Compiled By:

Engr. Ma. Elena A. Noriega

1
 Republic of the Philippines
POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES
Office of the Vice President for Academic Affairs
College of Engineering
Electronics Engineering (ECE) Department

COURSE GUIDE
I. Course Code: ECEN 30014
II. Course Title: ELECTRONICS DEVICES AND CIRCUITS
III. Course Overview

A. Course Description

The course deals with introduction to quantum mechanics of solid state electronics,
diodes and transistors characteristics and models ( Bipolar Junction Transistors
and Field Effect Transistor ), diode and transistor circuits its application, biasing
techniques, small signal analysis, transistor amplifiers and switches.

B. Course Learning Outcomes

At the end of the course, the student should be able to

1. Explain the basic concept of atomic theory and apply it to the atomic
structure of Conductor, Insulator and Semiconductor materials. Compare
characteristics of intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductor materials
2. Discuss the construction, basic operation , characteristics and configuration
of semiconductor diodes, bipolar junction transistors and field effect
transistors.
3. Discuss the basic structure, operation and characteristic curve of bipolar
junction transistor and field effect transistor.
4. Analyze diode and transistor circuits application and solve circuit
characteristics using different techniques and theorem used.
5. Design different configurations, DC biasing and practical application of
transistor and assemble the designed circuit application
6. Design combinational circuits an application of diodes, bipolar transistor,
field effect transistors. Evaluate and compare circuit characteristics based
from theory.

C. Course Topics

To ensure the accomplishment of the learning outcomes, this course will cover
the following topics:

2
 Page
 Semiconductor Diode 5
 Diode Equivalent Circuit 10
 Wave Shaping Circuits 20
 Special Purpose Diode Application 30
 Power Supply 37
 Midterm Examination
 Bipolar Junction Transistor 42
 Small Signal Analysis of Bipolar Junction Transistor 49
 Field Effect Transistor 55
 Small Signal Analysis of Field Effect Transistor 62
 Final Examination

IV. Course Study Guide

This material was prepared for students to be equipped with theoretical and technical
know-how for the subject ECEN 30014 Electronics Devices and Circuits.

It is a self-paced material; hence, please be guided to -

1. Manage time well. Schedule properly reading the material and doing the
activities set. It is targeted that at the end of the semester, all activities set will be
sent back to the Electronics Engineering Department.
2. Focus. Make sure that you do things one at a time. Read the material over and
over until you are able to get the point of the lesson. If some areas are not clear
enough, you can refer to related books, the suggested readings, and videos as it
may deem necessary.
3. Give your best. In doing the assessment task whether formative or summative,
target the highest standards because you are a better student. You have the
knowledge and skills that you need to finish with the quality of work.
4. Submit on time. Once you are finished with the instructional material, it is
expected for you to send back your answers to activities and assessment.
5. Answer Assessment. Copy the question in a separate sheet and show
solutions and answers neatly complete, legibly, and concise. Also, Box in Final
Answers
6. Work independently. It is expected that you work on the material on your own.
You can ask help from others but do your best to do it first.
7. Motivate yourself. Whatever knowledge or skill you are gaining from the course
will definitely help you take a step closer to be an Electronics Engineer. Enjoy
what you are doing and everything else will follow.
8. Reach Out. If any part of the lesson, you need help and guidance, do not
hesitate to contact your respective professors or to the ECE Department.

3
V. Grading System

Class Standing (CS) – Activity Evaluation 70%

Examination 30%
Total 100%

VI. References

1. Godse, A.P. & U.A. Bakshi. (2008). Semiconductor Devices and Circuits.: Technical
Publications Pune.
2. Malvino, A. P. (1999). Electronic principles. New York: McGraw-Hill.
3. Meade, R. L., & Diffenderfer, R. (2007). Foundations of electronics: circuits and devices
(electron flow version). Australia: Thomson/Delmar Learning.

4. Meade, R. L., & Diffenderfer, R. (2004). Foundations of electronics: circuits and devices:
conventional flow version. Clifton Park, NY: Thomson Learning.
5. Nashelsky, L., Boylestad, R. L., Boylestad, R. L., & Boylestad, R. L. (2008). Electronic
devices and circuit theory. Indianapolis, Ind: Prentice Hall.
6. Ponick, W., & Schultz, M. E. (2016). Experiments manual for Grobs basic electronics.
New York , NY: McGraw-Hill.
7. Schultz, M. E. (2007). Grobs basic electronics. Boston: McGraw-Hill Higher Education

VII. Contact Informations

Engr. Ma. Elena A. Noriega [email protected]

ECE Department [email protected]

Prepared By:

Engr. MA. ELENA A. NORIEGA

ECE Faculty

Recommending Approval: Approved:

Engr. GEOFFREY T. SALVADOR Dr. REMEDIOS G. ADO

ECE Faculty & Chairperson Dean, College of Engineering

4
 Course Topic 1: Semiconductor Diode
Overview

Materials are being classified into three categories namely : Conductor materials that electron
can flow easily, an insulator materials hinders the flow of electrons from atom to atom and the
Semiconductor that lies in between a conductor and an insulator. These semiconductor
materials can conduct electricity if applied with heat, voltage or current. Basic devices in
electronics such as Diodes , Transistors and Integrated Circuits are made from this
semiconductor materials.

Learning Objectives

After successful completion of this lesson, you should be able to:

• Classify materials according to its type
• Define a semiconductor material
• Determine the two types of semiconductor materials and its composition
• Identify the different semiconductor devices used in electronics circuits.

Course Materials

Types of Materials:

Materials are being classified as Conductor, Insulator and Semiconductor.

Conductor was discovered by an English dyer and Astronomer

Stephen Gray December 1666 – February 7, 1736.

A conductor is a material in which an electrons can easily move

from atom to atom that is with an applied voltage. These
materials are metals such as gold, silver , steel, copper,
aluminum and brass

Example of Conductor

Insulator is a material that does not allow the flow

of electrons. They oppose current due to lack of
free electrons.

Examples are Glass, Air, Plastic, Rubber,

Porcelain, and Wood. Insulator is use as a
protectors such as heat protector. It is also use
for sound proofing room to lessen reflection of
Example of Insulator 5
sound that causes echo. A better reception of
sound is being heard at a distance.

Electrical Insulator

The figure below shows free electrons in Conductor and Insulator

Free electrons for current flow

Common Conductors and Insulators examples based on classification

Good Conductors Fair Conductors Insulators

Aluminum Silicon Cotton
Copper Carbon Glass
Gold Human Body Paper
Nickel Humid Air Plastic
Platinum Nichrome Porcelain
Silver Salty Water Rubber
Tungsten Water (pure)

Semiconductor was invented by Michael Faraday. The first person to observe a semiconductor
effect in 1833. Faraday observed that the electrical conduction of silver sulfide was increased
with temperature. This is opposite to that observed in a conductor material. Electrical
conduction lies on conductivity of material. This is the property of material that allows the flow
of electricity. It is the reciprocal of Resistivity. A semiconductor material is material in which it
has a property that lies between a conductor and insulator.

6
 Types of Semiconductor Devices
Resistivity and Conductivity of Material

At absolute temperature semiconductor material acts as insulator If this material is being subject
to heat or meaning an increase in temperature the charge carrier start to move from valence
band to Conduction band. There is an energy gap of 1eV that separate the valence band and
conduction band. This is the energy needed to apply on electrons from the valence band to
reach conduction band. Semiconductor materials are silicon (Si), germanium (Ge), Galluim
Arsenide (GaAs), Galluim Phospide (GaP) and Cadmium Sulfide (CdS).

7
Comparison of Materials

Characteristic Conductor Insulator Semiconductor

Low Resistance for High resistance so Between conductor
Resistance
easy current flow current cannot flow and insulator
Atom is tend to Atom is tend to absorb Difficult to free or
release valence valence electron to accept valence
Valence electron and it flow valence layer to make it electron from other
Electron freely from one atom stable and try avoid atom.
to another. electrical of chemical
activity
Conduction and The energy gap is big, so Between conductor
valence band electron cannot easily and insulator.
Energy Band
overlap, electron move.
easily move
Conductivity of Materials

There are two types of semiconductor materials. Intrinsic semiconductor that is also called pure
semiconductor materials classified as Silicon, Germanium, Gallium Arsenide. Another type of
semiconductor materials are Extrinsic Semiconductor Materials in which an impurity atom is
being doped to a pure semiconductor material. Impurity atoms called pentavalent with five (5)
valence electrons in its outermost selves , example are like Arsenic (As), Antimony (Sb),
Phosphorous (P), etc. If this impurity atom is being added to a pure semiconductor material like
silicon, an N-type Material is being formed. Another impurity atom with three valence electron in
its outermost selves called trivalent atom is being doped to a silicon atom will result to what we
call P-type material such atoms are Indium (In), Boron (B), Aluminum (Al), etc. P-type and N-
type materials joined together forms a semiconductor device called Diode.

8
Covalent Bonding of Pure Semiconductor Material and P-Type Extrinsic Semiconductor Material
being doped with impurity Boron atom

Supplemental Informations:

Read:

 Nashelsky, L., Boylestad, R. L., Boylestad, R. L., & Boylestad, R. L. (2008). Electronic
devices and circuit theory. Indianapolis, Ind: Prentice Hall.
 Godse, A.P. & U.A. Bakshi. (2008). Semiconductor Devices and Circuits.: Technical
Publications Pune.

Watch:

Semiconductor Introduction https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=60Qz051rD_w

Extrinsic Semiconductors: Dopants https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OCaDQ6wogKE

Activities/Assessments :

1. Define in your own word semiconductor material.

2. Draw an N-type and P type covalent bonding of atoms using galluim arsenide doped
with pentavalent and trivalent atom.
3. Summarize the three types of materials giving emphasis on their properties.
4. Investigate on different semiconductor devices, its construction
and the inventors involved on these devices.
5. Differentiate the three types of materials
6. Compare the two types of semiconductor materials
7. Sketch the covalent bonding of the P type and N type material

9
 Course Topic 2: Diode Equivalent Circuit

Overview

A diode is one of a semiconductor device formed by joining a P-type and N-type extrinsic
semiconductor materials. There are many applications of diode in electronics circuits. Just to
name a few, this semiconductor device can be used as a rectifier for power supply that is
changing alternating current (AC) to direct current (DC), a switch for digital circuits which
functions as a logic gates, it can also be used as a temperature sensor, an over voltage
protector, a radio demodulation for radio broadcast , a wave shaping circuits called clippers , a
voltage regulator for whatever desired voltage you may used to power other electronics
gadgets. It is very interesting to know how this device operates. A very precious device in
electronics. Let us explore the properties of this device.

Learning Objectives

After successful completion of this lesson, you should be able to:

 Define the diode and explain how electrons and holes flow in the junction.
 Know the diode equivalent circuit and plot its characteristic curve.
 Identify the different types of diode and its function
 Analyse diode operation in circuit and determine circuit characteristics.

Course Material

There are two types of diode according to elements used namely Silicon diode and Germanium
diode. A silicon diode in order to conduct needs a forward voltage of 0.7V while germanium
diode is 0.3V. Below is a sketch of characteristic curve of diode and its actual picture and
symbol.

10
To sketch the characteristic curve of the diode you need to vary voltages on diode and measure
current flowing during forward and reverse bias condition. Use the circuit shown below and
have a table showing measured voltage and current of diode then sketch the graph. Voltage X
axis and Current Y axis.

Special Purpose Diode

Gun diode is a type of diode that consists of two electrodes. This is a negative differential
diode use as low power oscillator to generate microwave signal. It has an N-type
semiconductor made of majority carriers called electrons. The semiconductor device use what
we call Gunn effects. This is a rapid production in fluctuations of current when the voltage
applied to this device exceeds a critical value and that microwave power is generated. Gunn
diodes are used to build oscillators for generating microwaves with frequencies ranging from 10
GHz to THz. It is a Negative Differential Resistance device – also called as transferred electron
device oscillator.

Zener Diode is a special purpose diode use as a voltage regulator. It consist of heavily doped
p-n junction, designed to conduct in the reverse direction, that is in order to operate in reverse
condition a certain specified voltage should be reached .The reverse operation here is what we
called Zener effect .The Zener effect is a type of electrical breakdown that occurs in a reverse-
biased PN junction when the electric field enables tunnelling of electrons from the valence to the
conduction band of a semiconductor, leading to a large number of free minority carriers which
suddenly increase the reverse current.

11
Varactor Diode is also called Varicap diode and it is used to store electric charge. This diode
operates in reverse condition and widely used in radio frequency circuits such as voltage control
oscillator and frequency and phase modulators. It is used to vary capacitance of the circuit with
an application of control voltage.

Laser Diode is an optoelectronic device which change electrical energy into light energy to
produce high intensity light. In P-N junction the diode acts as a laser medium. Instead of
using silicon an alloy of aluminum and gallium arsenide are use. Here electrons are
injected in a diode and they combine with holes and their excess energy is converted into
photons. More incoming electrons produce more photons. Laser is used for fiber
communication, barcode reader , laser pointer, ,CD/DVD/Blu-ray disc reading/recording,
laser printing and scanning and light beam illumination

Construction Symbol

Light Emitting Diode or LED is a semiconductor device that produce light when current flows
through it. Electrons recombine with holes and release energy in form of photons. Color of light
depends on the energy required to cross band gap. LEDs are of different colors. Example is
white light LEDs, this if form by using individual LEDs that emit primary colors red-green and
blue and mix all the color to form white light. Another way of producing it is by using phosphor
material to convert monochromatic light from blue or UV LED to broad-spectrum white light
similar to a fluorescent lamp. Other colors of LEDs is for research. How they are formed.

12
Organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs) In an organic light-emitting diode ,the
electroluminescent material composing the emissive layer of the diode is an organic compound.
The organic material is electrically conductive due to the delocalization of pi electrons causes
by conjugation over all or part of the molecule, and the material therefore functions as an
organic semiconductor. The organic materials can be small organic molecules in a crystalline
phase, or polymers.

The potential advantages of OLEDs include thin, low-cost displays with a low driving voltage,
wide viewing angle, and high contrast and color gamut. Polymer LEDs have the added benefit
of printable and flexible displays. OLEDs have been used to make visual displays for portable
electronic devices such as cellphones, digital cameras, lighting and televisions.

Schottky Diode known as Schottky barrier diode or hot carrier diode, is a semiconductor diode
formed by the junction of a semiconductor with a metal. It has a low forward voltage drop and a
very fast switching action. The semiconductor material is N-type silicon acts as an anode while
the metal acts as a cathode. The diode is used in high frequency rectifier application.

A photodiode is a PN-junction diode that consumes light energy in order to produce electric
current. It is also called photo detector, light detector, and photo sensor. This diode works on
reversed bias condition.

The different materials used for photo diodes are silicon (Si), germanuim (Ge), Galluim
Phospide (GaP), Induim Galluim Aarsenide (lnGaAs) Mercury Cadnium Telluride (MCT,
HgCdTe) etc. The working principle of a photodiode is, when a photon of ample energy strikes

13
the diode, it makes a couple of an electron-hole. Therefore, holes in the region move toward the
anode, and electrons move toward the cathode, and a photocurrent will be generated.

Photodiodes are used in consumer electronics devices such as compact disc players, smoke
detectors, medical devices and the receivers for infrared remote control devices used to control
equipment from televisions to air conditioners. For many applications either photodiodes or
photoconductors may be used.

Diode Equivalent Circuit

Practical Diode

Forward biased condition the diode acts as a closed switch

and during reverse biased it acts as an open switch

For Ideal diode the diode acts as a closed switch with voltage across the diode is zero and
during reverse condition it acts as an open switch.

Another model that can be used for diode is what we called Piecewise Linear Model . This
is obtain from analysis of characteristic curve of diode. Drawing a straight line in the graph we
maybe able to determine the average resistance of diode, that is a change in voltage of diode
divided by the change in current of the diode.

Rave = ΔV/ΔI

Shown below is the characteristic curve and its equivalent model during forward condition. But
during reverse condition the diode is equivalent to a resistor with very high resistance.

14
Piecewise Linear Model

Diode Circuits

Series Circuit Diode Parallel Circuit Diode Combination

15
The Circuit below is an example of a combination of series-parallel diode connection. Same
principle solving series and parallel diode circuit will be applied to solve the circuit.

Power Supply Circuit is a device that supply an electric power It convert electric current from
source to correct voltage, current and frequency to power the load. All power supplies have a
power input connection, which receives energy in the form of electric current from a source, and
one or more power output connections that deliver current to the load. The source power may
come from the electric power grid, such as an electrical outlet, energy storage devices such as
batteries or fuel cells, generators or alternators, solar power converters, or another power
supply. In electronics circuits to operate it we need a power supply in a form of what we called
rectifier. A rectifier is one application of diode that is changing an AC voltage into a DC voltage.
Shown below is a simple rectifier circuit to a load.
.

Operation of Power Supply Circuit :

16
The circuit is what we called a bridge type rectifier power supply which produced half cycle of
the input voltage during positive and negative cycle of the input voltage. With an application of
positive half cycle input voltage , diode D2 and D3 conducts setting these diode in forward bias
condition, and the positive half cycle input voltage developed across the load. The same
happened during negative cycle of input voltage wherein diode D1 and D4 also conducts which
result to a positive cycle of voltage dropped across the load. Capacitor C serve as filter device
to smoothen the output voltage across the load. The charging and discharging effect of
capacitor contributes to change the pulsating DC output to a better DC voltage. More
capacitors connected to the circuit will produce a perfect DC voltage across the load.

Waveforms for Bridge Type Rectifier Circuit

Supplemental Informations:

Read:

 Nashelsky, L., Boylestad, R. L., ,. (2008). Electronic devices and circuit theory.
Indianapolis, Ind: Prentice Hall.

17
Watch:

Diodes https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Fwj_d3uO5g8

How Diodes Work https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Coy-WRCfems

Activities/Assessments

1. Solve all voltages and currents of the circuit given silicon diode and supply voltage of 5V.

2. Name the different diodes and give its functions.

3. Draw the following rectifier circuits and discuss in your own words its operation
a. Half wave Rectifier Circuit
b. Full wave Rectifier Circuit
c. Bridge type Rectifier Circuit

4 .Solve voltages and currents of the following worded circuit problem.

a. A Battery of 20V is connected to 5 pcs silicon diode in series with cut-in voltage (VT) of
0.5V and forward resistance of diode ( RF) of 20 ohms. Using piecewise linear model
determine the current flowing in the circuit and the voltage drop across the three diode
show your solution.
b. Two diodes connected in a parallel are in series with a load of 1k ohms and is
supplied with a battery of 12V. What is the total current flowing in the circuit , the
voltage across the diode and voltage of the load resistor if both diodes are silicon
diodes . Repeat computation if one diode is silicon and other one is germanium. Show
your solution and analysis.

18
5. Compare piecewise linear model of diode to an Ideal Model.

6. Sketch circuit application of diode and discuss how the circuit works

7. Construct circuit for the following diode connection and give its function.

a. Series diode circuit

b. Parallel diode circuit

c. Series- Parallel diode circuit

Activity 2.

To sketch the characteristic curve of the diode you need to vary voltages on diode and measure
current flowing during forward and reverse bias condition. Fill up the table below using circuit
shown and vary battery voltages. Measure voltage and current of diode then sketch the graph.
Voltage X axis and Current Y axis.

Forward Biased Condition

Battery Voltage Diode Voltage Diode Current

0.1
0.2
0.3
0.5
0.7
1.0
2.0
5.0
10.0

Reverse Biased Condition

Battery Voltage Diode Voltage Diode Current

0.1

19
 0.5
1.0
2.0
5.0
10.0
20.0
30.0
40.0

Course Topic 3: Wave shaping Circuits

Overview

A wave shaping circuit is a circuit which change the shape of a waveform. There are
two types of wave shaping circuit namely: Linear wave shaping circuit consist of linear
elements like resistor, capacitor and inductor. This circuit produce an output waveform
different from its input waveform . The parameters such as resistance, capacitance ,
,inductance, frequency, are constant. Meaning they do not change with current or voltage. The
process used here is what we called filtering. Examples are RL and RC Filter circuits. Another
wave shaping circuit is what we called a nonlinear wave shaping circuit. It consist of elements
such as diode and transistor. With regards to this circuit the parameters stated above were not
constant. They vary with current and voltage. An example is a clipper circuit .

Learning Objectives

After successful completion of this lesson, you should be able to:

• Define a wave shaping circuit and know the different types according to elements used.
• Identify the different types of clipper, clamper and voltage multiplier circuit and
analyze the output waveform of the circuit with application of different signal waveform
such as sine wave, square wave , triangular wave and etc.
• Solve circuit problems regarding wave shaping circuits using mathematical analysis.
• Design and assemble the following circuit: clipper, clamper and voltage multiplier.

Course Materials

A wave shaping circuit is a circuit which change the shape of a waveform. There are two types
of wave shaping circuit according to the elements used:

Linear wave shaping circuit that is made of passive elements like resistor , capacitor and
inductor. The parameters describing the elements such as resistance, capacitance inductance ,
frequency and etc. are constant even when voltage and current are being varied. The process
involved in this circuit is called filtering. The circuit used here are filters. And what is a filter? A
filter is a circuit which pass a certain frequencies of signal while rejecting other frequencies.
Filters are classified as follows:

20
 1. Passive Filters - a filter circuit made up of passive elements like resistors, capacitors and
inductors that pass a band of frequencies while rejecting other frequencies to pass
through.
2. Active Filters - a filter circuit composed of active elements such as diodes, transistors
and operational amplifiers in addition to resistors and capacitors and pass a certain
frequencies while rejecting other frequencies to pass through.

`
Passive Filter Active Filter
Passive filters are classified according to frequency response curve namely :
1. Lowpass Filter – a filter circuit that pass all frequencies below the critical frequencies (fc)
while rejecting all frequencies above that critical frequency.
2. Highpass Filter – a filter circuit that pass all frequencies above the critical frequency (fc)
and reject all frequencies above that critical frequency.
3. Bandpass Filter – a filter circuit that reject all frequencies below lower cutoff frequency
and higher cutoff frequency.
4. Bandstop filter or Notch filter – a filter circuit that pass a certain band of frequencies from
lower cutoff frequencies to higher cutoff frequencies.

Shown below is a response curve of different Passive Filters:

The different filter circuits

21
 High Pass RC Filter Low Pass RC Filter

Band Pass RC Filter Band Stop RC Filter

Active filter is a filter made up of operational amplifiers and passive components such as
resistors and capacitors. These filters are classified according to the inventor. They are
butterworth, Chebyshev, Bessel and Elliptic filters. They functions as low pass, high pass, band
pass and notch or band stop filters. The frequency response curve is shown below.

These are example of active filter circuits with the use of an operational amplifier

22
 Active Low Pass Filter Active High Pass Filter

Active Band Pass Filter Active Band Stop Filter

Clipper circuit is a circuit which clips off a portion of the input waveform. Clipper circuits are
classified according to the polarity of the waveform that will be clip off, the type of connection
whether series or parallel and an inclusion of DC bias voltage.

Clipper Circuit input/output waveform

Below are clipper circuits classification

1. Negative Series Clipper Circuit
2. Positive Series Clipper Circuit
3. Negative Parallel/Shunt Clipper Circuit
4. Positive Parallel/Shunt Clipper Circuit
5. Negative Biased Clipper Circuit
6. Positive Biased Clipper Circuits
7. Combination Clipper Circuit

23
Negative Series Clipper is circuit in which the diode is in series with the input signal and clips
off the negative portion of the waveform. During positive half cycle of input, diode conducts.
The output is equal to the input voltage Vm that is when diode is consider ideal VD = 0V and
during negative half cycle diode is open then the output is zero. If the diode is a practical diode
meaning using silicon diode with VD = 0.7V, then the output during positive cycle is equal to
Vm – 0.7V.

Positive Series Clipper circuit is a circuit in which the diode is in series with the input voltage
and that it clips off the positive portion of the input signal. During positive input the diode is
not conducting, the output voltage is zero but during negative cycle the diode is conducting if
diode is consider as ideal diode the output will be equal to the input voltage Vm. For a practical
diode the voltage of diode VD = 0.7V then the output voltage during conducting state will be
equal to Vm – 0.7.

Positive parallel/shunt clipper circuit is a clipper circuit in which the diode is in parallel with the
input and clips off the positive portion of the input signal. During positive half cycle of the input
signal the diode is conducting. For ideal diode the voltage of diode is zero, so the output goes to
zero. During negative half cycle of the input the diode is open so the output voltage is equal to
the input voltage of Vm. If practical diode is considered the output voltage during positive input
is VD = 0.7, then during negative input the output voltage is equal to input voltage of Vm.

24
Negative Parallel/Shunt Clipper circuit is a circuit in which the diode is in parallel with the input
and that it clips off the negative portion of the input signal. During positive half cycle of the input
signal the diode is not conducting and the output voltage is equal to Vm that is when diode is
ideal . With negative half cycle of the input the diode conducts so that the output voltage goes
to zero. If considering practical silicon diode with VD= 0.7V the output voltage during positive
cycle is Vm and during negative cycle the output goes to voltage of the diode VD= 0.7V

Positive parallel/shunt clipper with positive bias VT is a circuit in which the diode is in parallel
with the input and an additional positive bias is connected in series with the diode. The
operation starts when input is positive and above the value of VT the diode will conduct and the
output voltage goes to the value of VT. During negative input the diode is not conducting and
the output voltage is equal to the input of –Vm. If diode is treated as a practical diode with VD =
0.7V, the output voltage for positive input above VT, is VT + 0.7 and during negative input, the
output voltage is equal to –Vm.

Positive parallel / shunt clipper with negative bias is a circuit in which the diode is in parallel with
the input and a negative bias connected in series with the diode. During positive input the diode
is forward bias and output voltage is equal to VT. With negative input less than VT the output
voltage is equal to the remaining part of the negative input.

25
Negative series clipper with positive bias is a circuit in which the diode is in series with the input
and a positive bias voltage connected in series with the load resistor at the output terminal. With
a positive input voltage less than VT the diode is not conducting, the output voltage is equal to
VT. If the input is more than the value of VT, the diode will conduct and the output voltage goes
to the value of the remaining input voltage. During negative input equal to or less than the
value of VT, diode will not conduct and therefore the output terminal the voltage is equal to the
bias voltage VT.

Negative series clipper with negative bias is a circuit in which the diode is in series with the input
signal and clips off a portion of negative input. During positive input with a value greater than VT
the diode conducts the output voltage is equal to the value of the input voltage. During negative
cycle with a value less than the voltage VT , the diode is not conducting the output voltage is
equal to the value of VT.

Positive series clipper with positive bias is a circuit in which the diode is in series with the input
signal and a positive bias connected in series with the load. During positive input less than
voltage VT , the diode conducts and the output voltage is equal to the applied input. If input
voltage is greater than the value of VT the diode will not conduct so the output voltage will be
the value of VT. During negative input in which the value is less than the VT the diode conducts
and output voltage is equal to the input voltage.

26
Positive series clipper with negative bias is a circuit in which the diode is in series with the input
signal and a positive bias connected in series with the load. During positive input the diode is
not conducting, the output voltage is equal to VT. During negative input with a value greater
than the value of VT the diode is still not conducting the output is equal to VT. If the negative
input voltage is less than VT that the time the diode conducts and the output voltage will follow
the input voltage.

Clamper circuit is a circuit composed of capacitor , diode and resistor in which the input voltage
is shifted above or below a reference level. The circuit is also termed as DC Restorer circuit. In
analyzing a clamper circuit the following steps should be followed :
• Analyze the circuit in which the diode must be placed in forward biased condition
• Assume that the capacitor is fully charge to the value of the input voltage that is in order
to charge it to 100% the charging time must be equal to 5RC or 5 time constant.
• Determine the value of voltage across the capacitor by Kirchhoff's voltage law. You can
assume an ideal or practical diode.
• Solve for the output voltage
• Then the next thing to do is to have the circuit that diode be placed in reverse bias
condition
• Let the voltage of capacitor retain its charge and diode as an open switch.
• Compute for the output voltage
• Sketch the waveform that is input waveform versus the output waveform

Different types of Clamper Circuits:

1. Negative Clamper Circuit
2. Positive Clamper Circuit
3. Biased Clamper Circuit

Negative Clamper Circuit is a circuit composed of a resistor ,capacitor and diode wherein the
output is of the same shape with the input but shifted below the positive axis.

27
Analysis:

During positive voltage the diode is forward biased and acts as a closed switch, the voltage
across the output is voltage of diode of VD = 0.7V. Computing for the voltage of capacitor, VC is
equal to input voltage V. During negative input the diode is off , the capacitor voltage retained its
charge to V. The output voltage now is equal to the input voltage V plus voltage of the capacitor
VC = V. The total voltage of the output is 2V.

Negative Clamper Circuit

Positive Clamper Circuit is a circuit composed of resistor ,capacitor and diode wherein the
output is of the same shape with the input but shifted above the positive axis.

Analysis:

During negative voltage the diode is forward biased and acts as a closed switch, the voltage
across the output is voltage of diode of VD = - 0.7V. Computing for the voltage of capacitor, VC
is equal to input voltage - V. During positive input the diode is off , the capacitor voltage retained
its charge to - V. The output voltage now is equal to the input voltage - V plus voltage of the
capacitor VC = -V. The total output voltage is -2V.

Positive Clamper Circuit

Positive Biased Clamping Circuit

28
Negative Biased Clamping Circuit

Voltage Multiplier is a circuit composed of diodes and capacitors used to multiply or increase
the output voltage. An example is a Voltage Doubler, this Voltage Doubler circuit is composed
of two clamper circuits wherein the output voltage is two times that of the amplitude of the input
voltage. For a Voltage Tripler the output is three times the amplitude of the input and Voltage
Quadrupler, the output is four times that of the input and so forth. During positive input the D1
on while D2 off the capacitor C1 will charge to the value of input Vm. During negative input D1 is
off and D2 is on and charge the capacitor C2 to Vm. The total voltage across the capacitors is
2Vm.

Voltage Multiplier Circuit

Supplemental Information:

Read:

 Chapter 2 - Nashelsky, L., Boylestad, R. L., Boylestad, R. L., & Boylestad, R. L.

(2008). Electronic devices and circuit theory. Indianapolis, Ind: Prentice Hall.

Watch:

Voltage Multiplier Circuit https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IqzA3-bgIIE

29
VM Circuit Using Diodes and Capacitors https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=litsAzP4oqw

Activities/Assessments

1. Define in your own words the following :

a. Wave shaping Circuit
b. Filter Circuit
c. Clipper Circuit
d. Clamper Circuit
e. Voltage Multiplier Circuit
2. Discuss the circuit operation of a positive and negative biased clamping circuit based
from the slides.
3. Create your own Clipper circuit at least 5 circuits. Sketch the input waveform versus
output waveform. Prove the output waveform by mathematical analysis.
4. Assemble a Quadrupler Voltage Multiplier Circuit and discuss how the circuit operates.
Prove that the output voltage is equal to four times of the input voltage. Show your
solution by mathematical analysis

5. Solve circuit problems regarding the following circuits:

a. Clipper circuit
b. Clamper Circuit
6. From our discussion of the clipper circuits which type are you going to choose for
the circuit design that you will make to provide protection to your design. Explain
7. List all circuits application of diode you’ve learned from our topic and give
characteristics .

Course Topic 4: Special Purpose Diode Application

Overview

Special Purpose Diode like Zener diode, Photodiodes, Schottky diode, Varactor diode, PIN
diode, Tunnel diode and Laser diode are made from an ordinary PN Junction Diode. The
properties of this PN Junction Diode were altered in such a way as to have another special
applications than that of a PN Junction Diode. To mention a few , Photo Diode can be used for
compact disc players, smoke detectors medical devices and sensors . Zener Diode can act as a
voltage regulator for power supply. A Laser diode can emit light used such as barcode reader.
Laser pointers, CD/DVD/ Blu-ray Disc reading, Laser printing , Laser Scanning and Light beam
illumination.

Learning Objectives

After successful completion of this lesson, you should be able to:

• Define the Special Purpose Diodes
• Understand the construction and operation of devices
• Analyse and assemble circuit application
• Solve circuit characteristics by mathematical analysis

30
Course Material

Special Purpose diodes are form from an ordinary PN junction diode. Altering its properties
result to execute specific function of the device. To begin with let me discuss the commonly
used special purpose diode the Zener diode

Zener diode is a special purpose diode designed to operate during its reverse bias condition.
The PN material is heavily doped compare to an ordinary diode. This result to a thin junction
layer and a reverse breakdown voltage lower than an ordinary diode. The value of breakdown
voltage depends on its doping process. Typical values of breakdown voltages ranges from 3V
to 300V. Shown below is construction of Zener diode with heavily doped p and n type material
and a very thin Junction layer.

Zener Diode Construction

The figure below is an actual image of Zener diode and its characteristic curve. The diode
operates during reverse bias condition ( quadrant III). During forward condition it acts as an
ordinary diode with a voltage drop of 0.7V/0.3V. Shown in quadrant III, reverse operating
region, the reverse breakdown voltage of zener diode and the leakage current due to flow of
minority carrier.

Actual Image V/I characteristic Curve

Zener Diode Circuit application:

The zener diode in a circuit is use as a single diode clipper circuit. During positive input the
diode conducts in its reverse bias condition. The output voltage is equal to VZ and during
negative input voltage the diode is in forward condition and acts as an ordinary diode with VD
of 0.7V

31
The circuit below is a double clipping circuit. During positive voltage DZ2 conducts in reverse
condition while diode DZ1 conducts in forward bias condition. The output voltage is equal to the
sum of VZ2 + VD1, and during negative voltage DZ1 conducts in reverse bias condition while
DZ2 in forward condition. The output goes now to VDZ1 + VD2.

Zener Diode Voltage Regulator:

With a DC input voltage , the zener diode will conduct and produce an output voltage equal to
the voltage of the zener VZ. The total current of the circuit is equal to VDC minus the Vz divided
by Rs and the current of the load resistor RL is equal to Vz divided by RL

Vin – Vs
IT = ---------------
Rs
VZ
IL = ---------
RL
Vo = VZ

Light Emitting Diode a special purpose diode made from a heavily doped semiconductor
material that emit a coloured light when forward biased. During this condition electrons
recombines with the holes from valence band released energy to produce photons. These
devices are semiconductor devices that convert electrical energy into light energy. Light
Emitting Diode LEDs are made semiconductor compounds such as Gallium Arsenide (GaAs),
Gallium Phosphide (GaP), Silicon Carbide (SiC) or Galluim Indium Nitride (GalnN)

32
The forward voltage of an LED is between 1.8V and 3.3V. It varies by the color of LED. A red
LED drops a voltage of 1.7V to 2.0V. A blue LED drop around 3 to 3.3 V.

An LED matrix is a grid of lights arranged into rows and columns. LED stands for Light Emitting
Diode, so like with other diodes, electricity flows through it in only one direction – from anode(+)
to cathode(-); doing so illuminates the light.

Characteristic Curve of Light Emitting Diode

Schottky Diode is a special purpose diode made of metal such as gold, tungsten, platinum,
chromium or silicide which acts as the anode and an N type semiconductor material as a
cathode. The voltage drop of this diode is 0.2V and is less than the ordinary diode. Schottky
diode is fast switching diode because of low junction capacitance. Without biased electrons on
N material have low energy as being compared to the electrons in metal. If forward biased is
applied to the diode, electrons in cathode has sufficient energy to cross the barrier and enter
into metal with a tremendous energy.

33
Circuit Application

The schottky diode is connected across the collector and base terminal of transistor to
improve the switching time of the device.

Varactor Diode is a special purpose diode design to vary the capacitance of a p-n junction by
an application of a reverse voltage across the diode. As we increase reverse bias voltage
applied across the diode the width of junction depletion region also increases which result to
decrease in junction capacitance. On the hand if reverse voltage applied across the diode is
decrease the width of the depletion region also decreases and result to a low junction
capacitance. This is how the varactor diode works. The term varactor comes from variable
capacitor also referred as varicap.

34
The characteristic curve of varactor diode shows that as reversed voltage increases the
capacitance of the diode decreases. The symbol of varactor diode an anode with cathode
resemble as capacitor.

Symbol

PIN Diode is a special purpose diode design with an intrinsic semiconductor material in between
a P type and N type material. The P type and N type are heavily doped and used for ohmic
contact with very low resistance. The wide depletion layer of intrinsic material have a very high
reverse breakdown voltage which result to a very low capacitance during reverse bias condition.
Also having a wide depletion region the volume for light reception is increased that is light
striking crystal lattice releases holes and electrons drawn out away from the depletion region
by application of reverse bias voltage. This makes PIN diode to be used as photo detector.
When forward biased the intrinsic material is forced into conduction, as a result the free
electrons in this material also increases thereby decreases the resistance of this material. Thus
the PIN diode also acts as a current controlled resistance.

Construction

Application of the PIN Diode :

• RF switch :Due wide intrinsic layer the level of capacitance decreases. As a result , the
level of isolation increased during reversed bias. Making it an ideal RF switch
• High Voltage Rectifier: This intrinsic layer during reversed bias increases and thus
allowing higher voltage tolerance between the junction

35
 • Photodetector: The conversion of light into electric current depends on the depletion
region in a photo diode. Due to increase in depletion region, volume of conversion is
increased and the efficiency of photo diode too. Hence PIN diode is used as photodiode.

Tunnel Diode is a special purpose diode that exhibit a negative resistance when a forward
voltage is applied across the P-N junction. Meaning the current on the diode decrease when
voltage is increase. This phenomenon was discovered by Leo Esaki who invented the tunnel
diode. He observed that if semiconductor diode is heavily doped with impurities it exhibit
negative resistance. Tunneling effect means that there is a flow of electrons across the small
depletion region from N side conduction band to a P side valence band. This tunneling effect is
happening in a heavily doped semiconductor materials. Shown below is construction of tunnel
diode and the existence of a narrow depletion region with positive and negative ions.

Laser diode is a special diode designed to convert electrical

energy in a form of light. The drop of electrons from higher energy
level to a lower energy level ,radiation is form of an emitted
photon.

Construction of Laser Diode

The laser diode is made up of two doped gallium

arsenide layers for P and N type materials joined
together. Selenium, aluminum, silicon are used as
doping elements. In gallium arsenide diodes, the
release of energy in recombination process is in the
form of light or photons. Whereas the silicon diode
recombination is not in form of photons.

The main steps required for producing a coherent beam of light in lasers diodes are: light
absorption, spontaneous emission, and stimulated emission.

Light absorption is the process of absorbing energy from the external energy sources. A dc
source is apply on a material which cause the electrons to jump to a higher level the
conduction band leaving in the valence band a hole. The pair of electron and hole is due to
the absorption of external energy.

36
Spontaneous emission is the process of emitting light or photons naturally while electrons falling
to the lower energy state. The electrons in valence band are in the lower energy state. When
this electrons reach conduction band they leave the valence band with free holes. Meaning the
free electrons in the conduction band has a higher enegy level compares with the holes in
valence band. The electrons in the conduction band will recombines with the holes in the
valence band that is it will fall to the lower energy state and recombines with holes and releases
energy in a form of light.

Stimulated emission is the process by which excited electrons or free electrons are stimulated to
fall into the lower energy state by releasing energy in the form of light. The stimulated emission
is an artificial process. An incident or external photon is applied to the free electron in
conduction band in which will force the free electron to recombine with the hole in valence band.
In this case, each incident photon will generate two photons.

Supplemental Informations

Read:

 Nashelsky, L., Boylestad, R. L., Boylestad, R. L., & Boylestad, R. L. (2008). Electronic
devices and circuit theory. Indianapolis, Ind: Prentice Hall.

Watch

Zener Diode https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XhQqtdTlRus

How to calculate voltage across LED https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jpFpn1a5jRc

How LASER Works https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oUEbMjtWc-A

What is a Schottky Diode https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bXEyCf1P0UU

What is a PIN Diode https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DkkW97K5Q60

What is a Tunnel Diode https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hNzLQdFW-FI

Activities/Assessments

1. Enumerate the different types of special purpose diode and give its functions.
2. Discuss in your own words the constructions of the following Special Purpose diode:
Zener Diode, Varactor Diode, Schottky Diode, Laser Diode, Light Emitting Diode, PIN
Diode.
3. Solve at least 2 circuits problems (Mathematical Analysis) regarding Special Purpose
Diodes.
4. Give a circuit application of the following Special Purpose Diode . Sketch the circuit and
discuss how it operates. Zener Diode, Laser Diode, Varactor Diode, Tunnel Diode and
Light Emitting Diode.
5. Analyze how the tunnel diode operates give emphasis on tunneling effect.

37
 6. Explain how a Laser diode operates give emphasis to light absorption, spontaneous
emission and stimulated emission .
7. Design an application circuit of Laser diode. Explain its operation.

Course Topic 5: Power Supply

Overview

Power Supply is the main heart of electronics circuit without it, the circuit will not operate. All
electronics equipment was operated by applying voltage or current using power supply. There
are 3 types of power supply namely: Regulated Power Supply, Unregulated Power Supply and
Switch Mode Power Supply

Learning Objectives

After successful completion of this lesson, you should be able to:

 Determine the types of power supply and know their differences.
 Discuss how the power supply circuits operates.
 Solve problems regarding power supply circuits
 Assemble a Power Supply Circuits
 Measure voltages and currents of power supply using VOM and Oscilloscope

Course Materials

Power Supply is an electrical device that supply voltage or current to the load. There are
three types of power supply namely: Regulated Power Supply, Unregulated Power Supply and
Switch Mode Power Supply.

Regulated Power Supply converts an unregulated AC to a constant DC. It ensure that the output
will remain constant even the input changes. The components are Transformer, Rectifier, Filter,
Regulator and the Load

Regulated Power Supply Block Diagram

38
The transformer is use to step down a 220V AC to desired value of AC voltage and it depends
on the turn ration (N) of the primary winding and the secondary winding. The relationship with
regard to voltage is that Np/Ns = Vp/Vs, whereas for current Np/Ns = Is/Ip.

The rectifier is a circuit composed of diodes. It can be a Half wave, Full wave and Bridge Type.
This stage is use to convert AC to pulsating DC. There are important parameters that we should
be familiar with this circuit like Vdc or average DC voltage and Vrms or effective voltage. Vdc is
defined as the area of a curve of v,I divided by the base of alternation. For a half wave rectifier
the Vdc = Vmax/ and a full wave Vdc = 2Vmax/. The formula varies depending on the
waveform that is to be rectified. This formula is use for Sine wave. With regards to the Vrms or
Effective voltage it is defined as the square root of the square of the are of the curve of vi
divided by the base of alternation, √ and Vrms = 0.707 Vmax.

Full Wave Bridge Type Rectifier

Filter circuit is composed of capacitors that is

used to flatten the pulsating DC voltage from
the output of a rectifier circuit in order to attain
a perfect DC output voltage waveform. The
charging and discharging of capacitor fulfill
this action. The charging voltage of capacitor
is solve using the formula Vc = E (1-e -t/RC)
and discharging voltage of capacitor Vd = E e
-t/RC
, where E is the voltage applied in
capacitor, t is the time to charge or discharge
capacitor and RC is the time constant. In
order to fully charge the capacitor to maximum
value of E, the time to charge the capacitor
should be 5RC and if t is equal to RC then the
capacitor will be charge to 63% of E for
discharging effect we can apply the formula to
determine the discharging voltage of
capacitor. Recall the different filters discussed
in Course Topic 2.

39
Filter Circuits

Regulator circuit keeps the output voltage of a power supply at a constant value and this is done
by the use of Zener diode. The zener breakdown voltage of diode has an effect on the output of
the power supply circuit. With the first circuit Vo = VZ + VBE, and in the second circuit Vo = VZ.
Meaning the output voltage is held constant using this equation.

Unregulated Power Supply : The Absence of Regulator circuit makes the power supply
unregulated. In the circuit the AC voltage is stepped down by transformer to a certain value.
The reduced AC voltage is being rectified by the bridge type diode connection. Rectified,
meaning changing AC to DC. And this is filtered by capacitor to produce a pulsating DC
voltage. No elimination of rippled DC took place since no Regulator circuit is connected in the
output before it is being fed to the load.

40
Switch Mode Power Supply: A power supply that uses switching regulator to convert electrical
power efficiently. It transfer power from DC or AC sources to a DC loads while converting
voltage and current characteristics. There are three basic switch mode circuit – Buck, Boost and
Buck-Boost. They differ on how transistor switch, inductor and capacitor are connected in
circuit.

Analyzing circuit operation of Buck SMPS with an input voltage of +Vin and transistor base held
on state, the transistor acts as a closed switch, current will flow from input to the inductor and
the load making the diode in reversed biased condition. This current flow will produce a
magnetic field in a coil + in the left side and -v right side and will charge capacitor with +v. If the
transistor now is set to off state the induced magnetic field of inductor will collapse making -v
drop on inductor left side and right side + v. The negative -v will forward bias the diode which
will pull inductor left terminal to ground until such time that the capacitor discharge its voltage
depending on the time of output terminal since transistor is in off state. Vo of the circuit is
Vo=( )

41
Analyzing Buck-Boost SMPS, here the transistor is place in series with the input voltage and
the inductor. With positive vin and transistor base is on state , the diode is reverse bias which
isolate the input to the output terminal. This will produced magnetic field to the inductor making
upper side +v and lower side –v, all vin will be across the inductor. If transistor now is off it will
induced negative –v on upper side of inductor and +v lower side making diode forward bias, the
voltage across inductor will be the supply voltage to the load and will charge capacitor.

Problem solving for power supply :

1. A sine wave of 20 voltage peak to peak is connected to a half wave rectifier with an
output load resistor of 1 K ohms. Determine the average voltage measured at the
output. The diode is ideal.

Solution:
𝑒 𝑒
𝑒

𝑒
𝑒

2. Using problem 1 if the input voltage is a square wave of 5 V peak ,specifying that the
diode used is a silicon diode, determine the average voltage across the load and the
current of the circuit.

Solution:

𝑒 𝑉𝑑𝑖𝑜𝑑𝑒 𝑉
𝑒

𝑒 𝑑 𝑑𝑒
𝑑

𝑑
𝑑

42
Supplemental Informations:

Watch

Basic Electronic Power Supplies https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DwiBp-Oohvs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KtyGm6EYPQI

Basics of Switch Mode Power Supply https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RPffxopaXaY

Activities/Assessments
1. Define in your own words Power Supply
2. Differentiate the three (3) types of Power supply
3. Discuss the Operation of three (3) Switching Mode Power Supply
4. Sketch the following circuits :
a. Full wave bridges type Power Supply
b. Buck Switching Mode Power Supply
5. Assemble a Regulated Power Supply for a 12VDC output. show how you arrived at the
values of components.
6. Compare the three power supply circuits
a. Regulated Power supply
b. Unregulated power supply
c. Switch Mode Power supply
7. Construct a simple Regulated Bridge type power supply

Course Topic 6: Bipolar Junction Transistor

Overview

Bipolar Junction Transistor is a three terminal device used to amplify a voltage or current of a
certain circuit. This transistor can be operated as a switch if the device is to be designed for
saturation and cutoff region. With amplifier application meaning increasing the input voltage as
measured at the output terminal the device in working in its active region. There are many
applications of this device to name a few, the device is use for digital circuits logic gate,
filters, rectifier and oscillators.

Learning Objectives

After successful completion of this lesson, you should be able to:

• Define a Bipolar Junction Transistor
• Understand the construction and operation of devices
• Know its circuit application
• Analyse Transistor circuit and solve its characteristics by mathematical analysis

43
Course Materials

The transistor is a three terminal device that is made from a front to front or back to back
connection of two diodes. We call it as an NPN transistor and a PNP transistor. As shown by its
construction below.

Bipolar Junction Transistor Operation :

With bipolar junction transistor the device actions depends in the holes and electrons carriers.
The emitter region is heavily doped . The collector is doped much lighter than the base region
that is ten times lighter than the base doping. The collector current is due to the flow of charge
carrier injected from a heavily doped emitter into the base where they are minority carriers that
diffuse toward the collector

The symbol of transistor is shown below. The arrow is represents the type of emitter material.
For the first figure, the arrow of emitter is pointing out of the device, this transistor is NPN
transistor. With regards to the second figure the emitter arrow is pointing into the device the
transistor is a PNP transistor. Arrow pointing into the device for emitter terminal represent it is a
P material and arrow pointing out of the device, the emitter material is a P type material

44
The three terminals of transistors are Base (B), Emitter (E), and Collector (C). In order to put the
transistor in operation we need to bias the transistor. Biasing is the correct polarity of voltage
that you will apply in its terminal depending on how you will use it. It is also a way of how to
establish its operating point .As for example if you are going to use it as an amplifier you have
to know that Q point on its characteristic curve note that Q point lies in between the saturation
and cutoff region for transistor to work as an amplifier. You have to be familiar with the 3
amplifier configuration. Using the transistor as a switch you must know what is its region of
operations. The characteristic curve below is a graph of voltage versus current of the transistor.

As seen on the graph the voltage Vce is from a value 0 to 12V. If Vce is increase collector
current (Ic ) also increase. The base current ( Ib) increase only to a certain value of Vce until
such time that it reach what we called saturation or maximum level. Shown also are the three
(3) operating regions namely: Saturation region, Active region and the Cutoff region.
Saturation region can be obtain when Ic current = Vcc/Rc, that is if Vce = 0V. Cutoff region is
obtain when Ib = 0A and that Ic = 0A since Ic =βIb. The two region of operations are used for
transistor switch. The Active region lies in between the cutoff and saturation region. With this
region the transistor is working as an amplifier. The DC load line is dependent on the output
equation of the circuit. Using circuit analysis we can determine the output equation and plot the
DC load line for the following condition that is when Vce = 0V, Ic = Vcc / Rc and when Ic = 0A
then Vce = Vcc.

𝑐𝑒 𝑐𝑐 𝑐 𝑐 setting Vce = 0 V

𝑐𝑐
𝑐
𝑐

45
 𝑐𝑒 𝑐𝑐 setting Ic = 0 A

Fixed Bias Circuit

There are three ( 3) regions of operation of transistors namely:
1. Saturation region – this region of operation is use when transistor will act as a
closed switch. For its operation, the input and output terminal of transistor must be
forward bias. Another condition for transistor to work as closed switch, the value
of voltage across the collector-emitter terminal Vce = 0 or equal to Vcesat = 0.2V.
With this condition we will have Ic = Vcc/ Rc.
2. Cut off region – the transistor is operating as an open switch. The condition is that
the input and output terminal of transistor are reverse bias. Having reverse bias
condition, therefore input current Ib = 0.
3. Active region – is a region of operation wherein the transistor is use as an
amplifier. The condition applied for this region is that the input terminal of
transistor should be forward bias and the output terminal be reverse bias.

There are Three Amplifier Configuration namely :

 Common Emitter Amplifier Configuration - the input voltage is connected to the base
and the output voltage is measured at the collector terminal. Also since it is common
emitter therefore the emitter terminal is grounded. Notice that positive battery voltage
VBE is connected to the base and a positive battery voltage Vce is also connected to
the collector terminal of transistor signifying that input terminal is forward bias and the
output terminal is reverse bias. This amplifier configuration has both current and voltage
gain

• Common Base Amplifier Configuration - The input terminal is connected in the emitter while
the output is at the collector terminal of the transistor. A positive voltage is connected to the
P type emitter terminal and a negative voltage to the p type collector terminal meaning
forward bias at the input and reverse bias at the output terminal. The circuit has a voltage
gain but no current gain.

46
 • Common Collector Amplifier Configuration - In this circuit the input voltage is connected
to the base terminal and output is at the emitter terminal take note that a forward voltage
is applied across the input and a reverse voltage at the output terminal. The input and
output signal are in phase. The circuit has current gain but with no voltage gain.

Below is a table showing the characteristics of the three amplifier configuration and their
differences.

Input Impedance Low Medium High

Output Impedance Very High High Low
Phase Angle 0° 180° 0°
Voltage Gain High Medium Low
Current Gain Low Medium High
Power Gain Low Very High Medium

Method of Biasing Transistor:

Biasing is way of connecting a correct DC voltage to the terminals of transistor in order to put it
in operation. It is also a means of establishing the Q point or Operating point of a transistor.
There are four methods of biasing this device namely:

47
 • Fixed Bias circuit

Circuit analysis using Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law

KVL from VCC Base-Ground KVL from VCC Collector-Ground

𝑐𝑐 𝐵𝐸 𝑉𝐶𝐸 𝑉𝐶𝐶 𝐼𝑐𝑅𝑐

𝑏
𝐵

Where : 𝑐 𝐵
IB = Base current
IC = Collector current
B = Current gain of a common emitter Amplifier configuration
VBE = Voltage at base-emitter terminal (constant to 0.7 V)
RB = Base Resistor
RC = Collector Resistor
VCC = DC Voltage
VCE = Voltage at Collector-emitter terminal

Voltage Divider Bias : The circuit is just the same with Emitter Stabilize bias circuit only with an
additional base Resistor connected at the lower part of the input. There are now two resistors at
the input terminal namely RB1 and RB2 serve as voltage divider resistors.

48
Circuit Analysis :

With Exact Analysis Thevenin’s theorem is use. The circuit is transform into what we called
Thevenin’s Model and apply the condition of voltage VCC set to zero. As a result parallel
combination of input resistors RB1 and RB2 seen in the input refer to as RTH and VTH equal
to the voltage across the lower resistor.

Then kirchhoff’s voltage law is apply to determine circuit equation.

KVL at the input terminal:

𝐵𝐸 𝑅𝐵 𝑅𝐵
𝐵 𝑅𝑇𝐻
 𝐸 𝑅𝐵 𝑅𝐵

KVL at the output terminal:

𝐸 𝐸 𝐸

Circuit using approximate analysis

With approximate analysis using the original circuit

KVL lower input terminal yield to equation

𝐵 𝐵𝐸 𝐸 𝐸
𝐵
𝐵
𝐵 𝐵
𝐵 𝐵𝐸
𝐸
𝐸
IE  IC
Therefore , KVL at the Output 𝐸 𝐸 𝐸

49
Feedback Bias Circuit

Circuit Analysis

KVL Input terminal

𝐵 𝐵 𝐵𝐸 𝐸 𝐸

𝐵 𝐸

𝐸 𝐵 𝐵 𝐵 

Substitute yields

𝐵𝐸
𝐵
𝐵  𝐸

𝐸 𝐸

Activities/Assessments

1. Draw the three amplifier configuration showing the following : Bias voltages, connections
of Bias Resistors, Input Signal Voltage, Output terminal, the direction of the flow of
current in its terminal.
2. What are the characteristics of the three amplifier configuration : Common Emitter,
Common Base and Common Collector.
3. In your own word define transistor giving emphasis on its construction and functions.
4. Give at least 5 application of transistor. Show an schematic diagram of it and discuss
the circuit operation
5. Solve at least five problems for the following transistor circuits : Fixed Bias, Emitter
stabilize bias, Voltage divider bias, Feedback bias.

6. Explain the operation of holes and electrons in an NPN and PNP Transistor.

7. Differentiate the methods of biasing transistors.

50
 Course Topic 7: Small Signal Analysis of Bipolar Junction Transistor

Overview

One function of a Bipolar Junction Transistor is to strengthen an AC signal connected to its input
terminal. And we are referring to this function of a transistor being an amplifier. A small signal
amplifier is known as a voltage amplifier. Let us say 10 mv signal connected to the input stage
of the circuit would give us an output of 500mv, meaning the signal is increase 50 times that of
the input signal. This increase was achieved by an amplifier. If you need to drive a certain
device like sensor which requires a higher voltage and your input signal is not enough to drive it
you need an amplifier to attain the required voltage that is in order to put this sensor in
operation. This is now the use of an amplifier. Amplifier is characterize by its input resistance,
output resistance and its the gain. To know the effect of small signal fed to the input of an
amplifier circuit what you need is to do is to transform the circuit into what we called circuits
Model.

Learning Objectives

After successful completion of this lesson, you should be able to:

• Know the basic concept of Small Signal Analysis of transistor
• Define circuits characteristics such as gain, input resistance and output resistance
• Assemble an amplifier circuit and solve circuit characteristics.

Course Materials

Small signal analysis of transistor is about an application of an AC signal to the transistor and
determine circuit characteristics such as input resistance, output resistance, voltage gain,
current gain and power gain. The approach to AC analysis is through the use of what we called
model. And what is a model? A model is a combination of circuit elements properly chosen that
best approximate the actual behavior of a semiconductor device under its operating conditions.
There are two circuit model use nowadays. Namely : re model and Hybrid Model.

re model was based from an ordinary diode where in the input resistance of the equivalent
model represent the dynamic resistance of the diode seen at the base terminal of transistor
which is a PN junction, that is resistance re = . This is equal to , is a change in
voltage of the diode and is a change in current of the diode. At the output terminal a current
source is connected across the internal resistance ro. This ro in same cases was treated with an
infinite resistance and replace by an open circuit. Shown below is a common base and an
equivalent circuit.

51
The equivalent re model of a common base amplifier configuration

re = dynamic resistance of diode

Ic = Ie, current source equation
ro = internal resistance output terminal
Vi = input signal
Vo = output voltage
Zi = input impedance
Zo = output impedance
A = current gain of a common base amplifier

For a common emitter

The equivalent re model of a common emitter amplifier configuration is compose of resistor re
seen in the input terminal and a current source in parallel with resistor ro at the output terminal.

re = dynamic resistance of diode

Ic = IB, current source equation
ro= internal resistance output terminal
 = current gain of a common emitter amplifier

Since re = , ID = IB -

Therefore:

Dynamic resistance rd =


52
Hybrid Model is a model use for AC analysis of bipolar junction transistor. The characteristics of
the circuit can be obtained using the four hybrid parameters and defined by using the given
equation below. Hybrid means a combination of V and I in a given equation.

Vi = hi li + hr Vo
Io = hf li + ho Vo

Using equation Vi and setting li = 0

hr = reverse transfer voltage ration when li = 0

If Vo = 0
hi = input impedance of the circuit when Vo = 0

Using equation lo and setting li = 0

ho = Output admittance of the circuit when li = 0

If Vo = 0
hi = forward transfer current ration when Vo = 0

Equivalent Hybrid Model

Approximate Hybrid Model Complete Hybrid Model

The Circuit model is use for the three-amplifier configuration. In the case of common emitter
subscript e is added to the parameters, for common base subscript b and for common collector
subscript c. Table below shows the different parameters.

53
Table for H Parameters of Amplifier Configuration

Common Emitter Common Base Common Collector

hie hib hic
hre hrb hrc
hfe hfb hfc
hoe hob hoc

Two Port Network is an electrical network wherein the current entering one terminal is same
current leaving another terminal. Two port means a two pair of wires. This network is
characterized by Vi, Vo, li and lo. Shown below are equations use to describe the characteristic
of the circuit and a figure of a two-port network.

Important Characteristics
Zi = Vi/li Input Impedance
Zo = Vo/lo Output Impedance
Ai = li/lo Current Gain
Ai = Av (Zo/Zi) Two Port
Av = Vo/Vi Voltage Gain Network
Av = Ai (Zo/Zi)
Ap = Po/Pi Power Gain
Ap = Av.Ai
Avs = Vo/Vs Overall Voltage Gain
Avs = Zi (Zi + Rs)

To analyze a schematic diagram with AC signal connected the first thing that you have to do is
to determine the AC equivalent circuit of the network. To determine the AC equivalent circuit
below are the steps to be followed :
1. With a given schematic diagram set all DC sources to zero replacing them with a short
circuit.
2. All Capacitors connected must be replaced by a short circuit.
3. All elements bypassed by capacitor should not be included in the circuit
4. And draw the circuit in more convenient and logical manner.

Note that the capacitor blocks the DC and allows the flow of AC signal.

Applying the steps of determining the AC equivalent circuit for the schematic diagram of a
common emitter amplifier having a voltage divider bias ,Vcc as a DC source is set to zero
replaced by a short circuit . Capacitors C1, C2, C3 were also shorted. Since RE is in parallel
with a short circuit C2 therefore this resistor was removed in the circuit. Resistors R1 and R2
are in parallel due to shorted Vcc and now connected to the ground. With C1 shorted, signal
source Vs which is in series with rs is directly connected to the base of the transistor. Applying
the steps of determining the AC equivalent circuit for the schematic diagram of a common
emitter amplifier having a voltage divider bias ,Vcc as a DC source is set to zero replaced by

54
a short circuit . Capacitors C1, C2, C3 were also shorted. Since RE is in parallel with a short
circuit C2 therefore this resistor was removed in the circuit. Resistors R1 and R2 are in parallel
due to shorted Vcc and now connected to the ground. With C1 shorted, signal source Vs which
is in series with rs is directly connected to the base of the transistor.

Applying the steps of determining the AC equivalent circuit for the schematic diagram of a
common emitter amplifier having a voltage divider bias ,Vcc as a DC source is set to zero
replaced by a short circuit . Capacitors C1, C2, C3 were also shorted. Since RE is in parallel
with a short circuit C2 therefore this resistor was removed in the circuit. Resistors R1 and R2
are in parallel due to shorted Vcc and now connected to the ground. With C1 shorted, signal
source Vs which is in series with rs is directly connected to the base of the transistor.

To determine different circuit characteristics

𝑒
𝑒 𝑒

( ) 𝑐
𝑒
( ) 𝑐 𝑐 ( )
𝑒 𝑒

55
An equivalent re model of a common emitter amplifier configuration with emitter stabilize bias

𝐵 𝐸
𝐵  𝐸
𝑐
𝑐

𝑐
𝐸
𝑐
𝑐 𝐵 𝐸

𝑐 𝐵  𝐸
Ap = AvAi

Activities/Assessments

56
 Course Topic 8: Field Effect Transistor
Overview

Field Effect Transistor is a unipolar device in which its action depends on one type of carrier.
For a P channel FET the carrier is a hole and for N channel FET the carrier is an electron. The
FET is a three terminal device with source as a terminal where the carriers enters the bar. The
drain in which the carriers leaves the bar and the gate terminal as the controlling element. The
flow of carriers from source going to the drain is control by a voltage connected across the
gate terminal that’s why the FET is called a voltage controlled device. FET is smaller in size as
compare with BJT, this device is use in integrated circuit fabrication. To mention some
application of FET, the FET can be used as a switch, an amplifier, multiplexer, an oscillator , a
current limiter and a chopper.

Learning Objectives

After successful completion of this lesson, you should be able to:

• Define the Field Effect Transistor
• Understand the construction and operation of the device
• Know its circuit application
• Analyse and solve circuit characteristics by mathematical solution

Course Materials

Field Effect transistor is a unipolar device in the sense that their action depends on one type of
carrier. For N type channel FET the carriers are electrons and for a P channel FET the carriers
are holes. The FET is made of three terminals namely source , drain and gate. The source is a
terminal wherein the carriers enter the channel, the drain is a terminal where the carriers leaves
the channel and the gate controls the flow of carrier from source to drain. An application of
voltage across the gate can increase or decrease the flow of carrier. This is the reason why
FET is called a voltage control device. There are two types of FET Junction Field Effect
Transistor (JFET) and the Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor (MOSFET) or
sometimes called an Insulated Gate Field Effect Transistor (IGFET).

• Junction Field Effect Transistor is classified into two types namely the N channel JFET
and P channel JFET. Shown below is the construction of the device and their symbol.

57
For JFET N channel the construction is that an N Channel connects the source and the drain
terminal. A P type material is grown above and below the channel and internally connected
together to represent the gate material. While for P Channel FET a P Channel connects the
source and the drain terminal and N type material represent the gate. With regards to the
symbol the arrow depends on the type of gate material. If N channel JFET the arrow is pointing
into the device meaning gate is P type material. If it is a P channel JFET the arrow is pointing
outward of the device and represent an N type material. To put it in operation a forward bias
should be connected to source and the drain is reversed bias. With regards to the gate, it should
always be reverse bias.

Construction of N-Type and P-Type Depletion MOSFET

N- channel Depletion MOSFET P-channel Depletion MOSFET

In order to operate a Depletion MOSFET, the source terminal should be forward bias and the
drain is reverse bias, while the gate terminal can be supplied by a positive and negative battery
as compare to JFET only a single supply and reverse bias was applied. The current flowing
from source to drain can be increase or decrease depending upon the bias connected to the
gate of DMOSFET. Below is the symbol of a device.

58
For circuit below, the n type source is connected to negative battery and n type drain to the
positive battery. The gate has a separate battery source. In figure it is reverse bias. When
voltage is connected this way as we increase voltage of the source-drain, the current also
increase up to a certain level that will reach saturation point, that there is no increase in current
anymore the current obtain is what we called IDss the train source saturation current when the
voltage across the gate and source is zero. If the voltage across the gate is now increase say -
1 V and same condition that we increase voltage of source drain. The current will also increase
up to a time it reach again saturation level wherein this current is lower than IDss meaning the
current is reduce because of reverse voltage supplied across the gate of -1V. If we try to
increase the level of gate voltage the current will also decrease. The voltage measured at gate
terminal when it reach the level of saturation with no increase in current is what we called the
pinch off voltage. Drain current ID us solve using Schockleys formula.

( )

Where:

ID = Drain Current
VGS = Gate-Source Voltage
Vp = Pinch Off Voltage

If the voltage across the gate is change to positive the current flowing from source to drain will
increase more than the current IDss. If the voltage across the source-gate is increase up to a
level of pinch off voltage the current will reach the saturation point. As we increase the positive
voltage of the gate therefore current ID also increase. This device DMOS can be operated with
positive and negative voltage across the gate which controls the flow of current. The graph
shows the effect of this changes in voltages.

59
 Drain-Source Characteristic Curve

Another type of FET is what we called Enhancement MOSFET or EMOSFET. The device was
constructed with no channel that will connect the source and drain material. In order to operate
the device a channel must be created in between the source and gate material in order to
have a resistance path between them for the flow of current. And this is made possible by an
application of reverse voltage across the gate terminal. Shown below is the construction of an N
channel EMOSFET

Operation of N Channel Enhancement MOSFET

The source terminal is forward bias by negative voltage and drain reverse bias by positive
voltage while gate terminal is supply with negative voltage. Even voltage applied across the
source-drain terminal is increase, there is no current flowing from the source to drain. The
reason behind this is that there is no resistance path or a channel that will connect the two
terminal. A voltage supplied across the gate is responsible to create the channel. With increase
of voltage across the gate up to a certain level called threshold voltage, a current will flow from
source to drain terminal. Therefore, the current is controlled by the threshold voltage of the
device.

Where:
ID = Drain Current
VGS = Gate-Source Voltage
VTH = Threshold Voltage

60
Method of Biasing Field Effect Transistor

 Fixed Bias circuit

Determine all circuit characteristics:

Equation 1

KVL at input terminal

But IG = 0 Equation 2

Therefore:

Substitute Equation 2 to Equation 1

KVL at output terminal

 Self Bias Circuit

Determine all circuit characteristics:

Equation 1

KVL at input terminal

Equation 2

From Equation 2

61
 Equation 3

Substitute Equation 3 to Equation 1

By Quadratic Formula, the equation for VGS

𝑏 √𝑏 𝑐

Then solve ID and find

 Voltage Divider Bias

Using voltage divider formula

then

KVL Input Terminal

Equation 1
Equation 2

Substitute Equation 1 to Equation 2 result to

quadratic equation and can be solve by
quadratic formula

√
Then solve ID

KVL output terminal

 Feedback Bias EMOSFET

Determine all circuit characteristics

Equation 1

Where VGS = VDS

Substitute VGS to Equation 1

Equation 2

62
KVL output terminal

Equation 3
Substitute Equation 2 to Equation 3

Yields to quadratic equation and ID and VDS can be solve by quadratic formula

√
Then solve ID by Equation 1

KVL output terminal

Combination of FET AND BJT

As an exercise solve circuit characteristics

Supplemental Information:

JFET https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_DZ7baOhNFQ
JFET Biasing (Fixed Bias) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=L6DK3PqeNLw
JFET Biasing (Self Bias) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=m165psz9SOM

63
Activities/Assessments

1. Define in own words the Field Effect Transistor

2. Discuss the operation of VMOS and its construction
3. Discuss the operation of UMOS and its construction
4. Discuss the operation of TMOS and its construction
5. Discuss the operation of LDMOS and its construction
6. Solve circuits problems for different methods of biasing FET
7. Construct a FET amplifier circuit and solve circuits characteristic

Course Topic 9: Small Signal Analysis of Field Effect Transistor

Overview

A transistor that is use for small signal amplifier must be biased to its specific DC operating
point or we call it as the quiescent point. The FET operating regions are Cutoff, Triode or Linear
/ Ohmic, and the Saturation. For amplifier operation the FET is represented by small signal
model which includes transconductance gm and output drain-source resistance rds. In addition,
for high frequency applications parasitic capacitances such as Cgs, Cds, and Cdg are included
in the model. Below is a picture of FET amplifier and block diagram showing small signal
amplifier.

A transistor that is use for small signal amplifier must be biased to its specific DC operating
point or we call it as the quiescent point. The FET operating regions are Cutoff, Triode or Linear
/ Ohmic, and the Saturation. For amplifier operation the FET is represented by small signal
model which includes transconductance gm and output drain-source resistance rds. In addition,
for high frequency applications parasitic capacitances such as Cgs, Cds, and Cdg are included
in the model. Below is a picture of FET amplifier and block diagram showing small signal
amplifier.

Learning Objectives

After successful completion of this lesson, you should be able to:

• Know the basic concept of Small Signal Analysis of Field Effect transistor
• Define circuits characteristics such as gain, input resistance and output resistance

64
 • Assemble an amplifier circuit and solve circuit characteristics.

Course Materials

Similar to BJT small signal analysis, the FET is also transform into an equivalent model in
determining its circuit characteristics such as Gain, Input Resistance and Output Resistance.
The parameters involve are, transconductance gm and drain-source resistance rds.
Transconductance is defined as a change in drain current ID with respect to change in voltage
gate-source VGS. Shown below is the formula and how it was derived

Where: gm = transconductance, S
Vp = Pinch off Voltage, V
IDss = Drain Source Saturation Current, A
VGS = Gate-Source Voltage, V
Gmo = transconductance when VGS = 0

The figure shown below is the model use for Field Effect Transistor

Different FET Amplifier Configuration are :

• Common Source FET Amplifier Configuration

The input signal is connected to the gate and the output signal taken from the drain while
source is connected to the ground. The characteristic of the circuit is shown in the table below :

65
Common Source FET using Self Bias Method

For Circuit Characteristics:

𝑑
𝑑

𝑑
𝑑 𝑑
𝑑

𝑑
𝑑

• Common Gate FET Amplifier Configuration

The input voltage is connected to the Source, output taken from the Drain while Gate terminal
is at ground. The common gate provide a low input impedance. Since the gate is grounded this
acts as a barrier between the input and output providing high levels of isolation preventing
feedback, especially at very high frequencies. The voltage gain of the circuit is high while
current gain is low. Another feature of this configuration is that the input and output are in
phase.

Analyze the input terminal by KVL

At the output terminal KVL

66
 • Common Drain Amplifier Configuration :

With this configuration the input signal is fed to the Gate terminal and the output is from the
Source terminal. The remaining terminal which is the Drain is grounded that’s why it is called
common Drain. The common drain or source follower circuit is able to provide a very high input
impedance and low output impedance and is used to act as a buffer amplifier.

Equivalent AC Circuit Common Drain Amplifier Configuration

KVL entire Loop

Equation 1

Equation 2
Substitute Equation 2 to Equation 1 yields to
( )
Therefore
𝑑
𝑑
𝑑
𝑑
𝑑
𝑑

FET Configuration Summary Table

67
Supplemental Informations

Watch

JFET Amplifiers https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_33adhAcAdg

Small Signal Analysis of BJT https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NESchIntkR8

FET Small Signal Analysis https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QMmIpJK9rRU

Activities/Assessments

1. Discuss the different FET Amplifier Configuration and give their differences.
2. Define in your own words what is a small signal FET when it comes to Av, Ai, ri, ro of the
circuit.
3. For a voltage divider Common Source FET amplifier configuration with rd, RD, RL in the
output terminal and RG1 and RG2 connected to the input terminal, sketch the equivalent
AC circuit and derive the equatin of Av and Ai. Show your solution.
4. Determine the overall Voltage Gain Av and Current Gain of the circuit below given  =
100, gm = 20 s, IDss = 10 mA and Vp = - 4V.

68
5. Sketch two cascaded Common Source Amplifier circuits and derive the
Equation for Av1 Avt, Ait, Zi and Zo.

6. Differentiate the three FET amplifier configuration with regards to the circuit
Characteristics like voltage gain, current gain and power gain.

7. Construct a common gate JFET amplifier and solve voltage and current gain
of the circuit.

69