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Qualitative Analysis of the Barriers College
Students With Disabilities Experience in
Higher Education
Barbara S. S. Hong

Students with disabilities are increasingly Garza, & Levine, 2005). Based on a report
enrolling in colleges and universities. However, by the National Council on Disability (2003),
many institutions are still unprepared to support there were three significant findings: (a) The
them beyond the basic federal mandate of equal number of students with disabilities attending
access and reasonable accommodations. This college has more than tripled over the last
qualitative study utilized a nontraditional 20 years, (b) the average time students with
media of reflective journaling to capture the disabilities took to complete their college was
anecdotal experiences of 16 college students twice as long as their nondisabled cohorts, and
with disabilities for a 10-week period. Four (c) more than 80% of students with disabilities
major themes emerged concerning barriers and in college need some type of assistance and
frustrations these students encountered on a daily related services in earning their degrees.
basis: (a) faculty perception, (b) fit of advisors, Transitioning from high school to college
(c) college stressors, and (d) quality of support can be a challenging experience for many
services. Recommendations for higher education students but perhaps more so for those
administrators and disability personnel to become with a disability (Hong, Ivy, Gonzalez, &
more vigilant in improving support for this Ehrensberger, 2007). Often, different types
population are discussed. and levels of support are necessary to help
these students maneuver through the higher
Students with disabilities are increasingly education system (Ferrell & Marshak, 2004).
enrolling in higher education across the United Even though federal legislation, such as
States (Eckes & Ochoa, 2005; Lee, Oakland, Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of
Jackson, & Glutting, 2008). The Institute 1973, the recent ADA Amendments Act
for Higher Education Policy attributed this (2008), and the 2008 Higher Education
increase to the success of the Individuals Opportunity Act, have been enacted to ensure
with Disabilities Education Act (1990, 2004) the provision of appropriate adjustments and
for preparing students with disabilities for equal access in terms of recruitment, treatment,
postsecondary opportunities (Wolanin & academic, housing, financial, and employment
Steele, 2004). However, despite closing the assistance, students with disabilities continue
gap for high school completion between to experience frustrations and face barriers that
students with and without disabilities, the subsequently lead to their poor performance
postsecondary outcome for these two groups is and premature departure.
still distinctively dichotomous (13% vs. 30%; According to the concepts of Tinto’s
Dowrick, Anderson, Heyer, & Acosta, 2005; integration (1975, 1993) and Astin’s involve-
Stodden, 2005; Wagner, Newman, Cameto, ment (1985) theories, students who are

Barbara S. S. Hong is Associate Professor of Special Education and Senior Fulbright Scholar in Division of Education,
Human Development, & Social Sciences at The Pennsylvania State University, Altoona College.

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 Hong

optimally immersed in college from the onset of faculty and staff who were not familiar
are more likely to find overall affirmations in with disability concerns, access to textbooks
meeting their academic, social, and psycho- in alternative formats, and student advocacy
logical needs. These models postulate three skills (Florida College System, 2009). These
central themes: (a) the extent to which each perceptions corroborated earlier studies that
student is integrated into the social and found that faculty attitudes impact student
academic aspects within the university, (b) the success the most (Lynch & Gussel, 1996) and
degree to which the student is committed to that faculty who were experienced in teaching
obtaining a degree, and (c) how well the student students with disabilities were more receptive
is committed to the university. In a subsequent to implementing accommodations than
refinement of his model, Tinto (1993) posited were others (Johnson, 2006). In the Florida
that in order to persist in college, students must study, researchers indicated that students
integrate into formal and informal academic with disabilities are often intimidated when
systems and social systems. interacting with faculty “because they must
The problem is that students with dis- disclose their accommodation needs with
abilities often lack the academic, personal, instructors in addition to addressing general
and social skills needed to integrate themselves questions about course material” (Florida
into higher education (Brinkerhoff, McGuire, College System, 2009, p. 13).
& Shaw, 2002). They are less likely to In practice, higher education institutions
communicate their needs (lack self-advocacy); vary significantly in their implementation and
less likely to evaluate their own performance delivery of related services, making it harder
(lack self-regulation); less likely to develop to compare and identify specific variables that
a sense of empowerment (lack locus of contribute to the enhancement or frustration
control); and less likely to be aware of their of students (Wolf, 2006). Even though studies
own strengths, interests and limitations (lack have been conducted about the experiences
self-knowledge; Hong et al., 2007; Wehmeyer, of college students with disabilities mostly
1996). This lack of self-determination often through questionnaires, focus groups, and
results in passive integration into higher structured interviews (e.g., Dowrick et al.,
education, which leads to social awkwardness, 2005; Duquette, 2000; Getzel, & Thoma,
academic challenges, and psychological stress 2008; Greenbaum, Graham, & Scales, 1995),
as they struggle their way to assimilate into a none has considered a more personal, yet
new environment (Frieden, 2004; Hong et al., less intrusive, approach of understanding
2007; Rosenbaum, 2004). the disability phenomenon. This study was
Students with disabilities come to college grounded in a self-determination framework
with needs similar to when they were in high to generate a richer understanding of how
school, except now they have to be more self- students with disabilities viewed their experi-
directed in managing their own lives (Getzel ences in college so as to expand the knowledge
& Thoma, 2008). The important question to base about transitional issues that affect their
ask is: “What are the barriers students with postsecondary outcomes.
disabilities face as they try to maneuver the
higher education environment in meeting their MetHod
needs?” In one study of 28 colleges within the
Florida College System, the most cited barriers Qualitative research has been widely utilized
by students with disabilities were the attitudes to understand student affairs and student

210 Journal of College Student Development

College Students With Disabilities

attributes within a given context (Marshall & the phenomenon so as to guide a more careful
Rossman, 1995{this date does not match the interpretation within the authentic context
date given in the references; please correct}). (Marshall & Rossman, 1995)
Research journaling has a long and serious
history as a reliable method for investigating Participants
phenomena because it engages participants in Approval for this study was granted by the
a heuristic way for disclosing and discovering review board to contact students through
about themselves (Diamond, 1993; Janesick, campus-wide e-mail. Students were solicited
1998). By putting down their personal through self-disclosure on a voluntary basis. In
thoughts, emotions, reactions, and affections the e-mail, students were asked if they had ever
on paper, participants become more open participated in the campus disability services.
and comfortable at expressing how they feel This question sought to exclude students who
and what they want to see happen, knowing might have perceived themselves as having a
that they will not be judged for telling their “disability” when in fact they were not eligible
side of the story (Cooper, 1991). Unlike a under the Americans with Disabilities Act
confession, participants who journal do not (ADA, (2008). If students responded that
need to feel confined to a structured or guarded they had received campus disability services,
perimeter in expressing their innermost the follow-up question was whether they
thoughts (Borg, 2001). would like to keep a personal journal of their
Reflective journaling as a research method experiences for a period of 10 weeks. Students
has been known for its therapeutic nature who agreed to do so were compensated $10
because participants coconstruct the meaning per week for 10 weeks. Potential participants
behind what they are attempting to reveal met with the research team on a one-to-one
as they engage in an internalized dialogue basis to discuss details of the study.
during the writing process (Holly, 1989). A total of 28 students, out of approximately
This approach of ethnographic investigation 4,300 students on the campus, responded to
provides participants the opportunity to “see” the e-mail. Students who were transferring to
themselves in light of what is happening to the main campus the following semester, about
them and, in a way, help them face their 40 miles away from the study site campus,
challenge instead of avoiding them (Diamond, were excluded because the intent of this study
1993). Reflective journaling has been used to was to examine students’ experiences on one
instigate self-empowerment in terms of helping campus and for the convenience of collecting
participants develop a sense of self-efficacy and the journals each week. Students could be
internal locus of control. Participants discover at any point in their study and majoring in
who they are, what they want, why they are any subject. The purpose was not to have a
going such emotions, and how to resolve homogeneous group but to allow students
conflicts that may jeopardize their prospects to identify themselves as persons who have a
for success (Fritson, 2008). The fundamental legitimate condition and who needed support
idea is to allow the phenomenon to unveil itself services from the disability office. Because
through self-professed narration rather than students were permitted to discontinue
by way of an outsider’s manipulation, such the study at any time, the final number of
as in a focus group or interview (Marshall & participants who completed all 10 weeks of
Rossman, 1995. Most importantly, journaling journaling with contents that were analyzable
provides a rigorous and genuine anecdote of totaled 16. Shown in Table 1 is the breakdown

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 Hong

tABle 1. payment inserted in a sealed envelope inside

Participant demographics their journal and continue writing. In order
not to manipulate what the students were
Subject Gender Condition(s) writing, no written comments were made
1 F tourette’s syndrome in any of the entries. Only a notation of
2 F learning disability acknowledgement was given in the last entry
3 F Clinical depression + to indicate receipt of the journal.
fibromyalgia Minimum guidelines were given for
4 F learning disability journaling because the goal was to encourage
5 F Attention deficit disorder students to freely express themselves, as if
6 F eating disorder it was their own personal diary. They were
7 F Scoliosis instructed to share only what they wanted
8 F Bipolar depression and be as candid as they wished without fear
9 F Crohn’s disease
of repercussions. They were also told that
they would not be judged on their writing
10 F learning disability
mechanics, grammar, or penmanship as long
11 F dyslexia
as the words were legible. Examples of topics
12 F Cystic fibrosis
suggested by the researchers included events,
13 M Seizure disorder
persons, offices, classes, faculty, administration,
14 M Attention deficit disorder assignment, friends, families, and work. In
15 M Heart condition (not specified) short, students could write about anything
16 M Asthma; allergies that enhanced or frustrated their college
experiences in relation to their disability, even
if the event occurred outside the campus.
of the participants and their conditions with
75% (n = 12) being female and 25% (n = 4) data Analysis
being male students. All entries started on the 3rd week of the fall
semester and ended 2 weeks prior to the final
Setting and Procedures exam. The rational for choosing the beginning
The study was conducted at an East Coast, period was to allow participants to settle into
small suburban college that is part of a their semester and to get familiar with their
larger state university system. This campus’s classes and schedules. Likewise, the reason for
programs focus on primarily associate’s and ending the study 2 weeks before the end of
undergraduate degrees. Students come mostly the semester was so participants would not be
from working class families and are first- distracted from their final exams. All journals
generation college goers. were collected at the end of the 10 weeks.
Students were provided with journal Data analysis was conducted by first
booklets and asked to write about their reading through each entry at a surface
positive and not-so-positive experiences that level to capture the overall picture of the
they would encounter for the next 10 weeks. student’s experience. Using editing analysis
Each Friday, they would drop off their journals style, the entries were interpreted in search
in a secure box outside the research office. of meaningful fragments. These fragments
On the following Monday, students would were reviewed and developed into categorical
pick up their journals with their respective themes as they emerged. Next, the themes

212 Journal of College Student Development

College Students With Disabilities

were cross-tabulated and matched to derive compare students who received services with
codes for further analysis and merged into those who sought services but, for whatever
more transcending themes. The final coding reasons, did not receive them (ineligibility for
schemes were used to sort themes into patterns ADA, lack of proper documentation, failure
that could be structured and interpreted. to follow up, etc.). Another limitation was
Independent readers were used to analyze the unequal number of female versus male
random journals in order to triangulate the participants. Different genders may prefer
data and reduce biases. Consensus was arrived different modes of communication. Also,
at before the final synthesis of the generalizable future studies should examine whether types
categorical themes. These were then compared of services received and personnel working at
to the existing literature on college students the disability office could instigate different
with disabilities and probed across common experiences. Overall, despite these limitations,
descriptions. Employing Hatch’s (2002) it was ascertained that the study of academic
recommendations, the research team took and nonacademic infrastructures in facilitating
into consideration inherent characteristics of students with disabilities should be carefully
human subjectivity, utilized emergent design, examined in order to promote greater success
employed inductive data analysis processes, for these students.
and embraced reflexivity to generate centrality
of meaning in these themes without resorting ReSultS
to ambiguity and sorting through constraints
of journal writing. Four broad themes emerged as a result of
coding each of these entries: (a) faculty
liMitAtionS perceptions, (b) fit of advisors, (c) stressors,
and (d) quality of support services. A summary
Even though the approach of research journal- of these thematic barriers and accompanying
ing offers valuable insights into a phenomenon subcategories is shown in Table 2.
from a personal perspective, it has its own
limitations as well. In particular, journal
writing is a reflective tool for many individuals;
tABle 2.
therefore, participants may have different
preferences on which incident they wish to Summary of Barriers by Category
reveal (e.g., more negative than positive; more Category Barriers
social than academic), how much details they
Faculty Perceptions lower expectations
wish to reveal for each incident, and how
Past experiences
expressive and candid they wish to be at that
point of recording or recollecting the incident. Fit of Advisors lack of knowledge
Also, journaling is peculiar to each individual unresponsiveness
because there is no judgment on how truthful Stressors Physical demand
one needs to be. In short, journaling has its own Mental and emotional
built-in biases because it is based entirely on the struggle
receiver’s perceptions of the incident and no Social stigmatization
attempt is made to justify or clarify what actually Quality of Support intimidations by
happened. It would be ideal to use this study as Services personnel
a stepping stone to a larger follow-up study and

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 Hong

Faculty Perceptions a question correctly. I vividly remember

being treated like an INVALID. I know
The most frequently cited barrier was related most normal people would have probably
stayed in the class just to spite her and to
to how students think faculty would perceive
prove her wrong. I wished I was like that.
them if they were to reveal that they needed But I’m not. Now, instead of focusing on
accommodation. Many entries were written class, I would ruminate over ever giving
about specific cases in which students felt judged, her that dreaded slip of paper. I’m unsure
humiliated, and embarrassed by instructors, if I would have aced the class had I stayed
either in private or in front of the class. Within in and never given her the note. I do
this category, two subthemes emerged: lower wonder though, had I been treated like a
expectations and past experiences. normal student.
Lower Expectations. Students avoided Students felt they were “treated differently
having to “confront” the instructor about from a normal student” once the instructors
needing any kind of academic adjustments found out that they had a disability. One
because they did not want to be regarded as student wrote, “All I wanted was the teachers’
“less capable of making it through the class.” understanding and that I’m not a lazy or
Students perceived the accommodation letter disinterested student.” Students confessed
as “something’s wrong with me.” Consequently, about how much courage it took them to
they tried to avoid sharing this letter with the present an accommodation letter to the
instructor for as long as possible, sometimes instructor, yet they felt “looked down upon
almost until the end of the semester or right and judged.” They also sensed there was a great
before a major exam or quiz so they “wouldn’t degree of distrust and cynicism between the
need to confront anyone.” A majority of instructor and the students, that “teachers just
students felt that it was a waste of time to put didn’t like me so therefore gave me random
forth any good effort because “no one believes” grades.” One student who was given the
in them. They felt they “deserve to be treated accommodation of flexible attendance due to
better” even though they “didn’t know how to the medications she was taking wrote:
completely explain” their learning difficulties.
I’ve been told that I would not be suc-
One student shared how she regretted revealing cessful in the class if I miss it at all and
information to her instructors: that I shouldn’t have taken a course if I
My accommodation for that class was can’t attend. . . . I feel like I was treated
excused absence. I knew that missing differently, looked at differently. [In the]
class would make me fall behind, but I majority of the classes that the teacher did
prepared for that, lining up a tutor and that, I ended up dropping or late dropping.
setting up “speaking dates” with my sister.
But even after assuring the professor that Past experiences. Even though some stu-
I would only use the accommodation in dents had received accommodations in the
the worst case scenario, she stared me
past, they were still skeptical about new
straight in the eyes and coldly said that I
would not succeed in her class if I needed instruc tors every semester. Most students
to use the accommodation. I’m positive who had negative experiences described
she didn’t mean to hurt me and she was being humiliated in front of their professor
just being realistic, but it made me feel and classmates by “pretending to be ‘normal’
so awful. She started to not call on me as and just smile even though I was in pain.”
much and seemed shocked if I answered This included experiences from high school

214 Journal of College Student Development

College Students With Disabilities

as well. Many of them waited until several right to judge if my disability was legitimate
weeks into the semester, some almost toward or not.” This student concluded the entry with
the final exam period, to assess whether this relief: “For once, I felt like the disability
they really needed academic adjustments. was not my fault.”
In other words, students did not readily feel Students seem to have an “unseen” process
comfortable disclosing to instructors about for assessing whether or not requesting an
their need for some form of adjustments. One accommodation was worth the risk. One
participant shared a time when she handed in student delineated what went through her mind:
an accommodation letter to her astronomy I really break down to weigh and measure
instructor and did not know what to expect each of my classes and how I can make it
after that. The instructor’s response “mortified” through successfully. The initial assessment
her so much that she dared not bring up starts on syllabus day. I’m assuming that
her request again: the university requires the teacher to
include the whole “disability clause.” . . .
I had used a disability certificate before I check to see if they added anything extra
but had no idea how to approach the to the assumed provided statement about
teacher and talk about it without seeming students with disabilities. If the teacher
like a fool. Finally, I worked up enough reads over their syllabus and they hit the
courage to approach him after class. He statement with their speech, I observe
looked up expectantly so I chickened how the teacher delivers the information.
out. I pushed the piece of paper in his I look for posturing, expression, voice
hands and forced myself to stay put. He inflection, and any other indicators of
glanced at the paper; said, “Okay”; and how they feel about the topic. I’ve found
then continued to gather his stuff. It was majority of teachers seem pretty neutral
a rush of relief. I was glad that was over. I to the whole thing.
attended class not knowing what to expect. The second step is my process in deter-
Nothing happened. I sent an e-mail and mining what exactly might help me in
he didn’t respond. He had forgotten. It is the class. Is attendance a sticky point? Do
my responsibility to talk to him and get they post their notes online? Do they seem
the accommodation. But for me, talking willing to sit down and talk or are they no
about it can be mortifying. Eventually, nonsense? These questions, among many
I weighed getting the accommodation others, need to be answered in order to
versus the mortification of talking about execute the last step. . . .
my disability with a stranger. I ruled that
it wasn’t worth possibly making waves, so I try to get a good feel for the teacher’s
I just threw the paper away and studied personality and styles, what I’ll need for
twice as hard. I know it was my own fault the class, and how my disabilities might
but the intimidation was too much for manifest within the classroom and how it
me. I’d had other courses that I’ve had to would be coped with. The final step in the
drop because of my disability. assessment process takes the data procured
from the previous two steps and compares
Only one participant had a positive them to how comfortable I’m with the
entry about a “nice teacher” who understood materials, my level of mortification of
her and “actually wants to help out.” This confrontation, and other aspects. I weigh
instructor pointed out to the student that the pros and cons of using the disability
services and then finally make a decision.
“teachers shouldn’t be judgmental. If I had
the papers, that means that the university Even though disability mandates exist for
decided I had a disability. . . teachers have no the instructors to comply if warranted, one can

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 Hong

never force empathy on another person. One toward their major. As it turned out, students
student shared a profound thought: fumbled through each semester and further
Understanding is not something you can delayed their graduation. Three students
demand of someone with a piece of paper described their self-inflicted setbacks this way:
or even an explanation. The school may After meeting with my advisor twice, she’s
mandate to allow the students to be in not very helpful in answering any general
their class and cater to their needs, but it questions. I figured it would be better if
is up to the individual teacher how it is I tackled scheduling myself. I recognize
interpreted. You can’t force someone to be now that I’m a bloody idiot for thinking
okay with giving accommodations. They’ll that. Due to my amateur scheduling, I
still give them, but they may be snippy will probably have to stay in school at
about it, look down on the student. This least another year.”
is the last thing I want. I’d rather deal
with the repercussions of being a “lazy” I have kind of been floundering with
pupil than if the other option is being my schedule. My advisor doesn’t seem to
resentfully given help. know left from right. After meeting with
him a couple of times and judging him
Fit of Advisors incompetent, I figured that I’d be able to
schedule by myself with no problems. BIG
The second most cited barrier concerned student MISTAKE! I knew that I wasn’t doing it
academic advisors. Ten out of 16 participants right, but I didn’t realize the consequences.
had concerns that pertained to their lack of This year, I’m realizing how big my screw
knowledge and unresponsive mannerism. up was. I wasn’t accepted into the major,
and I had no idea why. I went to my
Lack of Knowledge. Students felt their
advisor who, again, couldn’t help me at all.
advisors lack basic understanding in guiding
them about which courses to take in order Not having a “real advisor,” I’ve f__ed up my
to be on track, and some even messed up schedule pretty badly. I feel very disheartened
the schedule so badly that students had to but I still need to get my s__ done!”
delay their graduation date or be transferred Unresponsiveness. Students were dissatisfied
to the main campus prematurely and felt about the advisor’s lack of response toward
unprepared for the large campus. A large them as individuals or as advisees. Their
number of entries concerned their advisors that complaints ranged from advisors telling them
they described were “of no help at all.” One to take the wrong course to advisors missing
student had to change her major three times in appointments and not responding to their
less than two years because her advisor “kept e-mails. Students deemed these dispositions
messing things up.” as simply “uncaring” or “not car[ing] about
Another three students who had sub- our success.” One student recounted that she
stantially negative experiences with their made an appointment but the advisor plainly
advisors decided it was not worth seeking told her, “I was hoping you wouldn’t show
advice at all and decided to act independently. up.” The advisor told her that she wanted to
What happened next was when they did not attend a new staff function instead. Another
get a good grade in their major-related courses, student wrote that his advisor had such a
they started to panic, and either dropped the low expectation of him that he was asked
course or sought out an “easier” course to take. to take “dumb people classes” instead of the
Unfortunately, due to their lack of knowledge, regularly scheduled classes for the major. He
some of these “easier” courses were not counted felt that his advisor did not care about him at

216 Journal of College Student Development

College Students With Disabilities

all and attributed his failure to his advisor’s . . . it was hard to sit still, not doing much
lack of caring. of anything. This makes me feel anxious and
More often than not, students who did not restless.” She continued, “Why can’t class be
seek out their advisors also had a harder time more hands on and less talking.”
assessing the extent to which their disability More often than not, instructors may
might have an impact on their study load as not realize that little distractions can arouse
well as scheduling plan. One student who has students to a heightened sense of anxiety and
fibromyalgia scheduled herself for four classes, sensitivity. One student commented:
each lasting three hours, from 5:30 p.m. to While taking a test, the simplest things
8:30 p.m. By the fifth week of class, she was become a distraction; my mind starts
barely attending class. She called herself a to wander. The bright lights distract
“bleeding idiot. . . . I never took into account me. When someone leaves the room,
how difficult it is for the average student it distracts me. When a student ruffles
to sit in a lecture for three hours, let alone papers, it distracts me. If the cell phone
when said student has joint and muscle went off, my mind couldn’t focus.
pain. I’m a moron.” Another student with Tourette’s symptoms
Of all the participants in this study, only described herself as her worst enemy of distraction:
one recounted a single positive relationship with
When I sense my tics coming on, I began
her advisor because she felt respected and not to bite my nails and cannot concentrate at
judged, even though she did not perform well: all. I am embarrassed to tell people what is
She was caring and wants to help me. it that I have. I feel bad for making noises,
She believes in me and most importantly, but the more I try to control it, the more
she helps me understand the difference my tics become. Sometimes, they come
between reality and dreams in a way that out as coughs or grunts, and people will
I can only respect myself. I ended that look at me weirdly.
semester proud of myself even though my
final GPA was 1.92.”
Even though this student was given the
accommodation to take her test in a separate
Stressors
room to reduce her anxiety, she preferred to
Students frequently described their daily “hold in my tics and take the test with ‘normal’
experiences as “stressful,” “stressed out,” students” rather than “feel ashamed” to have
“upsetting,” and “frustrated.” Some were to go to another room.
due to events beyond their control, such as Another common association with being
medications, whereas others were caused by diagnosed with a physical or mental condition is
physical demands, mental and emotional the need for medications to control symptoms.
struggles, and social stigmatization. However, as with most medications, they come
Physical Demands. The surrounding with side effects as well. Three participants
physical environment can sometimes agitate revealed they had conditions that required
students and be a source of tension as well. them to be on medications regularly. For
During one class, a student diagnosed with instance, one student had to “take over 12
attention deficit found it extraordinarily pills a day—antidepressants, pain medications,
difficult to concentrate because it was raining pills to wake me up, pills to put me to sleep,
so hard outside. She wrote, “The thunder was hormonal pills, various vitamins, more, more,
more mesmerizing to my mind than the lecture more.” A side effect, he pointed out, was that

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 Hong

“it’s hard to retain information and really the last thing I want.” Students wrote about
takes a toll on me.” Consequently, the use of how they struggled with accepting their
medications, though helpful in some ways, individuality, their limitations, and their own
inevitably took a toll on students’ attention, intellectual and physical weaknesses. They used
strengths, and ability to cope. terms like, “stupid,” “invalid,” “not normal,”
Another common side effect with medica- “what’s wrong with me,” and “incapable of
tions is the feeling of fatigue all the time. better judgment” to describe themselves.
One student admitted, “I have a lot of pain, On numerous occasions, students’ prefer-
headaches, migraines, and full body aches . . . ence for expediency and self-sufficiency also
I started to sleep a lot with any free time I’ve overshadowed their need to seek help. They
got. When you sleep you don’t feel any pain, disclosed how they would rather take the “risk”
physical or mental.” Consequently, students in not asking for help than “to look weak” in
have less time to complete their work, skip front of the class. And, if the “risk” paid off,
class more frequently, and are less likely to they felt an even greater desire to “attempt
socialize and integrate themselves. For many doing it again next semester without help.”
of these students, the college experience was Students did not wish to be associated
not always filled with energy and life, as one with the notion of a disability as part of
would expect. A student identified himself their college identity and tried to blend in
this way: “It’s like being a scholar trapped in with their peer group in terms of intellectual
an invalid body.” equivalence. But at the same time, they became
Mental/Emotional Struggles. It was not irritated and disheartened when they saw their
unusual that each participant had a deep desire classmates put in less effort and still make
for independence and being self-reliant. These better grades than them while they struggled
students felt that in order to establish their and sacrificed so much just to scrape by, as
identity, they needed to prove themselves in all one student griped,
aspects of college life, among their peers as well I get so frustrated because it often feels like
as in the minds of their professors. One student I put in more effort than most and still
admitted this was “a large character flaw—the struggling. There is definitely an intense
stubborn illusion of needing to do everything feeling of isolation that goes along with
myself.” In a positive way, participants strived it. A feeling that I’m not normal so I can’t
relate to anyone. It’s disheartening.
to motivate themselves through self-affirmative
statements such as, “I’m proud of myself,” “I’m Students appeared to be on constant alert
regarding what to do with their life, which
going to do better the next time,” “I’m not
major to take, what kind of career path
going to let this pull me down,” “I can change is ahead of them, and if they would ever
my attitude,” “I don’t have to care what they make something out of themselves. They
think,” “I know I can do better,” and “I’m not felt torn between studying what they like,
stupid; I can get through this.” what they are good at, or what will provide
More often than not, this effort to be them with a stable income in the future.
self-sufficient conflicted with their sense Two students described their dilemmas:
of self-image and self-worth. One student My current major is psychology, yet I
professed that asking the instructor to make still have no idea what I want to do. It is
adjustments was “a burden on other people,” interesting to me and I am good at it, but
I’m not sure I’m not sure I can turn it into
whereas another student perceived asking for
a career. It is definitely one of the things
help as being “everybody’s burden and that’s

218 Journal of College Student Development

College Students With Disabilities

I lie awake worrying about. being “undisciplined” and “unmotivated.”

I’m interested in science. I’ve known this, Students who took medications also had to
so why don’t I major in science? Because learn to manage their time with all the doctors’
I’m terrified. I’m scared of taking the appointments; as one student explained,
hard classes. I’m scared to be last place. “I juggled from primary care, neurologist,
I’ve never really, really struggled to get endocrinologist, and so on. I still kept up
good grades. I know I’m smart and I with schoolwork but did not do much else.
realized quite heavily now that I am selling
Eat, sleep, homework, sleep. My life is pretty
myself short.
bland.” Others contended that they “stayed
The sense of uncertainty tends to generate up all night stressing over bad grades” and
a vicious cycle for students to ruminate over that they decided it was better to sleep over
their workloads in class, their major selection, it than to go to class. One student recounted,
and their health and mental condition—a “I felt depressed about getting a ‘D’ so I
pattern of negativity that appears like an didn’t go to class today. . . . I figured going
impossible escape: today wouldn’t change my grade but sleeping
I’ve self-handicapped myself to the extreme longer would benefit more.” In the end, most
in my situation. My fear is that I will spend students justified that as long as they promised
the rest of my life in a miserable job that themselves they would try harder the following
I hate because I was too chicken-shit to week, it was justifiable to skip this week’s class:
pursue something that interests me. I feel so “I missed all my classes this week but I’m going
stuck and I can’t blame anyone but myself. to all my classes next week.” Interestingly, four
I hate my class but I still have to go because participants said they de-stress themselves by
I don’t know what to do with my life.
going to the gym, running, playing basketball,
Students further stressed out about their or doing some kind of physical exercises.
lack of time management skills. They debated Other time mismanagement issues that
about not having enough time to study or do students dealt with included selecting a class
their homework, yet they spent an inordinate time that they could manage. For example, two
amount of time “watching television and students registered for a course that only met
hanging out with friends,” not to mention once a week and started at 7:00 p.m. These
several students had full- and parttime jobs, students complained that they did not realize
family commitments, and personal interests to how challenging it was to sit through a long
attend to. When it came to handing in work class period with only a few short breaks, and
on time, students also seemed to have a harder sometimes the instructor even forgot to give
time managing consolidated deadlines when them one. Initially, they thought that meeting
multiple assignments were due at the same once a week would free up more time for other
time. When faced with such a predicament, activities, including studying for other classes.
students rationalized that it was better to skip What they did not anticipate was the challenge
class so they could complete their work and of attending late night classes and the demand
later “borrow the notes from someone.” of keeping up with assignments when there
Waking up for classes was another stressor was less contact with the instructor.
for many of these students. As mentioned Social Stigmatization. A major stressor that
before, some of them had a harder time overlapped at multifaceted levels in different
waking up due to the medications they were contexts was the social stigma that students
taking whereas others blamed themselves for with disabilities experience on a daily basis.

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 Hong

Students felt being resented by their peers for When I thought of the word “disability,” all
getting “special treatment” from the instructor. I could think of was people in wheelchairs,
One student with learning and mental issues blind people, deaf people—people with
visible servable handicaps. I still had
expressed her distress in this manner: “They
an irrational fear of being sent away, of
think I’m finding excuses because they cannot being told I was just being dramatic. For
‘see’ my disability. You think I want to use that reason, I try not to use the disability
accommodation!” Another female student service on campus.
who had attention issues wrote, “I try to hide
Many of the participants did not have a
everything, like putting on a fake smile so no positive experience with the HWC because
one will notice I’m different.” “it did not help at all.” Primarily, one
Students struggled with a heightened subtheme consistently emerged: students
sense of self-consciousness. They felt burdened generally felt intimidated by the personnel.
by this “deceptive” image of being a college
student while carrying the label of a disabled Intimidations by Personnel. Students
person. Their fear of being ostracized by their expressed rather negative encounters in their
friends if they were exposed of their condition interactions with the disability personnel who
far outweighed the importance of getting good assessed their eligibility status. Fourteen out
grades. One student recounted, “I want to of 16 participants said they were intensely
hang out with my friends—that’s why I came uncomfortable whenever they had to visit the
to college—but if they found out what I have, HWC. One student recounted:
they would be embarrassed to hang out with When I first met with [name deleted],
me. . . . I do not want to be feared or singled she was cold and clinical. It was as if she
out. I do not want disability services because was bored or annoyed with my presence.
my friends are more important to me.” I understand people can have off days, so
I tried not to get too ruffled about it. But
Quality of Support Services it happened the next semester the same
way. During the interview, she expected
In one way or another, all the participants me to know the exact accommodations I
had sought services at the campus office of needed. I had never used a service such as
disability known as the “Health and Wellness this one and had no idea how to answer
Center” (HWC). They liked the name because her. I didn’t know what was available, and I
it did not have a “disability” connotation wasn’t sure what would be effective for me.
associated with it. A few students felt that She refused to list the various options, and
the HWC was helpful because it taught them I was at a loss for most of the appointment.
A lot of time seemed to pass with her
“how to manage stress and ways to cope.”
watching me expectantly as I fidgeted in
Another student wrote, “I feel better knowing my chair awkwardly. I didn’t know what
that someone on campus knows about my she wanted me to say, and she offered
disability and what I’m going through.” At very little guidance. It left me feeling
the same time, a large number of students said vulnerable, stupid, and embarrassed.
they avoided the HWC because they wanted She asked me what accommodations would
to get away from “being a disabled student help me with my disability. Quite frankly,
like in high school.” Accordingly, students I had no idea how to answer that question.
gave themselves “permission for a fresh start” A lot of my illness is how I cope with my
and tried to stay away from needing disability symptoms, and that can change from day
services at all costs: to day. I could not think of anything that

220 Journal of College Student Development

College Students With Disabilities

would lessen pain or clear up my confusion awareness, many of them questioned their
when I experienced mental fog. It was like own judgment on whether they even needed
pulling teeth trying to get her to help me accommodation in the first place. Students
think of things that would help. We finally
delayed asking for help because they wanted
settled on absentee leniency for the days I
had breakthrough pain [and] note-taking to “prove” that they could perform like any
help for when I had mental fog or my college students. Many also were confused about
wrist/hand joints were too painful/slow procedures and paperwork involved in obtaining
to keep up with the lecture. It was all such services. Consequently, instead of utilizing the
an awful experience. I wished I never had disability services to support their needs in a
to see her again but then I needed the timely manner, students decided to go with their
accommodation letter each semester. gut, usually by ignoring their struggles until the
Many students felt conflicted about using crucial minute when an assignment was due.
disability support services on campus because One student evoked, “Toward the end of the
they did not know how to be a self-advocate semester, around 10th week, I finally went to
or what to advocate for. Students confessed get help . . . but it was too late.”
they did not understand who were eligible for
services and what kind of services they would diSCuSSion
obtain, thus making it even more bewildering.
One student rationalized: The manner in which students with disabilities
maneuver their college experiences is a
If I think I can handle the class with any
absences, confusion, and other symp- multilayered, multifaceted, and complex
toms, I will lean towards skipping the phenomenon. This exploratory study examined
disability services altogether. The process/ 16 college students with disabilities concerning
confrontation generally makes me feel so their experiences through the use of reflective
vulnerable and uneasy that I am willing journaling. Findings exposed critical barriers
to put up with many consequences in students with disabilities encountered on
order to bypass the whole thing. If I one campus. An honest evaluation of these
find that I need the service, I’ll make an
barriers and frustrations could hopefully help
appointment. However, this has back-
fired before. I have found that I will higher education administrators improve their
delude myself on complete accident just service delivery and programmatic support
to avoid discomfort. This is not a good for students with disabilities. The themes
thing when I actually find that I need the and subthemes found in this study reinforced
accommodations. In past semesters I have previous findings concerning students’ lack
waited until I was over my head before I of self-determination (self-advocacy, self-
admitted to needing the disability service. awareness, and self-regulation) and why some
I’ve tried to convince myself otherwise,
students seek disability support services while
but it usually ends up with me figuring
that I can tough it through, which, others do not (Duquette, 2000; Greenbaum
unfortunately, is not always the case. I’m et al., 1995; Marshak, Van Wieren, Raeke
still not exactly sure what [the HWC Ferrell, Swiss, & Dugan, 2010). As reiterated
director] wants from me when I go in. in the literature, students with disabilities,
like those in this study, are often not aware
Participants did not always understand the of their functional limitations (lack self-
impact their disability had on their academic awareness) and, hence, do not know how to
demands. Because of students’ lack of self- advocate for specific accommodations that

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 Hong

will support their needs (lack self-advocacy). opportunity they had to break out of their
In addition, students in this study struggled diagnostic cycle and establish a “new” identity
with whether it was worthwhile to disclose for themselves and within their social circle.
their condition given the unpredictability of Students also did not perceive the person-
instructors’ responses and the uncertainty of nel who worked at the campus disability
the effectiveness of such support. office as approachable or helpful. Students
Another considerable barrier identified felt these personnel did not appreciate how
by participants was their negative encounters difficult it was to make the transition from
with faculty members. Despite the written high school to college and how uncomfortable
instructions on the accommodation letter it was to describe one’s limitations and to ask
requesting that faculty be discreet about for help. Students also felt that the disability
making adjustments, students did not feel pro- personnel did not appreciate their effort in
fessors were sensitive to keeping their disability attempting to ask for help. Many students did
confidential. They saw their professors as cynical not know what support services were available,
and skeptical adults who did not trust them what their legal rights were, or how to respond
when they claimed they had a disability and to the questions posed to them. Students with
needed academic adjustments. Some students learning disabilities and attention deficits had
perceived their professors as deliberately the most difficulty explaining their limitations
lowering expectations and embarrassing them or selecting the accommodations they needed.
in front of the class. Students yearned to be None of the participants spoke about the
accepted as contributing members of the class academic adjustments made for them and
or in team projects but, more often than not, whether or not they were helpful or effective.
they felt singled out by their own teachers Overall, the two consistent findings in this
and by peers once they revealed they have a study are students’ lack of self-awareness and
disability. They felt conflicted between being self-advocacy skills. These two components of
a “disabled” student and wanting to be treated self-determination are deemed most critical
like a “normal” student. in Tinto’s (1975) model of integration and
Findings from this study demonstrated eventual persistence through higher education.
that many college students with disabilities In each of the subthemes revealed above
struggle with the social threat of being judged (faculty perceptions, fit of advisors, stressors,
or treated differently by their peers and their quality of support services), these students
instructors. At the same time, these students with disabilities struggled with identifying
had a strong inner drive to rely on themselves who they are, what they want, what their
in demonstrating their academic competency strengths and limitations are, and what they
and in resisting special treatment at all possible should or need to do to navigate the system
costs. Students deemed having a “clean start” and meet the demands of the faculty. Despite
in college as a high priority and a primary their disabilities, these students longed to be
motivator for not disclosing their condition, integrated like everyone else and to live up
especially after a trailing negative history to the traditional expectations of a college
of being labeled as “special.” For example, student. It is therefore important to study
several students reminisced about having to each “barrier” assiduously and in alignment
take exams in a different room to being pulled with one’s institutional infrastructure in order
out of class for special education services. to alleviate the frustrations and anxieties these
Subsequently, being in college was the first students experience.

222 Journal of College Student Development

College Students With Disabilities

iMPliCAtionS FoR PRACtiCe institutions fail to take advantage of the

benefits of quality advising to establish a
This study attempted to give college students positive relationship with students (Habley
with disabilities a way to voice their concerns & McClanahan, 2004). Programs on faculty
regarding barriers toward successful integration development should seek to increase disability
and involvement in higher education. Their awareness, rights, and obligations instead of
journals thematically revealed that both changing attitudes (Hong, Slekar, & Himmel,
academic and nonacademic factors impacted 2010). In addition, examples of instructional
their college experiences, which inevitably adaptations, campus support resources,
translate into their academic prospects for and utilization of assistive technologies
success. These findings have clear implications should be highly publicized and promoted.
for higher education administrators, faculty, A formal, structured program, beyond the
and support personnel as they try to develop traditional faculty orientation, should be
and implement integrative programs that embedded in professional development on
aim at creating a socially inclusive, culturally how to advise students who are at risk.
supportive, and academic challenging environ- Advising should include building on skills
ment for all students. such as time management, learning strategies,
Currently, there is a need for a compre- organization, self-advocacy, communication,
hensive model of service delivery to increase social interaction, peer mentoring, and so
the persistence and graduation of college forth. Furthermore, mentoring programs that
students with disabilities, but the evidence address mental and social challenges, such as
to evaluate a model is still very limited. alcohol and drug abuse, medication addiction,
Even more problematic is that, with regard finance management, depression and stress
to postsecondary outcomes of students with coping skills, could provide faculty with
disabilities, there are very limited data on additional avenues to send students for help
their rate of success as well as what fixed (Trammel & Hathaway, 2007). Institutions
or malleable variables are associated with should consider utilizing the “Program
persistence and graduation. Based on Tinto’s Standards and Performance Indicators” set
(1975) integration model, if institutions do forth by the Association for Higher Education
not find a way to help students with disabilities and Disability to improve campus disability
access key support services, such as counseling, services and models of best practices.
priority registration, testing accommodations Another critical implication is to enhance
and self-advocacy interventions, these students instructors’ discreetness in handling disability
are less likely to persist in college and more paperwork and in accepting students who
likely to resort to a premature departure. are traditionally not college bound. The
Findings indicated that instructors and notion of students with legitimate need for
academic advisors are a major factor in accommodation should not be used as a
enhancing or frustrating the outcomes of gauge for whether or not they are going to be
college students with disabilities. According to successful in college. Instead, such requests
the National Academic Advising Association, should be championed as acts of self-advocacy,
one of the key factors impacting retention is self-determination, and equal opportunity.
the quality of interaction a student has with Another issue students in this study faced
a concerned adult on campus (Habley & was the limited number of hours they could
McClanahan, 2004). Unfortunately, many sign up for assistance at the tutoring centers.

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 Hong

Students were permitted only a maximum of research, it is worthwhile to start paying

2 hours of tutoring per week for each subject. careful attention on how to support and retain
Students conveyed that they preferred to students with disabilities as they continue to
go to the tutoring centers (writing, math, be admitted into higher education and need
science) to get help rather than be identified support from faculty and student affairs.
as someone who has a disability and needs Finally, unless higher education become more
accommodations. Perhaps it would be helpful vigilant in targeting new and effective ways
to investigate further how students with a for improving student services beyond the
disability can access tutoring centers on a more basic federal mandates, this group of students
frequent basis or even be given priority to sign will continue to encounter frustrations and
up for available times. negativity, inevitably leading to premature
Finally, in order to help students with departure, increased financial burden, and
disabilities make better use of the campus unfavorable employment outcomes.
support services, the office of disability Alas, one student wrapped up her college
could seek feedback from students who had experience in these words:
participated in their programs through a She steps up to the edge
campus-wide questionnaire and/or focus The edge of chances
groups. A student profile could be created She’s a stranger here
to assist other administrative offices to She’s about to take the plunge
become more informed on how best to But something holds her back
improve programmatic innovations for transi- She’s trying har d not to fall
tion, access, and retention for students Her mind is filled with racing thoughts
She can’t give them up
who are at risk.
Though her chance is there
She’s feeling like giving up
ConCluSionS Giving into the world
Closing her eyes
This study illuminated valuable insights into She feels the weight
how college students lived their day-to-day Not knowing where it came from
experience as a person with a disability. The But it’s there
majority of the barriers that students faced She falls to her knees
Her eyes shut tight
were either external or internal. External factors
She sees a world
included faculty perceptions and dispositions A world unknown
toward them, peer image and social pressure, A place with no escape
treatment by disability service personnel, and No place to run to hide
advisors’ knowledge on advising. The internal Everyone is filled with lies and deceit
barriers involved their desire to be treated This isn’t a world she knows
as “normal,” their need to be independent, How to change
and their struggle to challenge themselves to How to make this different
Tears stream down her face
complete a higher education degree in a timely
This is the world
fashion like their peers. We’re becoming.
Even though findings from this study
were not entirely surprising, based on previous

224 Journal of College Student Development

College Students With Disabilities

Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Barbara S. S. Hong, Associate Professor of Special
Education, Senior Fulbright Scholar, The Pennsylvania State University, Division of Education, Human Development,
& Social Sciences, Altoona College, 3000 Ivyside Park, Altoona, PA 16601; [email protected]

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