20

Photonic Materials

20–10 A beam of photons strikes a material at an angle of 25 to the normal of the surface.
Which, if any, of the materials listed in Table 20–1 could cause the beam of photons
to continue at an angle of 18 to 20 from the normal of the material’s surface?

Solution: Assuming that the beam originally is passing through air or a vacuum,
n  sin uisin ut  sin 25°sin b
To exit at an angle of 18:
n  sin 25°sin 18°  0.4226 0.3090  1.367
To exit at an angle of 20:
n  sin 25°sin 20°  0.4226 0.3420  1.236
In Table 20–1, only ice, water, and Teflon have an index of refraction
between 1.236 and 1.367.

20–11 A laser beam passing through air strikes a 5-cm thick polystyrene block at a 20
angle to the normal of the block. By what distance is the beam displaced from its
original path when the beam reaches the opposite side of the block?

Solution: The index of refraction for polystyrene is 1.60. Since the incident angle
ui is 20, the angle of the beam as it passes through the polystyrene block
will be:
n  sin uisin ut  sin 20°sin ut  1.6
sin ut  0.3420 1.6  0.2138
ut  12.35°

215
216 The Science and Engineering of Materials Instructor’s Solution Manual

0.725 cm

20° 12.35°

5 cm

From the sketch, we can find the displacement of the beam expected if no
refraction occurs:
tan 20°  x 5 or x  5 tan 20°  15210.36402  1.820 cm
We can also find the displacement of the beam when refraction occurs:
tan 12.35°  y 5 or y  5 tan 12.35°  15210.21892  1.095 cm
Because of refraction, the beam is displaced 1.820  1.095  0.725 cm
from its path had no refraction occurred.

20–12 A beam of photons passes through air and strikes a soda-lime glass that is part of an
aquarium containing water. What fraction of the beam is reflected by the front face
of the glass? What fraction of the remaining beam is reflected by the back face of
the glass?

Solution: The fraction of the beam reflected by the front face is:
nglass  nair 2
1.50  1.00 2
Ra b a b  0.04
nglass  nair 1.50  1.00
The fraction of the remaining beam reflected from the back face of the
glass is:
nwater  nglass 2
1.33  1.50 2
Ra b a b  0.0036
nwater  nglass 1.33  1.50

20–13 We find that 20% of the original intensity of a beam of photons is transmitted from
air through a 1-cm thick-material having a dielectric constant of 2.3 and back into
air. Determine the fraction of the beam that is (a) reflected at the front surface, (b)
absorbed in the material, and (c) reflected at the back surface. (d) Determine the lin-
ear absorption coefficient of the photons in the material.

Solution: The dielectric material has an index of refraction of:

m  1  12.3  1.5166

(a) The fraction of the beam reflected at the front surface is:
nmaterial  nair 2 1.5166  1.00 2
Ra b a b  0.04214
nmaterial  nair 1.5166  1.00

(b) The fraction transmitted through the material is 0.2; therefore the linear
absorption coefficient of the materials is:
It Io  11  R2 2 exp 1ax2
 11  0.042142 2 exp 3a 11 cm2 4  0.20
 CHAPTER 20 Photonic Materials 217

exp 1a2  0.21798

a  ln 10.217982  1.523
a  1.523 cm1
After reflection, the intensity of the remaining beam is
Iafter reflection  1  0.04215  0.95785Io
Before reflection at the back surface, the intensity of the beam is:
Iafter absorption  0.95785 exp 3 11.5232112 4  0.2089Io
The fraction of the beam that is absorbed is therefore
Iabsorbed  0.95785  0.2089  0.74895Io

(c) The fraction of the beam reflected off the back surface is:
Io  Ireflected, front  Iabsorbed  Ireflected, back  Itransmitted
Io  0.04214Io  0.74895Io  Ireflected, back  0.20Io
Ireflected, back  0.0089Io

(d) See part b; a  1.523 cm1

20–14 A beam of photons in air strikes a composite material consisting of a 1-cm-thick

sheet of polyethylene and a 2-cm-thick sheet of soda-lime glass. The incident beam
is 10 from the normal of the composite. Determine the angle of the beam with
respect to the normal as the beam (a) passes through the polyethylene, (b) passes
through the glass, and (c) passes through air on the opposite side of the composite.
(d) By what distance is the beam displaced from its original path when it emerges
from the composite?

Solution: The figure shows how the beam changes directions, and the amount that
the beam is displaced from the normal to the point of entry, as it passes
through each interface.

0.529

10°
glass
polyethylene
0.351
γ = 6.69

10°
t = 6.6

(a) As the beam passes from air into polyethylene (which has an index of
refraction of 1.52),
sin ut  sin ui n  sin 10°1.52  0.1736 1.52  0.1142
ut  6.6°
218 The Science and Engineering of Materials Instructor’s Solution Manual

(b) When the beam enters the glass (which has an index of refraction of 1.50),
the new angle is:
ngnPE  sin ut sin g
1.50 1.52  sin 6.6°sin g
sin g  0.11647 or g  6.69°

(c) When the beam emerges from the glass back into air, the final angle is:
nair ng  sin gsin x
1.00 1.50  sin 6.69°sin x
sin x  0.1747 or x  10°

(d) When the beam reaches the polyethylene-glass interface, it has been
displaced:
tan 6.6°  x 1 cm or x  0.116 cm
When the beam then reaches the glass-air interface, it has been displaced
an additional:
tan 6.69°  y2 cm or y  0.235 cm
The total displacement is therefore x  y  0.351 cm. If the beam had not
been refracted, the displacement would have been:
tan 10°  z 3 cm or z  0.529 cm
The beam has therefore been displaced 0.529  0.351  0.178 cm from
its original path.

20–15 A glass fiber (n  1.5) is coated with Teflon™. Calculate the maximum angle that a
beam of light can deviate from the axis of the fiber without escaping from the inner
portion of the fiber.

Solution: To keep the beam from escaping from the fiber, the angle  must be 90.
Therefore the maximum angle that the incoming beam can deviate from
the fiber axis is:
nteflon nglass  sin uisin ut
1.35 1.50  sin a /sin 90°
sin ui  0.90 or ui  64.16°
The maximum angle is therefore 90  64.16  25.84.

20–16 A material has a linear-absorption coefficient of 591 cm1 for photons of a particu-
lar wavelength. Determine the thickness of the material required to absorb 99.9% of
the photons.

Solution: IIo  0.001  exp 1ax2  exp 1591x2

ln 10.0012  6.9078  591x
x  0.0117 cm
 CHAPTER 20 Photonic Materials 219

20–25 Calcium tungstate (CaWO4) has a relaxation time of 4 106 s. Determine the time
required for the intensity of this phosphorescent material to decrease to 1% of the
original intensity after the stimulus is removed.

Solution: ln 1IIo 2  t t
ln 10.012  t 4 106 s
4.605  t 4 106
t  18.4 106 s

20–26 The intensity of a phosphorescent material is reduced to 90% of its original intensity
after 1.95 107 s. Determine the time required for the intensity to decrease to 1%
of its original intensity.

Solution: We can use the information in the problem to find the relaxation time for
the material.
ln 1IIo 2  ln 10.92  11.95 107 2 t
0.1054  11.95 107 2 t
t  1.85 106 s
Then we can find the time required to reduce the intensity to IIo  0.01:
ln 10.012  t 1.85 106
4.605  t 1.85 106
t  8.52 106 s

20–30 By appropriately doping yttrium aluminum garnet with neodymium, electrons are
excited within the 4f energy shell of the Nd atoms. Determine the approximate
energy transition if the Nd : YAG serves as a laser, producing a wavelength of 532
nm. What color would the laser beam possess?

Solution: The energy transition is:

16.62 1034 J # s213 1010 cm /s2
E  2.333 eV
1532 109 m21100 cm /m211.6 1019 J/ eV2
The wavelength of 532 nm is 5320 Å or 5.32 105 cm. This wavelength
corresponds to a color of green.

20–31 Determine whether an incident beam of photons with a wavelength of 7500 Å will
cause luminescence in the following materials (see Chapter 18).
(a) ZnO (b) GaP (c) GaAs (d) GaSb (e) PbS

Solution: The incident beam must have an energy greater than the energy gap of the
material in order for luminescence to occur. The energy of the incident
photons is:
16.62 1034 J # s213 1010 cm /s2
E  1.655 eV
17500 108 cm211.6 1019 J/eV2
220 The Science and Engineering of Materials Instructor’s Solution Manual

From Chapter 18 and literature values, the energy gaps of the five materi-
als are:
ZnO: 3.2 eV
GaP: 2.24 eV
GaAs: 1.35 eV
GaSb: 0.67 eV
PbS: 0.37 eV
Consequently the photons, having energy 1.655 eV, will be able to excite
electrons in GaAs, GaSb, and PbS; however electrons will not be excited
in ZnO and GaP.

20–32 Determine the wavelength of photons produced when electrons excited into the con-
duction band of indium-doped silicon (a) drop from the conduction band to the
acceptor band and (b) then drop from the acceptor band to the valence band (see
Chapter 18).

Solution: The acceptor energy in Si–In is 0.16 eV; the energy gap in pure Si is
1.107 eV. The difference between the energy gap and the acceptor energy
level is 1.107  0.16  0.947 eV.

(a) The wavelength of photons produced when an electron drops from the
conduction band to the acceptor band, an energy difference of 0.947 eV, is:
16.62 1034 J # s213 1010 cm /s2
l  hcE   13.11 105 cm
10.947 eV211.6 1019 J/eV2

(b) The wavelength of photons produced when the electron subsequently

drops from the acceptor band to the valence band, an energy difference of
0.16 eV, is:
16.62 1034 J # s213 1010 cm /s2
l  hcE   77.58 105 cm
10.16 eV211.6 1019 J/eV2

20–33 Which, if any, of the semiconducting compounds listed in Chapter 18 are capable of
producing an infrared laser beam?

Solution: Infrared radiation has a wavelength of between 102 and 104 cm. Thus
the semiconducting compound must have an energy gap that lies between
the energies corresponding to these wavelength limits:
16.62 1034 J # s213 1010 cm /s2
Eg   0.0124 eV
1102 cm211.6 1019 J/eV2
16.62 1034 J # s213 1010 cm /s2
Eg   1.24 eV
1104 cm211.6 1019 J/eV2
Of the semiconducting compounds in Table 18–8, the following have
energy gaps between 0.0124 and 1.24 eV and can therefore act as infrared
lasers:
InSb InAs PbS PbTe CdSnAs2
 CHAPTER 20 Photonic Materials 221

20–34 What type of electromagnetic radiation (ultraviolet, infrared, visible) is produced

from (a) pure germanium and (b) germanium doped with phosphorous? (See
Chapter 18.)

Solution: (a) For pure germanium, the energy gap is 0.67 eV; the wavelength is:
16.62 1034 J # s213 1010 cm /s2
l  1.853 104 cm
10.67 eV211.6 1019 J/eV2
This corresponds to the infrared region of the spectrum.

(b) For Ge doped with phosphorous, the energy gap is 0.012 eV.
16.62 1034 J # s213 1010 cm /s2
l  1.034 102 cm
10.012 eV211.6 1019 J/eV2
This wavelength is also in the infrared region.

20–35 Which, if any, of the dielectric materials listed in Chapter 18 would reduce the
speed of light in air from 3 1010 cm/s to less than 0.5 1010 cm/s?

Solution: To reduce the speed of light the required amount, the index of refraction
must be greater than:
n  c
 3 1010 cm /s0.5 1010 cm /s  6
Consequently the dielectric constant  of the material must be greater
than:
  n2  62  36
From Table 18–9, only H2O, BaTiO3, and TiO2 have dielectric constants
greater than 36.

20–36 What filter material would you use to isolate the Ka peak of the following x-rays:
iron, manganese, nickel? Explain your answer.

Solution: Iron: use a manganese filter. The absorption edge for Mn is 1.896 Å,
which lies between the iron Ka peak of 1.937 Å and the Kb peak of
1.757 Å.
Manganese: use a chromium filter. The absorption edge for Cr is 2.070 Å,
which lies between the manganese Ka peak of 2.104 Å and the Kb peak of
1.910 Å.
Nickel: use a cobalt filter. The absorption edge for Co is 1.608 Å, which
lies between the nickel Ka peak of 1.660 Å and the Kb peak of 1.500 Å.

20–37 What voltage must be applied to a tungsten filament to produce a continuous spec-
trum of x-rays having a minimum wavelength of 0.09 nm?

hc 16.62 1034 J # s213 1010 cm /s2

Solution: E   2.206 1015 J
l 10.09 109 m21100 cm /m2
E  12.206 1015 J2  11.6 1019 J/eV2  13,790 V
222 The Science and Engineering of Materials Instructor’s Solution Manual

20–38 A tungsten filament is heated with a 12,400 V power supply. What is (a) the wave-
length and (b) frequency of the highest-energy x-rays that are produced?

Solution: E  112,400 eV211.6 1019 J/eV2  1.984 1015 J

16.62 1034 J # s213 1010 cm /s2
1.984 1015 J  hcl 
l

(a) l  1.00 108 cm  1.00 Å  0.100 nm

(b)
 cl  3 1010 cm /s1.00 108 cm  3.0 1018 s1

20–39 What is the minimum voltage required to produce Ka x-rays in nickel?

Solution: The wavelength of Ka x-rays in nickel is 1.66 Å  1.66 108 cm

16.62 1034 J # s213 1010 cm /s2
E  7,477 V
11.66 108 cm211.6 1019 J/eV2

20–40 Based on the characteristic x-rays that are emitted, determine the difference in
energy between electrons in tungsten for (a) the K and L shells, (b) the K and M
shells, and (c) the L and M shells.

Solution: The energy difference between the K and L shells produces Ka x-rays. The
wavelength of these x-rays is 0.211 Å:
16.62 1034 J # s213 1010 cm /s2
E 1K  L2   58,830 eV
10.211 108 cm211.6 1019 J/eV2
The energy difference between the K and M shells produces Kb x-rays.
The wavelength of these x-rays is 0.184 Å:
16.62 1034 J # s213 1010 cm /s2
E 1K  M2   67,459 eV
10.184 108 cm211.6 1019 J/eV2
The energy difference between the L and M shells produces La x-rays. The
wavelength of these x-rays is 1.476 Å:
16.62 1034 J # s213 1010 cm /s2
E 1L  M2   8,410 eV
11.476 108 cm211.6 1019 J/eV2

20–41 Figure 20–22 shows the results of an x-ray fluorescence analysis, in which the
energy of x-rays emitted from a material are plotted relative to the wavelength of
the x-rays. Determine (a) the accelerating voltage used to produce the exciting
x-rays and (b) the identity of the elements in the sample.

Solution: (a) The highest energy x-rays produced have a wavelength (lswl) of about
0.5 Å. The accelerating voltage is therefore:
16.62 1034 J # s213 1010 cm /s2
E  24,825 V
10.5 108 cm2 11.6 1019 J/eV2

(b) The wavelengths of the characteristic x-rays are listed below. By compar-
ison with the wavelengths of characteristic x-rays from different elements,
Table 20–2, we can match the observed x-rays with the x-rays of the
elements to obtain the composition of the sample.
 CHAPTER 20 Photonic Materials 223

observed expected element

1.4 Å 1.392 Å — Cu Kb
1.55 1.542 — Cu Ka
1.9 1.910 — Mn Kb
2.1 2.104 — Mn Ka
6.7 6.768 — Si Kb
7.1 7.125 — Si Ka
The alloy must contain copper, manganese, and silicon.

20–42 Figure 20–23 shows the energies of x-rays produced from an energy-dispersive
analysis of radiation emitted from a specimen in a scanning electron microscope.
Determine the identity of the elements in the sample.

Solution: The energy of the first observed peak is about 2200 eV; the wavelength
corresponding to this energy is:
16.62 1034 J # s213 1010 cm /s2
l  hcE 
12200 eV211.6 1019 J/eV2
 5.642 108 cm  5.642 Å
Similarly we can find the wavelength corresponding to the energies of the
other characteristic peaks. The table below lists the energies and calcu-
lated wavelengths for each peak and compares the wavelength to the char-
acteristic radiation for different elements, from Table 20–2.
energy calculated l expected l element
2,200 eV 5.642 Å 5.724 Å — Mo L
5,250 2.364 2.291 — Cr K
6,000 2.069 2.084 — Cr K
7,000 1.773 1.790 — Co K
7,800 1.591 1.621 — Co K
17,300 0.717 0.711 — Mo K
19,700 0.630 0.632 — Mo K
The sample must contain molybdenum, chromium, and cobalt.

20–43 Figure 20–24 shows the intensity of the radiation obtained from a copper x-ray
generating tube as a function of wavelength. The accompanying table shows the
linear absorption coefficient for a nickel filter for several wavelengths. If the Ni
filter is 0.005 cm thick, calculate and plot the intensity of the transmitted x-ray
beam versus wavelength.

Solution: The intensity after absorption is

IIo  exp 1ax2  exp 10.005a2
We can then select various wavelengths of x-rays and, from the table,
determine the  for each wavelength. From our equation, we can then cal-
culate the IIo expected for each wavelength. Finally we can multiply IIo
by the initial intensity, obtained from Figure 20–23. For l  0.711 Å,
these calculations are:
a  422 cm1 IfIo  exp 3 1422210.0052 4  0.121
Io  72 If  10.12121722  8.7
224 The Science and Engineering of Materials Instructor’s Solution Manual

Kα
Kρ
100 Unfiltered

Intensity %
80

60
Kα
10 Filtered

1 2
Wavelength

l m Io IIo If
1
0.711 Å 422 cm 72 0.121 8.7
1.436 2900 90 5.04 107 0.000045
1.542 440 120 0.110 13.3
1.659 543 88 0.066 5.8
1.79 670 86 0.035 3.0
1.937 830 80 0.016 1.3
2.103 1030 75 0.006 0.4
2.291 1300 68 0.0015 0.1
The graph compares the original intensity to the final, filtered intensity of
the x-ray beam. Note that the characteristic Kb peak from the copper is
eliminated, while much of the Ka peak is transmitted.