and Index Properties for Intact Rocks"
Air Force Weapon Lab. New Mexico, USA 1966.
 Rock Mechanics Laboratory Manual

1.8 STANDARD TEST PROCEDURE FOR THE DETERMINATION OF

ROCK SWELLING PROPERTIES.

Scope of the test

This test is intended to determine the rock swelling properties when an undisturbed specimen of
that rock is immersed in water.
Two swelling properties are distinguished:
- the swelling pressure index under conditions of zero volume change.
- the swelling strain index for a radially confined specimen with axial surcharge.

Apparatus used

Adaptation of soil consolidation testing equipment, as described in the ISRM suggested methods
on pages 89 and 90, consisting of the following:
- A metal ring for rigid radial restraint of the specimen, polished and lubricated to reduce side
friction and of depth sufficient to accommodate the fully swollen specimen.
- Porous plates to allow water access at top and bottom of the specimen, the top plate of such a diameter
to slide freely in the ring. Filter paper may be inserted between specimen and porous plates.
- A cell to contain the ring with the specimen, capable of being filled with water to a level above
the top porous plate (the principal features of the cell and specimen assembly are illustrated in the
ISRM publication).
- A micrometer dial gauge (0.0025 mm) mounted to measure the swelling displacement at the
central axis of the specimen.

for the swelling pressure index :

- A load measuring device capable of measuring to an accuracy of 1% the force required to
resist swelling.
- A loading device such as a screw jack, capable of continuous adjustment to maintain the specimen at
constant volume as swelling pressure develops. The force should be applied through rigid members to
ensure that the porous plates remain flat, a spherical seat allowing rotation of the top porous plate.

for the swelling strain index :

- A loading device capable of applying a constant pressure of 5kPa to the specimen, this pressure to
be maintained within 1% throughout the swelling of the specimen. The force should be applied
through rigid members to assure that the porous plates remain flat, a spherical seat allowing
rotation of the top porous plate.

Test procedure

- For testing at natural initial water content, preparation of the specimen should be such as to retain
water content within 1% of its in situ value. Per sample three test specimens must be prepared.
- The specimen should be a cylinder fitting closely in the ring. It should have a diameter not less
than four times its thickness. The thickness should be more than 15 mm or ten times the
maximum grain size, whichever is greater.
- The initial thickness and the diameter of the specimen are recorded with an accuracy of 0.1%.

For swelling pressure index:

- The apparatus is assembled and a small axial stress of about 10 kPa is applied to the specimen.
- The cell is flooded with water to cover the top porous plate.
- The applied force is regularly adjusted to maintain zero specimens swelling (less than 0.01
mm) throughout the test.
 Rock Mechanics Laboratory Manual

- The swelling force is recorded as a function of time until it reaches a constant level or passes a peak.

For swelling strain index:

- The apparatus is assembled and the specimen is loaded axially to a pressure of 3 kPa.
- The cell is flooded with water to cover the top porous plate.
- The swelling displacement is recorded as a function of time until it reaches a constant level or
passes a peak.

Calculation

F
Swelling pressure index A (in MPa)
In this formula F = maximum axial swelling force recorded during the test and A = cross sectional
area of the specimen

d
Swelling strain index = L x 100% (ratio)
In this formula d = maximum swelling displacement recorded during the test and L = initial thickness
of the specimen.

Reporting

The report shall include the following information:

(a) Data on the sampling:
- Project name, location, date of sampling, sample number, depth below terrain (in case
of borehole).
- Type of sample (core, block, disturbed, or other), sample dimensions.
- Lithology, weathering grade, grain size, natural water content.
- Sample transport and storage conditions.
(b) Data on the specimens:
- Dimensions and weight of all specimens.
(c) Data on the testing:
- The report must clearly indicate that the specimen was radially confined during the swelling test.
- For each specimen the value of the swelling pressure index or swelling strain index respectively.
- The initial water content of the specimen. It must be indicated if this equals the natural
water content (see also section 5a).

Remarks

The ISRM suggested method describes a third possible type of swelling testing for unconfined rock
specimen. This type of test is to be used for rock material which does not change appreciably its
geometry when swelling. It needs a specially built cell which is described in the ISRM book.

References

International Society for Rock Mechanics Suggested Methods "Rock Characterization, Testing
and Monitoring" Editor E.T. Brown, Pergamon Press 1981, pages 89 to 92.
 Rock Mechanics Laboratory Manual

1.9: STANDARD TEST PROCEDURE FOR THE DETERMINATION OF

THE SLAKE DURABILITY.

Scope of the test

This test is intended to assess the resistance offered by a rock sample to weakening and
disintegration when subjected to cycles of drying and wetting. The ISRM standard is based on two
cycles of drying and wetting. Four or five cycles of drying and wetting are recommended when
evaluating rocks of higher durability.
The slake durability index is expressed as the percentage ratio of the final dry sample mass to the
initial dry sample mass.

Apparatus used

- Standard slake durability testing equipment as specified by ISRM (page 92+93)

- Oven capable to maintain a temperature of 105° C (+/-5°C) for a period of at least 12 hours
- Balance capable to determine the mass of the drum plus sample to an accuracy of 0.5g

Procedure

- A representative sample is selected, consisting of ten lumps of rock, each with a mass of 40 to 60
grams, to give a total sample of 450 to 550 grams. The maximum grain size of the rock should not
be larger than 3 mm. Lumps should be as good as possible rounded in form and corners should be
rounded during preparation of the sample.
- The sample is placed in a clean drum and is dried to constant mass at a temperature of 105°C,
usually requiring 2 to 6 hours in the oven. The mass (A) of the drum plus the sample is recorded
with an accuracy of 0.1 g. The sample is then tested after cooling.
- The lid of the drum is replaced, the drum is mounted in the trough and coupled to the motor.
- The trough is filled with slaking fluid (usually tap water at 20°C) to a level 20 mm below the drum
axis, and the drum rotated for 200 revolution during a period of 10 minutes +/- 0.5 minutes.
- The drum is removed from the trough, the lid removed from the drum, and the drum plus
retained portion of the sample is dried to constant mass at 105°C.. The mass B1 of the drum
plus retained portion of the sample is recorded after cooling with an accuracy of 0.1 g.
- Steps (c) to (e) are repeated and the mass B2 of the drum plus retained portion of the sample
after another 200 revolutions is recorded.
- The drum is brushed clean and its mass D is recorded with an accuracy of 0.1 g.

Calculation

B2 - D
Slake durability index (ISRM) Id 2 = x 100%
A-D
Bn - D
after n cycles Id n = x 100%
A-D

Reporting

The report shall include the following information:

(a) Data on the sampling:
- Project name, location, date of sampling, sample number, depth below terrain (in case
of borehole)

- Type of sample (core, block, disturbed, or other), sample dimensions

- Lithology, weathering grade, grain size, natural water content
 Rock Mechanics Laboratory Manual

- Sample transport and storage conditions

(b) Data on the specimens:
- Form of the lumps
(c) Data on the testing procedure:
- The slake durability index after each cycle rounded to the nearest 0.1%
- The nature and temperature of the slaking fluid. This will usually be tap water at 20°C, but for
example distilled water, natural ground water, sea water, a dilute acid, or a dispersing agent
may be specified.
- The appearance of the fragments retained in the drum.
- The appearance of the material passing through the drum.

Remarks

Samples which show a slake durability index after two cycles which is lower than 20% should be
further subjected to soil classification tests such as the determination of Atterberg limits and
hydrometer grain size distribution determination.

A classification combining slake durability index and plasticity index is suggested in cases
where detailed characterization (particularly of argillaceous rocks) is required.

References

International Society for Rock Mechanics Suggested Methods: "Rock Characterisation, Testing
and Monitoring" Editor E.T. Brown, Pergamon Press 1981, pages 92 to 94.

Goodman, R.E.: "Introduction to Rock Mechanics", John Wiley & Sons, 1980, pages 36 and 37.
 Rock Mechanics Laboratory Manual

1.10: STANDARD TEST PROCEDURE FOR THE DETERMINATION OF

THE POINT LOAD STRENGTH OF ROCK MATERIAL

Scope of the test

The point load strength test is intended as an index test for the strength classification of rock material. It
may also be used to predict other strength parameters with which it is correlated, for example uniaxial
Compressive and tensile strength. The test determines the Point Load Strength Index Is(50) of rock
specimens (expressed in units of stress, preferably in MPa) and their Strength Anisotropy Is(50), which is
the ratio of Point Load Strength values in directions which give the highest and lowest values. Rock
specimens in the form of either core (the diametric and axial tests), cut blocks (the block test), or
irregular lumps (the irregular lump test) are broken by a pair of spherically truncated, conical platens
(see fig. 2.7.1).

Figure 2.7.1 platen shape and tip radius.

Apparatus used

- The standard testing machine for point load testing, according to the specifications listed in the
"suggested method for determining point load strength" issued by the International Society for
rock mechanics.
- A calliper to measure the width W of the specimens and the diameter D of core samples.
Accuracy 0.1 mm.

Specimen selection and preparation

A test sample is defined as a number of rock specimens of similar strength for which a single Point
Load Strength value is to be determined (preferably 10 specimens at least are tested from 1 sample).
For diametrical tests the specimens should have a ratio of length to diameter which is greater than 1.0.
For axial tests the core specimens should have a ratio length/diameter between 0.3 and 1.0.
For block tests and for irregular lump tests the shape requirements are illustrated in figure 2.7.2.(c)
and 2.7.2.(d). The ratio D/W should be between 0.3 and 1.0, preferably close to 1.0.
For all types of samples the size limits are 15mm<D<85mm, however it is preferred that the D size
of the specimens is as close as possible to 50mm, which is the size at which the standard index is
defined. For routine testing and classification, specimens should be tested either fully water-
saturated or at their natural water content.
 Rock Mechanics Laboratory Manual

Test procedure for diametrical test

- The specimen is inserted in the testing machine and the platens are closed to make contact along
a core diameter, ensuring that the distance L between the contact points and the nearest free end
is at least 0.5 times the core diameter (fig. 2.7.2.a).

Figure 2.7.2.: Specimen shape requirements for (a) the diametrical test; (b) the
axial test; (c) the block test; (d) the irregular lump test

- The distance D is recorded +/- 2%.

- The load is steadily increased such that failure occurs within 10 to 60 seconds and the failure load
P is recorded. The test should be rejected if the failure surface passes through only one loading
point (see fig 2.7.3).
- The procedures above shall be repeated for the remaining specimens in the sample.
 Rock Mechanics Laboratory Manual

Figure 2.7.3.: Typical modes of failure for valid and invalid tests. (a) valid
diametrical test; (b) valid axial tests: (c) valid block tests; (d) invalid diametrical
test; (e) invalid axial test

Test procedure for the axial test

- The specimen is inserted in the testing machine and the platens are closed to make contact along
a line which is perpendicular to the core end faces. In case of isotropic rock this is usually
parallel to the core axis, but for anisotropic rock see figure 2.7.3.
- The distance D between the platen contact points is recorded +/- 2%. The specimen width
W, perpendicular to the loading direction is recorded +/- 5%.
- The load is steadily increased in such a way, that failure occurs within 10 to 60 seconds, and the
failure load P is recorded. The test should be rejected as invalid if the fracture surface passes
through only one loading point see fig. 2.7.3.
 Rock Mechanics Laboratory Manual

Figure 2.7.4.: loading directions for test on - The procedures above shall be repeated for
anisotropic rock. the remaining specimens of the sample.

Test procedure for the block and irregular lump test

- The specimen is inserted in the testing machine, assuring that the distance L (see fig. 2.7.2(c) and
2.7.2(d)) is at least 0.5 W. The specimen must be inserted in such a way that D is the smallest
dimension of the specimen and that the platens are in contact with the specimen away from edges
and corners.
- The distance D between the platens is recorded +/- 2%. The smallest specimen width W
perpendicular to the loading direction is recorded +/- 5%. If the sides are not parallel, the W
is calculated as (W1 + W2)/2 as shown in fig. 2.7.2(d). This smallest width is used for
further calculation. It does not depend on the actual mode of failure.
- The load is steadily increased in such a way that failure occurs within 10 to 60 seconds and the
failure load P is recorded. The test should be rejected as invalid if the fracture surface passes
through only one loading point.
- The procedures above shall be repeated for the remaining specimens of the sample.

Testing of anisotropic rock

- When a rock is shale, bedded, schistose or otherwise anisotropic due to a clearly developed
splitting direction, it should be tested in directions which give the lowest and highest strength
values, which are in general parallel and perpendicular to the planes of anisotropy.
- If the sample consists of core drilled through the weakness planes, a set of diametrical test may
be completed first, spaced at intervals which will yield pieces which can then be tested axially.
- Best results are obtained when the core axis is perpendicular to the planes of weakness, so that
when possible the core should be drilled in this direction (this is possible when the cores are
bored in the laboratory from a large block of rock). The angle between the core axis and the line
perpendicular to the weakness planes should preferably not exceed 300.
- For measurement of the Is value in the directions of least strength, care should be taken to ensure
that load is applied along a single weakness plane. Similarly when testing for the Is value in the
direction of greatest strength, care should be taken to ensure that the load is applied
perpendicularly to the weakness planes (see fig. 2.7.4.).
- If the sample consists of blocks or irregular lumps, it should be tested as two sub-samples, with load
applied firstly perpendicular to, then along the observable planes of weakness. Again, the required
minimum strength value is obtained when the platens make contact along a single plane of weakness.

Calculation

Uncorrected Point Load strength

2
The uncorrected point load strength is calculated as P/De , where De (the equivalent core diameter)
is given by:
 Rock Mechanics Laboratory Manual

2 2
De = D for diametrical tests

= 4A/π, for axial, block and lump tests

and

A = W * D = minimum cross sectional area of a plane through the platen contact points

Size correction

- It varies as a function of D in the diametrical test, and as a function of De in axial, block and
irregular lump tests, so that a size correction must be applied.
- The size corrected Point Load Strength Index Is(50) of a rock specimen or sample is defined as
the value which would have been measured by a diametrical test with D = 50 mm.
- The most reliable method of obtaining Is(50), is to conduct diametrical tests at or close to D = 50
mm. Size correction is then either unnecessary (D=50mm) or introduces a minimum of error.
This is the case, for example, for diametrical tests on NX core (D=54mm). Most point load
strength tests, however, are executed using other sizes or shapes of specimen. In such cases the
size correction as below must be applied.
- The most reliable method of size correction is to test the sample over a range of D or De values and
2
to plot graphically the relation between P and De . If log-log plotting is used the relation is usually
a straight line (see fig. 2.7.5). Points that deviate substantially from the straight line may be
2 2
disregarded (although they should not be deleted). The value P50 corresponding to De =2500mm
can then be obtained by interpolation, if necessary by extrapolation, and the size corrected Point
2
Load Strength Index calculated as P50/50 .
- When this method is not practical, for example when testing single sized core at a diameter other
than 50 mm or if only a few small specimens or lumps are available, size correction may be
accomplished by using the formula:

De 0.45
Is (50) = ( 50 ) * Is

- It has been found, that the size correction procedures specified above are not influenced by the
degree of anisotropy Ia and the direction of loading with respect to planes of weakness; a result
that greatly enhances the usefulness of this test.
 Rock Mechanics Laboratory Manual

figure 2.7.5.: Procedure for graphical determination of Is(50) from a set of results at De values other
than 50mm.

Mean value calculation

The mean value of Is(50) is to be calculated by deleting the two highest and lowest values from the 10 or
more valid tests, and calculating the mean of the remaining values. If significantly fewer specimens are
tested only the highest and the lowest value are deleted and the mean calculated from those remaining.

Point Load Strength Anisotropy Index

The point load strength anisotropy index Ia(50) is defined as the ratio of mean Is(50) values measured
perpendicular and parallel to planes of weakness, i.e. the ratio of the highest to lowest Point Load
Strength Indices. The strength anisotropy index assumes values close to 1.0 for quasi-isotropic rocks
and higher values when the rock is anisotropic.

Reporting

The report shall include the following information:

(a) Data on the sampling:
- Project name, location, date of sampling, sample number, depth below terrain (in case
of borehole)
- Type of sample (core, block, disturbed, or other), sample dimensions
- Lithology, weathering grade, grain size, natural water content
- Sample transport and storage conditions
(b) Data on the specimens:
- Form and dimensions of all specimens
- Density and water content during testing
(c) Data on the testing procedure:
- Results for diametrical tests, axial tests, block tests and irregular lump tests, and for
tests perpendicular and parallel to planes of weakness should be tabulated separately.
- For every specimen tested, it must be indicated which direction with respect to planes
of weakness in the rock (if recognisable) was tested.
2
- A tabulation of the values of P, D, (W, De and De if required), Is, (F if required) and Is(50)
for each specimen in the sample.
 Rock Mechanics Laboratory Manual

- For all isotropic samples a summary tabulation of mean Is(50) values.

- For all anisotropic samples a summary tabulation of mean Is(50) values for sub-samples tested
perpendicular and parallel to the planes of weakness, and of the corresponding Ia(50) values.

Remarks

For a thorough discussion about the principles of the test and about the practical application of its results
see the "notes" on the pages 57 to 60 of the publication about the Suggested Method by ISRM.

References

ISRM - Commission on testing Methods. Working Group on Revision of the Point Load Test
Method. "Suggested Method for Determining Point Load Strength", Int. Journal Rock Mech. Min.
Sc. Vol.22,No.2,pp.51-60 1985
 Rock Mechanics Laboratory Manual

1.11 STANDARD PROCEDURE FOR THE DETERMINATION OF ROCK

MATERIAL INDIRECT TENSILE STRENGTH BY THE BRAZILIAN TEST

Scope of the test

The purpose of the test is to determine the splitting tensile strength of rock material by diametrical
line compression of a disk form specimen.

Apparatus used

- A suitable testing machine, capable to load to the rock specimen at the required speed (see
test procedure) and measure the applied load with the required accuracy.
- Loading platens of hardened steel between which the rock specimen is compressed.
- ASTM procedure is based on flat platens
- ISRM procedure uses specially designed loading jaws (see figure 1 of the ISRM suggested method)
to reduce premature cracking due to high stress concentrations. If such loading jaws are used, then
the spherical seat of the testing machine must be kept in a locked position.

The following test procedure is based on the use of flat platens. To reduce stress concentrations,
cardboard with a thickness of 0.5 mm can be used between the specimen and the loading platens.
- Double thickness (0.2 to 0.4 mm) adhesive paper strip (masking tape) with a width equal or
slightly greater than the specimen thickness.

Test procedure

- The test specimen must have the form of a cylinder, with end faces perpendicular to the axis. The
cylindrical surface must be free from obvious tool marks and any irregularities across the thickness
of the specimen should not exceed 0.25 mm. The end faces must be flat to within 0.25 mm and
square and parallel to within 0.250. At least ten specimens should be taken from one sample to
obtain a meaningful average.
If the sample rock is anisotropic due to the presence of weakness planes or preferred orientation
of minerals, the specimens should be prepared in such a way that both directions parallel as well
as perpendicular to such planes can be tested (axis of the cylinder parallel to the plane).
- The specimen diameter shall preferably be not less than NX core size (54 mm), or at least 10
times the average grain size. The thickness/diameter ratio should be 0.5 to 0.6.
- The specimen must be wrapped with the extra thick masking tape around it. If masking tape is
not available cardboard can be used to prevent stress concentrations.
- The load on the specimen must be applied continuously at a constant rate such that failure occurs
within a few minutes. The actual loading rate depends on the strength of the material and the size
of the specimen and may vary from 10 to 50 kN/minute

Calculation

The splitting tensile strength of the specimen can be determined with the following formula:
2P
(indirect) tensile strength = π * L * D (in Mpa)
In this formula P is the maximum load at failure (in MN);
L is the length of the specimen (in m) and D is the specimen diameter (in m).

Reporting
 Rock Mechanics Laboratory Manual

The report shall include the following information:

(a) Data on the sampling:
- Project name, location, sample number, co-ordinates, depth below terrain (in case of
borehole), date of sampling.
- Type of sample (core, block, disturbed), sample dimensions.
- Lithology, weathering grade, grain size, natural water content.
- Sample transport and storage conditions
(b) Data on the specimens:
- Form, dimensions and weight of all specimens
- Density and water content during testing
(c) Data on the testing procedure:
- Type of the testing machine used, loading rate
- Sketch of then mode of failure
- The indirect tensile strength of each specimen, together with the average result for the sample.
If the sample is anisotropic separate figures should be given for the directions parallel and
perpendicular to planes of weakness.

References

International Society for Rock Mechanics Suggested Methods "Rock Characterization, Testing
and Monitoring" Editor E.T. Brown, Pergamon Press 1981, pages 119 to 121.

ASTM Standard Test Method D3967-81

 Rock Mechanics Laboratory Manual

1.12: STANDARD TEST PROCEDURE FOR THE DETERMINATION OF

UNCONFINED COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF ROCK MATERIAL.

Scope of the test

The aim of this test is to determine the unconfined (or uniaxial) compressive strength of rock
specimens of cylindrical form. The test is mainly intended for use in strength classification and
characterization of intact rock.

Apparatus used

- A testing machine of sufficient capacity and capable of applying axial load at a rate conforming to
the requirements described in the test procedure. The steel plates with which the specimen is loaded
shall consist of hardened steel (specifications see ASTM and ISRM) and be at least as large, but
preferably not more than double the diameter of the specimen.
- The upper bearing plate shall be equipped with a spherical seat. The center of curvature of
the spherical seat must coincide with the center of the top face of the specimen.

Test procedure

- Test specimens shall be right circular cylinders having a height to diameter ratio of 2.5 and a
diameter preferable of not less than 54mm. The diameter of the specimen should be at least 10 times
larger than the average grain size.
The number of specimens from one sample to be tested shall preferably be at least five. If the
sample rock is anisotropic due to the presence of weakness planes and/or preferred orientation of
minerals, the specimens should be prepared in such a way that both directions parallel as well as
perpendicular to such planes can be tested. If enough testing specimens are available various
intermediate angles can also be tested.
The end faces of the specimen shall be flat to 0.02 mm and be perpendicular to the specimen
axis within 0.250 (0.25mm in 50mm). During the test capping of the samples is not permitted
(see appendix 1).
The sides of the cylinder shall be smooth and free of abrupt irregularities and straight to within
0.5 mm over the full length of the specimen.
- The diameter of the specimen shall be recorded to the nearest 0.1mm by taking two perpendicular
measurements at three different heights of the cylinder. The height of the cylinder shall be
determined to the nearest 0.1mm.
- Preferably specimens should be tested at their natural water content. Precautions have to be taken
that this water content is preserved during storage and specimen preparation.
- The load on the specimen shall be applied continuously at a constant stress rate such that failure will
occur within 5 to 10 minutes of loading. This means for relatively strong rock a stress rate between
0.5 and 1Mpa/sec. The maximum load on the specimen shall be recorded in Newton with an
accuracy of 1% .

Calculation

Pmax
Uniaxial compressive strength (U.C.S)=
D2
π*
2
In this formula Pmax is the maximum load on the specimen (in N) and D is the average
specimen diameter (in m). The uniaxial compressive strength is expressed in Mpa.
 Rock Mechanics Laboratory Manual

Reporting

The report shall include the following information:

(a) Data on the sampling:
- Project name, location, date of sampling, sample number, depth below terrain (in case of
borehole)
- Sketch of the mode of failure
- Type of sample (core, block, disturbed, or other), sample dimensions
- Lithology, weathering grade, grain size, natural water content
- Sample transport and storage conditions
(b) Data on the specimens:
- Form, dimensions and weight of all specimens
- Density and water content during testing
(c) Data on the testing procedure:
- Description of the testing machine and the stress rate used.
- A table listing of all the specimens that the values of unconfined compressive strength determined and
the orientation of weakness planes (if present) with respect to the specimen axis.
- The average value of unconfined compressive strength for all specimens, when necessary grouped
together for the same orientation of their plane of weakness.

Remarks

An important part of this testing procedure is essentially identical with parts of the tests for the
determination of the rock elastic modulus and the Poisson ratio. Often the test is executed for the three
purposes simultaneously.

References

International Society for Rock Mechanics Suggested Methods "Rock Characterisation, Testing and
Monitoring" Editor E.T. Brown, Pergamon Press 1981, pages 113 to 114.

ASTM Standard Test Method D2938-80

 Rock Mechanics Laboratory Manual

1.13: STANDARD TEST PROCEDURE FOR THE DETERMINATION OF

THE STRENGTH OF ROCK MATERIAL IN TRI-AXIAL COMPRESSION

Scope of the test

The objective of this test is to determine the strength of cylindrical rock specimens subjected to tri-axial
compression. From the results of this test the values of internal friction and cohesion of the rock material
can be calculated.

Apparatus used

- A triaxial cell body in which the specimen may be placed in order to apply the confining pressure.
- Both bearing plates shall be equipped with a spherical seat. The centres of curvature of the spherical
seats must coincide with the centres of the end faces of the specimen.
- A flexible jacket to prevent the hydraulic fluid from entering the specimen. It shall be sufficiently
rigid, so as not to enter surface pores.
- A testing machine of sufficient capacity and capable of applying controlling and measuring the axial
load at a rate conforming to the requirements described in the test procedure. The steel platens with
which the specimen is loaded shall consist of hardened steel (specifications see ASTM and ISRM)
and be at least as large, but preferably not more than two mm larger than the diameter of the
specimen. The spherical seating of the testing machine (if present) shall be removed or placed in a
locked position.
- A hydraulic pump and oil pressure gauge, able to maintain and measure the confining oil pressure
with an accuracy of 2%.

Test procedure

- Test specimens shall be right circular cylinders having a height to diameter ratio of 2.5 and a diameter
preferable of not less than NX core size (54mm). The diameter of the specimen should be at least 10
times larger than the average grain size.
The number of specimens from one sample to be tested shall preferably be at least five, each one at a
different level of confining stress. For the determination of cohesion and friction also the results from
specimen(s) tested in unconfined compression can be used. If the sample rock is anisotropic due to the
presence of weakness planes and/or preferred orientation of minerals, the specimens should be
prepared in such a way that both directions parallel as well as perpendicular to such planes can be
tested. If enough testing specimens can be prepared from the available sample, various intermediate
angles could also be tested.
- The end faces of the specimen shall be flat to 0.025 mm and be perpendicular to the specimen axis
within 0.250 (0.25 mm in 50 mm). During the test, capping of the samples is not permitted. The sides
of the cylinder shall be smooth and free of abrupt irregularities and straight to within 0.5 mm over the
full length of the specimen. (Methods for the check of specimen from requirements are described in
appendix 1.
- The diameter of the specimen shall be recorded to the nearest 0.1 mm by taking two perpendicular
measurements at three different heights of the cylinder. The height of the cylinder shall be determined
to the nearest 0.1 mm.
- Moisture can have a significant effect on the triaxial strength of the test specimen. When possible the
natural water content shall be preserved until the time of the test. The moisture condition shall be
reported in accordance with test nr. 2 in this handbook.
- The cell must be assembled with the specimen aligned between the steel platens and surrounded by the
jacket. The specimen, the platens and the spherical seats shall be accurately aligned so that each is
coaxial with the others.
- The cell is placed into the testing machine. The confining stress and axial load are increased
simultaneously and in such a way, that axial stress and confining pressure are approximately equal,
until the predetermined level of confining pressure is reached. Subsequently, the confining pressure
shall be maintained to within 2% of the prescribed value.
 Rock Mechanics Laboratory Manual

- The axial load on the specimen shall then be increased continuously at a constant stress rate such that
failure will occur within 5 to 15 minutes of loading. This means for relatively strong rock a stress rate
between 0.5 and 1 Mpa/sec.
- The maximum axial load and the corresponding confining pressure of the specimen shall be recorded.

Calculation

- The maximum axial load is converted to axial stress in the following way:
P
Axial stress = (in Pa)
Ao

In this formula P is the maximum axial load (in Newton), A0 is the cross sectional area of the
specimen at the start of the test.
- Construct Mohr circles for the test results from the unconfined compressive strength test and the
triaxial compressive strength tests at the different values of confining pressure (see figure 3.3.1.).

figure 3.3.1: Mohr diagram with plotting of the Mohr circles resulting from unconfined and tri-
axial test. From the failure envelope the values for cohesion and friction can be determined
(ASTM).

Reporting

The report shall include the following information:

(a) Data on the sampling:
- Project name, location, date of sampling, sample number, depth below terrain (in case of
borehole)
- Type of sample (core, block, disturbed, or other), sample dimensions
- Lithology, weathering grade, grain size, natural water content
- Sample transport and storage conditions
(b) Data on the specimens:
- Form, dimensions and weight of all specimens
 Rock Mechanics Laboratory Manual

Rock and aggregate laboratory manual

- Density and water content during testing

(c) Data on the testing procedure:
- Testing equipment used (loading frame, triaxial cell equipment to create and measure
confining pressure)
- Loading rate during the test, sketch of failure
- Table with specimen number, specimen height, specimen diameter, confining pressure and
the corresponding axial strength
- Mohr diagram with the Mohr circles from unconfined and triaxial strength tests
- Angle of internal friction and cohesion as determined graphically from the Mohr diagram

Remarks

The levels of confining pressure at which the triaxial test is executed shall be determined on the basis
of the result of the unconfined compressive strength testing plotted in the Mohr diagram.

References

International Society for Rock Mechanics Suggested Methods "Rock Characterisation, Testing
and Monitoring" Editor E.T. Brown, Pergamon Press 1981, pages 254 to 127)

ASTM Standard Test Method D2664-80

 Rock Mechanics Laboratory Manual

1.14: STANDARD TEST PROCEDURE FOR THE DETERMINATION OF

THE SHEAR STRENGTH OF ROCK MATERIAL IN DIRECT SHEAR

Scope of the test

The objective of this test is to determine the shear strength of discontinuity planes or weak horizons
in rock as a function of the stress perpendicular to the sheared plane. Peak and residual strength are
distinguished.

Apparatus used

- A mould to set the test specimen at the required orientation and position in the filling material
(plaster or cement), leaving the shear plane free. This mould must have exactly the same form as
the shear box, to ensure perfect fitting when sample plus filler material are placed in the shear box.
- Testing equipment (shear box) consisting of the following parts:
- System to apply the normal load perpendicular to the plane to be tested. The resultant load should
pass through the centre of the area tested. The loading system must be capable to maintain and
measure the normal force to within 2% of the selected value during the whole duration of the test.
- System to apply and measure the shear force to the specimen. The force must be directed parallel
to the shear plane and act through its centre. The system should enable shear displacements of
the order of magnitude of 10% of the length of the shear plane in the direction of sliding. The
shear force must be capable of increase at constant rates and of measuring the shear force with
an accuracy of 2%.
- Micrometer dial gauges for the measuring of shear and normal displacements with an accuracy
of 0.05 mm. Shear and normal displacement measurements must be possible up to 5mm with
an accuracy better than 0.05 mm

Test procedure

- Test specimens can be taken from borehole cores or from block samples which are cut or bored in the
laboratory. Extreme care must be taken that during sample taking in the field, transport and storage and
during the preparation of the specimen for the test, the weakness plane is not damaged or disturbed. For
this purpose the sample can be protected against failure by metal wiring and against drying out by wax
or special foam material. No specific requirements exist for the form of the sample as long as it fits in
the shear box, is deep enough enclosed in the filling material, and the shear plane is parallel to the shear
direction of the shear box. The number of specimens from one sample to be tested shall preferably be at
least five, each one at a different level of confining stress.
- After placing the hardened filler with the enclosed rock specimen in the shear box, the normal
displacement and shear displacement measurement gauges are installed. A zero reading is taken on the
dial gauges and then the normal force is applied by the vertical hydraulic jack. The normal load is
increased gradually but continuously in such a way that the selected normal stress on the plane to be
tested is reached in a few minutes. The normal deformation during this process of consolidation is
recorded at regular time intervals. The binding wire connecting both halve of the sample may now be
cut. The normal stress must now be kept at a constant level during the remaining part of the test.

- After the displacement gauges have reached a steady value (less than 0.05mm displacement in 10
minutes), indicating that the consolidation process has come to an end, the shear load can be
applied in steps as to allow the various readings to be made. Approximately 10 readings should be
taken before the peak strength is reached. The rate of shear movement should not reach values
higher than 0.2 to 0.5 mm per minute. The shear load should be recorded continuously so as not to
miss the peak value. After reaching the peak strength readings of all displacement gauges should
be taken every 0.5 to 1 mm of displacement.
 Rock Mechanics Laboratory Manual

- If at least four consecutive readings give not more than 5% of variation in shear stress over a
displacement of more than 0.5mm, it can be concluded that the residual shear strength value has
been reached.
- After a shear displacement of not more than 10% of the length of the shear plane in shear direction,
the shear load can be reduced to zero. The shear direction can now be reversed (without decreasing
the normal load) if residual values of shear strength for large amounts of shear displacements are
requested. If not, or if residual strength has already been reached, the normal load can also be
released, the specimen removed from the shear box and the shear plane inspected and described.
- An important observation is if the shear plane has coincided with the shear direction of the shear
box. If this is not the case, a correction must be made for the inclination of the shear plane when
normal and shear stress are determined.

Calculation

- The displacement readings are averaged, when several normal and shear displacement gauges
are used. The normal and shear stresses are calculated as follows:

Pn Ps
Normal stress = Shear stress =
A A
In these formulas Pn is the total normal force, Ps is the total shear force and A is the area of contact
of both parts of the specimen, corrected for a decrease of this area due to shear displacement.
- For each test specimen graphs are plotted for shear stress against shear displacement and for
normal displacement against shear displacement. In these graphs the value of normal stress should
be annotated for each test. The values for peak and residual shear strength and the normal stresses,
shear displacements and normal displacements at which these occur can be read from the graphs.
- Graphs of peak and residual shear strength versus normal stress are plotted from the combined
results for all test specimens. The peak and residual shear strength parameters of cohesion and
angle of friction can so be determined.

Reporting

The report shall include the following information:

(a) Data on the sampling:
- Project name, location, date of sampling, sample number, depth below terrain (in case
of borehole)
- Type of sample (core, block, disturbed, or other), sample dimensions
- Lithology, weathering grade, grain size, natural water content
- Sample transport and storage conditions
(b) Data on the specimens:
- Form, dimensions and weight of all specimens
- Water content of the shear plane during testing.
(c) Data on the testing procedure:
- Testing equipment used and loading rates during the test, sketch of specimen shear plane after
the test.
- For each specimen the graphs of shear stress and normal displacement versus shear
displacement and the graph of shear stress versus normal stress.
- Table with specimen number, normal stress and the corresponding values for peak and residual
shear strength with the corresponding values for shear displacement and normal displacement.
- Shear stress versus normal stress graph for the values obtained from all test specimens. Table
with the concluded values of cohesion and angle of friction for peak and residual shear strength.
 Rock Mechanics Laboratory Manual

Remarks

The levels of normal stress at which the shear test is executed shall be started at a low level and
be increased on the basis of the results from the lower level shear strength.

References

International Society for Rock Mechanics Suggested Methods "Rock Characterisation, Testing
and Monitoring" Editor E.T. Brown, Pergamon Press 1981, pages 135 to 137.

40
 Rock Mechanics Laboratory Manual

1.15: SHEAR STRENGTH OF ROCK DISCONTINUITIES WITH GOLDER

SHEAR BOX

Scope of the test

The objective of this test is to determine the shear strength of rock discontinuities as a function of the
stress perpendicular to the sheared plane. Peak and residual strength, friction angle and roughness
angle are distinguished.
An article about the Golder shear box is added to this manual as appendix 2

Apparatus used

The Golder shear box of engineering geology in Delft consists of the following parts:
- Upper and lower shear box.
- System to apply the normal load perpendicular to the plane to be tested. The normal load is
applied by means of dead load system and it remains constant throughout one test.
- Shear stress is applied via a hydraulic ram and the whole apparatus is relative portable.
- Vertical displacement up to 5 mm/10 mm (depending on the roughness of the discontinuity plane)
is measured at a single point on the lever arm and registered by the computer.
- Horizontal displacement measuring device, 0 - 20 mm. The horizontal displacement transducer is
also registered by the computer.
- Converter, computer, plotter.

Procedures

Sample
Test specimens can be taken from the borehole cores or from block samples which are cut to size to
fit the shear box (lower and upper box) and set in dental plaster or some other suitable fixing
medium. Extreme care must be taken that during the preparation of the specimen for the test; the
weakness plane is not damaged or disturbed. The shear plane must be parallel to the direction of the
shear box. When shearing the upper part is kept in place while the lower part is moving. The sample
is described before the test: rock type, discontinuity type, dimensions, and roughness. (JRC
classification, measurement by roughness meter device).
After describing the sample and the discontinuity plane the sample is placed in the shear box. The
vertical and horizontal displacement measuring devices are installed and connected to the computer.
To be able to analyse the results properly, horizontal and vertical displacements must be recorded
throughout the test.

Shear test
Testing can be carried out by either single or multistage procedures. For single stage test the sample is
sheared at one constant normal load. In the multistage test, the normal load is increased after peak
strength has been measured at each stage. After each stage the sample may be reset to the original
position, but if this can be avoided it should not be done because of the risk of damaging the surface.
Normally there is sufficient shear displacement still available to allow the next stage of peak strength
to be mobilized and shearing can continue from the same point after changing the normal load. Shear
stress is applied via a hydraulic ram and it is important to keep the rate of shearing constant and rather
slow, very high rates of shearing (> 1 mm/s) may cause errors to the results.

While shearing the sample, the increasing values of shear stress and the horizontal and vertical
displacements can be followed on the monitor. The computer-based retrieval system in use at TU-Delft
allows data from all channels to be read at the same time and at very short time intervals. Also the results
of the test can be plotted immediately after testing the sample. In the computer program there is
 Rock Mechanics Laboratory Manual

also the possibility to apply correction of test data for dilation. As dilation occurs, work is done in lifting
the upper sample and this results in an increasing of shear force being required to continue shearing.

After testing the surface of the discontinuity plane should examined, particularly with regard to
the conditions of the areas involved in shearing.

Calculation

The data presented by separate graphs showing:

- shear stress versus horizontal displacement (3 stages = 3 tests)
- vertical displacement versus horizontal displacement (1 stage)
- shear stress versus normal stress (3 stages together)
- basic friction angle versus horizontal displacement (1 stage).

Reporting

Good reporting starts with clear sample description.

From the graphs obtained, shear strength and residual strength of the discontinuity plane should be
derived. Residual strength may not always be found. The incremental roughness angle i can be
calculated from a graph showing vertical horizontal displacement. From the graph showing shear
stress versus normal stress the "basic" friction angle can be determined.

The relationship between laboratory shear strengths and realistic field values is much less
straightforward for rock discontinuities than for soils. Tests that have been poorly performed
or documented are difficult or impossible to interpret.
 Rock Mechanics Laboratory Manual

1.16: STANDARD TEST PROCEDURE FOR THE DETERMINATION OF

THE MODULUS OF ELASTICITY

Scope of the test

The objective of this test is to determine stress strain curves and the modulus of elasticity (Young's
modulus) of a rock specimen of cylindrical shape. The test is mainly intended for characterization
and classification of intact rock.

Apparatus used

- A testing machine of sufficient capacity and capable of applying axial load at a rate conforming to
the requirements described in the test procedure. The steel platens with which the specimen is
loaded shall consist of hardened steel (specifications see ASTM and ISRM) and be at least as large,
but preferably not more than double the diameter of the specimen. Measuring inaccuracy shall not
be more than 2% of the working load during the test.
- The upper bearing plate shall be equipped with a spherical seat. The centre of curvature of
the spherical seat must coincide with the centre of the top face of the specimen.
- Dial gauges to determine the axial deformation of the specimen during loading. The dial
gauges should have scale units of 0.002mm.

Test procedure

- Test specimens shall be right circular cylinders having a height to diameter ratio close to 2.5 and a
diameter preferable of not less than NX core size (54 mm). The diameter of the specimen should be
at least 10 times larger than the average grain size.(See also appendix 1)
The number of specimens from one sample to be tested shall preferably be at least five. If the
sample rock is anisotropic due to the presence of weakness planes and/or preferred orientation of
minerals, the specimens should be prepared in such a way that both directions parallel as well as
perpendicular to such planes can be tested. If enough testing specimens can be prepared from the
available sample, various intermediate angles could also be tested.
- The end faces of the specimen shall be flat to 0.02 mm and be perpendicular to the specimen
axis within 0.250 (1:200). During the test capping of the samples is not permitted. The sides of
the cylinder shall be smooth and free of abrupt irregularities and straight to within 0.5 mm over
the full length of the specimen.
- The diameter of the specimen shall be recorded to the nearest 0.1mm by taking two perpendicular
measurements at three different heights of the cylinder. The height of the cylinder shall be
determined to the nearest 0.1mm.
- Moisture can have a significant effect on the deformability of the test specimen. When possible
the natural water content shall be preserved until the time of the test. The moisture condition
shall be reported in accordance with test nr. 1.2. in this handbook.
- The load on the specimen shall be applied continuously at a constant stress rate between 0.5
and 1 Mpa/sec.
- The load and the axial deformation shall be recorded at evenly spaced load intervals during the
test. At least ten readings should be taken over the full load range until failure occurs. For this
purpose the loading must be interrupted to take the measurements. These interruptions of the test
shall be as short as possible. (When using automatic stress and strain recorders the specimen shall
be continuously loaded until failure).
- A few cycles of loading and unloading between loads of 10% and 60% of the anticipated failure
load can be made to repeat the determination of the modulus of elasticity.
 Rock Mechanics Laboratory Manual

Calculation

- The measurements of load and axial deformation made during the various stages of the test
are converted to values for stress and strain in the following way:

P
Compressive stress = (in MPa)
A0
dL
Axial strain = (dimensionless)
L0

In these formulas P is the axial load (in Newton), A0 is the cross sectional area of the specimen at
the start of the test, dL is the axial deformation of the specimen (in m, and positive for a decrease
of length), L0 is the original length of the specimen (in m).
- The compressive stress and axial strain are plotted in a diagram of stress versus strain. Such curves give
the best possible description of the deformation behaviour of the rock from zero stress up to failure, in
the case that the rock shows non-linear stress-strain behaviour at low and high stress levels.
- The axial modulus of deformation may be calculated using any of the three following methods
(see fig 4.1.1.).

Figure 4.1.1
(a) tangent Et at a fixed percentage of ultimate strength
(b) average Eav of linear portion of axial stress-strain curve
(c) secant Es up to a fixed percentage of ultimate strength

- The tangent modulus Et is measured at a stress level, which is some fixed percentage of the ultimate
strength. It is generally taken at a stress level of 50% of the unconfined compressive strength.
- The average modulus Eav is determined from the average slope of the more or less straight
line portion of the stress-strain curve.
The secant modulus Es is usually measured from zero stress to some fixed percentage of the
ultimate strength, generally at 50%. The modulus of elasticity is expressed in Pascal, but more
9
appropriate is Giga Pascal (GPa = 10 Pa).
Reporting

The report shall include the following information:

 Rock Mechanics Laboratory Manual

(a) Data on the sampling:

- Project name, location, date of sampling, sample number, depth below terrain (in case
of borehole)
- Type of sample (core, block, disturbed, or other), sample dimensions
- Lithology, weathering grade, grain size, natural water content
- Sample transport and storage conditions
(b) Data on the specimens:
- Form, dimensions and weight of all specimens
- Density and water content during testing
(c) Data on the testing procedure:
- Type of the testing machine and rate of loading used.
- Sketch of the mode of failure
- Specimen dimensions and orientation of weakness planes (if present) with respect to the
specimen axis.
- For all specimens the values of the stress and strain during the different stages of the test,
in a table or plotted in a drawing as figure 4.1.1.
- The method used for the determination of the modulus of elasticity (figure 4.1.1 (a), (b), or
(c)) and which levels of stress were used.
- Modulus of elasticity of each specimen as well as an average result for all specimens in the
sample. If weakness planes were included in various orientations, the results shall be
grouped together according to orientation.

Remarks

An important part of this testing procedure is essentially identical with parts of the tests for
the determination of the unconfined compressive strength and the Poisson ratio Often the
test is executed for the three purposes simultaneously.

References

International Society for Rock Mechanics Suggested Methods "Rock Characterisation, Testing
and Monitoring" Editor E.T. Brown, Pergamon Press 1981, pages 114 to 116)

ASTM Standard Test Method D3148-80

 Rock Mechanics Laboratory Manual

1.17 STANDARD TEST PROCEDURE FOR THE DETERMINATION OF

THE POISSON RATIO

Scope of the test

The objective of this test is to determine the Poisson ratio of rock material in unconfined compression.
The test is mainly intended for characterization and classification of intact rock.

Apparatus used

- A testing machine of sufficient capacity and capable of applying axial load at a rate conforming to
the requirements described in the test procedure. The steel plates with which the specimen is
loaded shall consist of hardened steel (specifications see ASTM and ISRM) and be at least as large,
but preferably not more than double the diameter of the specimen. Measuring inaccuracy of the
axial load shall not be more than 2% of the working load during the test.
- The upper bearing plate shall be equipped with a spherical seat. The center of curvature of
the spherical seat must coincide with the center of the top face of the specimen.
- Dial gauges or other displacement measuring equipment to determine the axial deformation and
the diametrical deformation of the specimen during loading. The dial gauges should have scale
units of 0.002mm.

Test procedure

- Test specimens shall be right circular cylinders with a height to diameter ratio close to 2.5 and a
diameter preferably of not less than NX core size (54mm). The diameter of the specimen should be
at least 10 times larger than the average grain size. (See also Appendix 1).
The number of specimens from one sample to be tested shall preferably be at least five. If the sample
rock is anisotropic due to the presence of weakness planes and/or preferred orientation of minerals, the
specimens should be prepared in such a way that both directions parallel as well as perpendicular to
such planes can be tested. If enough testing specimens can be prepared from the available sample,
various intermediate angles could also be tested, to determine the anisotropy of the material.
- The end faces of the specimen shall be flat to 0.02 mm and be perpendicular to the specimen
axis within 0.250 (1:200). During the test, capping of the samples is not permitted. The sides of
the cylinder shall be smooth and free of abrupt irregularities and straight to within 0.5 mm over
the full length of the specimen.
- The diameter of the specimen shall be recorded to the nearest 0.1mm by taking two perpendicular
measurements at three different heights of the cylinder. The height of the cylinder shall be
determined to the nearest 1.0mm.
- Moisture can have a significant effect on the Poisson ratio of the test specimen. When possible
the natural water content shall be preserved until the time of the test. The moisture condition
shall be reported in accordance with test nr. 1.2. in this handbook.
- The load on the specimen shall be applied continuously at a constant stress rate between 0.5
and 1Mpa/sec.
- The axial load and the axial and diametrical deformation shall be recorded at evenly spaced
load intervals during the test. At least ten readings should be taken over the full load range
until failure occurs. For this purpose the loading must be interrupted to take the measurements,
These interruptions of the test shall be as short as possible. (When using automatic stress and
strain recorders the specimen shall be continuously loaded until failure).
- A few cycles of loading and unloading between loads of 10% and 60% of the anticipated failure
load can be made to repeat the determination of the Poisson ratio.
 Rock Mechanics Laboratory Manual

Calculation

- The measurements of axial load ,and of axial and diametrical deformation made during the
various stages of the test are converted to values for stress and strain in the following way:

P
Compressive stress = (in Pa)
Ao

dL
Axial strain = (without dimension)
L0

dD
Diametral strain = (without dimension)
D0

In these formulas P is the axial load (in Newton), A0 is the cross sectional area of the specimen (in
2
m ) at the start of the test, dL is the axial deformation of the specimen (in m, and positive for a
decrease of length), L0 is the original length of the specimen (in m), dD is the diametrical
deformation of the specimen (defined to be negative for an increase in diameter), and D 0 is the
original diameter of the specimen (both in m).
- The compressive stress, the axial strain and the diametrical strain are plotted in two diagrams of
stress versus strain (see figure 4.2.1.).

figure 4.2.1.: Graphical representation of the axial and diametric stress-strain curves

- The Poisson ratio can be calculated from the following formula:

 Rock Mechanics Laboratory Manual

Poisson ratio = slope of axial stress - strain

curve slope of diametric stress - strain

The slope of the diametrical curve can be calculated with one of the three methods discussed in the
standard test procedure for the determination of the modulus of elasticity (test nr. 12, fig. 1). Note
that the Poisson ratio in the formula above has a positive value, since the slope of the diametric
curve is negative due to the conventions used in this test procedure.

Reporting

The report shall include the following information:

(a) Data on the sampling:
- Project name, location, date of sampling, sample number, depth below terrain (in case
of borehole)
- Type of sample (core, block, disturbed, or other), sample dimensions
- Lithology, weathering grade, grain size, natural water content
- Sample transport and storage conditions
(b) Data on the specimens:
- Form, dimensions and weight of all specimens
- Density and water content during testing
- Orientation of any weakness planes in the specimen with reference to the specimen axis
(c) Data on the testing procedure:
- Type of testing machine used and the stress rate during the test. Sketch of the mode of
failure, if the specimens are loaded up to failure.
- Values of the stress and strain at the various stages of the testing listed in a table or plotted
in a drawing as figure 4.1.1.
- The method used for the determination of the modulus of elasticity.
- Poisson ratio of each specimen as well as an average result for the sample. If various
orientations of weakness planes are tested these should be grouped together.

Remarks

An important part of this testing procedure is essentially identical with parts of the tests for the
determination of the unconfined compressive strength and the modulus of elasticity. Often the test
is executed for the three purposes simultaneously.

References

International Society for Rock Mechanics Suggested Methods "Rock Characterisation, Testing
and Monitoring" Editor E.T. Brown, Pergamon Press 1981, pages 114 to 116)

ASTM Standard Test Method D3148-80

 Rock Mechanics Laboratory Manual

1.18 ROCK BOLTS AS SUPPORT SYSTEMS

A rock bolt is a long anchor bolt, for stabilizing rock excavations, which may be used in tunnels or rock
cuts. It transfers load from the unstable exterior to the confined (and much stronger) interior of the rock
mass.
Rock bolts were first used in mining in the 1890s, with systematic use documented at the St Joseph Lead
Mine in the U.S. in the 1920s. Rock bolts were applied to civil tunneling support in the U.S. and in
Australia starting in the late 1940s. Rock bolts were used and further developed starting in 1947 by
Australian engineers who began experimenting with four-meter-long expanding anchor rock bolts while
working on the Snowy Mountains Scheme

Typical rock bolting pattern for a tunnel

As shown in the figure, rock bolts are almost always installed in a pattern, the design of which depends on
the rock quality designation and the type of excavation.[2] Rock bolts are an essential component of
the New Austrian Tunneling method. As with anchor bolts, there are many proprietary rock bolt designs,
with either a mechanical or epoxy means of establishing the set. There are also fiberglass bolts which can
be cut through again by subsequent excavation. Many papers have been written on methods of rock bolt
design.

Rock bolt holding chain link fabric

 Rock Mechanics Laboratory Manual

Rock bolts work by 'knitting' the rock mass together sufficiently before it can move enough to loosen and
fail by unraveling (piece by piece). As shown in the photo, rock bolts may be used to support wire mesh,
but this is usually a small part of their function. Unlike common anchor bolts, rock bolts can become
'seized' throughout their length by small shears in the rock mass, so they are not fully dependent on their
pull-out strength. This has become an item of controversy in the Big Dig project, which used the much
lighter pull-out tests for rock bolts rather than the proper tests for concrete anchor bolts.
 Rock Mechanics Laboratory Manual

1.19 Pillar Design as support system

The Safety Factor (SF) is the pillar strength divided by the pillar load.

Safety Factor = Pillar Strength / Pillar Load

Sp
SF
σp

Pillar Strength – is a function of both a size effect and a shape effect.

- Size Effect
- Shape Effect

Size Effect – The average strength decreases as specimen size increases.

 Rock Mechanics Laboratory Manual

Critical Size – The specimen size at which an increase in size does not cause a
decrease in strength.

- Bieniawski found the critical size to be 5 feet for South African coals.
- Pariseau and Hustrulid used 3 feet for US coals.

For a coal specimen less than the critical 36 inches, Gaddy found:

(c) σc D

k k factor (strength of a one inch cube)

(d) c uniaxial compressive strength of

specimen (psi) D diameter or cube size (in.) of

specimen

Critical Strength – The strength of a critical size specimen or the strength of the
insitu coal. For a critical size specimen, the critical strength is :
k σ D
σ1 c

36 36

σ1 Critical / InSitu Coal Strength

 Rock Mechanics Laboratory Manual

Shape Effect
Pillar strength increases as:
- Pillar Width increases
- Pillar Height decreases
- Width/Height ratio increases

Pillar Strength Formulas:

- Obert-Duvall
- Holland-Gaddy
- Salamon-Munro
- Bieniawski
- Mark-Bieniawski

Obert-Duvall Formula:

w
S 0.778 0.222
p 1 h
Sp Pillar Strength
1 InSitu/Critical Coal Strength
w Pillar Width (Least Width) h
Pillar Height

- Derived for hard-rock

- Valid for w/h ratios 0.25 - 4.0
- Recommended Safety Factor
2 for short term
4 for long term
 Rock Mechanics Laboratory Manual

Holland-Gaddy Formula:
k w
Sp h

Sp Pillar Strength (psi)

k Gaddy k factor from lab
w Pillar Width (Least Width) (in)
h Pillar Height (in)
- Derived for coal
- Valid for w/h ratios 2 - 8
- Recommended Safety Factor
- 1.8 – 2.2
- 2 average

Salamon-Munro Formula:
w0.46
S 1320
p h0.66
English Units :
Sp Pillar Strength (psi)
w Pillar Width (Least Width) (ft)
h Pillar Height (ft)

w0.46
S 7.2
p h0.66
Metric Units :
Sp Pillar Strength (MPa)
w Pillar Width (Least Width) (m)
h Pillar Height (m)

(d) Derived for coal

(e) Valid for w/h ratios 1-10
(f) Recommended Safety Factor
- 1.31 – 1.88
- 1.6 recommended
 Rock Mechanics Laboratory Manual

Bieniawski Formula (square pillars):

w
S 0.64 0.36
p 1 h
Sp Pillar Strength
1 InSitu/Critical Coal Strength
900 psi recommended
1
w Pillar Width (Least Width)
h Pillar Height

Mark-Bieniawski Formula (rectangular pillars):

2
w w
S
p 1 0.64 0.54 .18
h lh

Sp Pillar Strength
1 InSitu/Critical Coal Strength (900 psi)
w Pillar Width (Least Width)
h Pillar Height l
Pillar Length
- Derived for coal
- Valid for w/h ratios up to 5
- Recommended Safety Factor
2 short term
4 long term
 Rock Mechanics Laboratory Manual

Safety Barrier Pillar Formulas

(d) For barrier pillar design
(e) Rules-of-Thumb
(f) Mine Inspector’s Formula
a. Ashley (1930) in PA
(g) British Formula

PA Mine Inspector’s Barrier Pillar Formula:

Wbp 20 4h 0.1H

Wbp Barrier Pillar Width (ft)

h Pillar Height (ft)
H Depth (ft)
British Barrier Pillar Formula:
W H 45
bp 10

Wbp Barrier Pillar Width (ft)

H Depth (ft)

Stress Barrier Pillar Formulas

Peng’s Formula:
D 9.3 H
D Extent of Stress Abutment (ft)
H Depth (ft)

Mark’s Formula:
D.9 5 H
D.9 Extent of 90% of the Stress
Abutment (ft)
H Depth (ft)
 Rock Mechanics Laboratory Manual

InSitu Stress
sg *62.4 lb sg *9800 N
σi o ft3 * H or o m3 * H
in2 1m2
144 ft2
σi InSitu Stress
sgo Overburden Specific Gravity
H Depth

for a specific gravity of 2.54 - 2.55

psi MPa
σ 1.1 * H or 0.025 *H
i ft m

Overburden Stress

(Problem – Overburden Stress) The rock mass over a mine has an

average specific gravity of 2.55. What is the stress in psi (pounds per square
inch) that is exerted per foot of depth?

Specific gravity weight of substance

weight of water
weight of substance Specific gravity * weight of water
3
2.55* 62.4 (lb/ft )
3
159 (lb/ft )

weight of overburden
overburden stress
acting area
3
159 (lb/ft )
2 2
144 (in /ft )
1.1 psi/ft of depth

overburden stress 1.1 psi/ft of depth

0.006895 MPa/psi
1.1 psi/ft of depth *
.3048 m/ft
0.025 MPa/m of depth
 Rock Mechanics Laboratory Manual

Pillar Load
- Tributary Area
- Abutment

Tributary Area – is the total area of roof that each pillar is supporting. It is the area of
the pillar plus half the area of the entries on every side.

wp Pillar Area = wp * l p
we lp Tributary Area = (w p + we ) * (lp + w c)

wp+we
Recovery Ratio = Tributary Area - Pillar
wc
Area Tributary Area
Recovery Ratio = (wp + we ) * (lp + wc) - (wp * lp)
l p +w c

(w p + we ) * (lp + wc)

Insitu Stress = 1.1 (psi/ft) * H

Pillar Area Tributary Area Insitu Stress
Plan View Pillar Stress = 1 - Tributary Area
Tributary Area
Pillar Stress = Insitu Stress *
Pillar Area
Surface (wp + we ) * (lp + wc)
Pillar Stress = 1.1 (psi/ft) * H *
Tributary (w p * lp)
(d) Area
Load

we wp h

Cross Section View

Recovery Ratio / Extraction Ratio (e) – The volume of mineral mined from a deposit
divided by the total volume of mineral in the deposit prior to mining.

- ((wp we ) *(lp wc )) (wp *lp ) (wp

we )*(lp wc )

(wp *lp )
e 1 (wp we ) *(lp wc )

wpPillar Width
weEntry Width
lpPillar Length
w
c Crosscut Width
 Rock Mechanics Laboratory Manual

For a Square Pillar (wp = lp) and equal width entries and crosscuts (we = wc):
2 2
(d) (wp we ) (wp )
2
(wp we )

2
(wp )
2
e 1 (wp we )

The Tributary Area Stress – is the pillar stress due to supporting the tributary area of
overburden. It is equal to the overburden stress (or insitu stress) times the ratio of
tributary area to pillar area.

σi (wp we )*(lp
σp σi wc )
1 e
(wp *lp )
-p Pillar Stress
InSitu Stress wp Pillar Width
i
e Extraction Ratio we Entry Width
lp Pillar Length
wc Crosscut Width

Allowable Recover Factor – The recovery factor that puts the pillar stress up to the
allowable limit (with or without safety factor).
σ σ
σi p-allowed i
σp therefore eallowed σ
1e p-allowed

-p Pillar Stress
i InSitu Stress
e Extraction Ratio
eallowed Allowable Extraction Ratio
σp-allowed Alowable Pillar Stress
 Rock Mechanics Laboratory Manual

Allowable Recover Factor with Safety Factor:

σp-allowed σi Sp
eallowed and σp-allowed
σ SF
p-allowed

therefore
SF*σi
eallowed 1 and SF (1 e) Sp
Sp σi

Sp Pillar Strength
SF Safety Factor

Pillar Abutment Load

Abutment Load - The weight that had been carried by the panel coal is shifted to the
surrounding support coal. This is known as Abutment Load

Abutment Angle Concept:

H tan B P/2

L S - Side Abutment Load LS

B- Abutment Angle B
Mined out P

Supercritical Subcritical

Abutment Load
- Magnitude
- Distribution
 Rock Mechanics Laboratory Manual

Critical Width:
Wc 2* H tan β

Wc Width of critical panel at that depth

H Depth
- Abutment Angle

Abutment Load Magnitude - (SuperCritical):

2
Ls H tanβ ρ 2

Ls Side Abutment Load -

SuperCritical
H Depth
Abutment Angle
- Overburden Density

Abutment Load Magnitude - (SubCritical):

HP P2
L *ρ
ss 2 8* tanβ

Lss Side Abutment Load - SubCritical

H Depth
P Panel Width
Abutment Angle
- Overburden Density
 Rock Mechanics Laboratory Manual

Abutment Load Distribution:

s = 3L s (D-x)
2

f D3

L L L
A B BP

W
Ds = 9.3 H
Pillar A Pillar B Barrier pillar

Abutment Zone Width

D 9.3 H
D Abutment Zone Width (ft)
H Depth (ft)

Abutment Zone - Stress Distribution

3L
σ s D-x 2

a D3

a Abutment Stress
Ls Side Abutment Load
D Abutment Zone Width (ft)
x Distance from Panel Edge (ft)

Abutment Zone Load

3
R 1 D-x

(d) Percentage of Abutment Stress in first x

feet D Abutment Zone Width
- Distance from Panel Edge
 Rock Mechanics Laboratory Manual

APPENDIX I: ROCK CORE PREPARATION

Straightness, perpendicularity, flatness, length/diameter ratio and size of specimens for

strength and deformability testing.

Rock specimens which are used in the various tests to determine strength (unconfined. triaxial, and
indirect tensile) and deformability (modulus of elasticity, poisson ratio, and creep testing) of rock
material, must conform to a number of criteria for the accuracy of their form (circular cylinder with
flat endfaces, which are perpendicular to the cylinder axis). Other standard criteria are the minimum
diameter of the cylinders to be used for the various testing techniques and the ratio of length versus
diameter to be used.
ISRM and ASTM criteria are not exactly the same. Table 1 and table 2 give the various criteria by
ISRM and ASTM with a proposal for the criteria to be used in the rock mechanics laboratory of
Delft Engineering Geology, this proposal was followed when compiling the standard test
procedures. The procedures for measuring the straightness, flatness and perpendicularity are given
in the following sections.

Straightness of the cylinder sides

Two methods are used for this determination:

- Roll the sample on a flat smooth surface and measure the height of the maximum gap between the
specimen and the flat surface with a feeler gauge. If this gap exceeds 0.50mm, the specimen does
not meet the requirements for straightness and shall not be used for the testing.
The surface on which the specimen is rolled shall not depart from a plane by more than 0.013mm.
- Place the cylinder on the V-block. Place a dial indicator in contact with the top of the specimen as
shown in figure app1.1., move the specimen from one end of the v-block to the other along a
straight line.
- Record the minimum and maximum readings on the dial gauge and calculate the difference
do repeat the same operations by rotating the specimen for every 90°, and obtain the
difference d90, d180, and d270. The maximum value of these four values shell be less than
0.50mm (0.020in).

figure app1.1.: Assembly for determining the straightness of the cylindrical surface
 Rock Mechanics Laboratory Manual

Flatness of the end surfaces

The flatness of the end faces is determined by a set up similar to that for the cylindrical surface. The
dial gauge, however, is now mounted near the end of the V-block (see figure app1.2.). Move the dial
gauge holder horizontally along the end of the V-block, maintaining good contact with the block, and
record the dial gauge readings every 3mm across the diameter. Plot the readings on an enlarged scale
on mm paper and dram a smooth line through the points. The smoothness criterion is met when the
smooth curve so determined does not depart from a visual best fit line by more than the value
indicated in the standard test procedure (see also tables 1 and 2). Rotate the specimen 900 around its
longitudinal axis and repeat the same operations and tolerance checks for the new diametrical plane.
Repeat the same procedure for the other end face.

figure app1.2.: Assembly for determining the perpendicularity of end surfaces to the specimen axis

Perpendicularity of the end faces to the cylinder axis

This criterion can be checked using the measurements taken for the determination of the flatness of the end
faces. Calculate the difference between the maximum and minimum readings on the dial gauge along each
of the 4 diameters (the two lines perpendicular to each other on each end face). These four values of
difference should be divided by the specimen diameter and the resulting four values must all be smaller
than the ratio indicated in the standard test procedures in this manual (see also tables 1 and 2).

suggested standard proposed

by ISRM of ASTM for DEG

Straightness better than better than better than

cylinder 0.3 mm 0.5 mm 0.5 mm

Flatness of better than better than better than

end faces 0.02 mm 0.015 mm 0.02 mm

Perpendicu better than better than better than

larity 1:1000 1:200 1:200

table 1 for: unconfined compression, triaxial strength, modules of elasticity, poisson ratio
and creep testing
 Rock Mechanics Laboratory Manual

Rock and aggregate laboratory manual

suggested standard proposed

by ISRM of ASTM for DEG

Straightness better than better than better than

cylinder 0.025 mm 0.5 mm 0.5 mm

Flatness of better than no specifi- no specifica-

end faces 0.25 mm cation tion

Perpendicu- better than better than better than

larity 1:200 1:100 1:100

table 2. for : Brazilian tensile strength

Size and length/diameter ratio for specimens

Also for the specimen size and the specimen length/diameter ratio ASTM and ISRM do not follow
the same standards. For the unconfined compressive strength and triaxial strength testing techniques
listed in table 1 ASTM sets a standard of a minimum diameter of at least 10 times the largest grain
size in the rock, generally 48 mm is enough. ISRM holds also the condition of 10 times the largest
grain size and gives as a minimum specimen diameter 54 mm. In the test procedures in this manual
the ASTM standard was followed. Minimum specimen diameter indicated in this manual is 54 mm.
The length/diameter ratio recommended by ISRM for the strength tests is 2.5 to 3, the ASTM
standard, however is 2 to 2.5. The standard proposed in this manual is 2.5, which is not in conflict
with ISRM and ASTM.

The diameter and length/diameter ratio of specimens for the Brazilian splitting tensile strength test
suggested by ISRM are respectively 54 mm and 1:1. For ASTM the standards are 48 mm and 0.5:1
to 1:1. In this manual these values have been chosen as 54 mm and 1:1, so also here there is no
conflict with the existing standards.

For the deformation tests the standards for diameter and length/diameter are as follows: at least 54
mm and 2.5 to 3.0 for the ISRM against 48 mm and 2.0 to 2.5 for ASTM.

Important!!!!!!: If specimens are available which do not confirm with the sizes or ratios indicated in
this appendix, the test procedures remain valid. The only consequence is that in the report it must be
stated clearly that the tests were done with specimens of sizes other than indicated in the standard test
procedures of the laboratory.
 Rock Mechanics Laboratory Manual

Appendix 2: Table with indications of strength properties of rock

Rock type Dry density Porosity UCS Modulus of Brazilian Tensile

3
Mg/m % MPa Elasticity GPa strength MPa

Gypsum 2.3 4 10-35 15 1

Slate 2.7 2 15-200 25 8
Schist 2.6 2 20-80 20 2
Marble 2.6 1 50-180 70 10
Granite 2.7 1 60-300 80 15
Basalt 2.8 3 80-350 100 15
Sandstone Triassic 2.0 20 5-50 20 2
Sandstone carboniferous 2.2 10 50-150 50 5
Limestone Carboniferous 2.5 2 50-140 50 8
Limestone Jurassic 2.3 12 10-60 15 4
Chalk 1.9 25 5-25 5 .5
Rock Mechanics Laboratory Manual