PHY 103: Basic Principle of Physics II

Heat and Thermodynamics

By:
Dr. E. Oyeniyi
Mr. A. O. Ayoola
Course Content
❖Temperature scales.
❖1st and 2nd laws of thermodynamics.
❖Application of the laws thermodynamics (e.g. to
calorimetry, gas properties and expansion of liquids).
❖Application of 1st and 2nd laws to heat engines,heat
pumps and refrigeration.
❖Third law and absolute zero of temperature.
Course Content contd.
❖Thermal conductivity.
❖Types of radiation and energy
Understanding of the following is key to this aspect:
• Temperature
• Heat
• Thermal Contact
• Thermal Equilibrium
• Zeroth Law
• Temperature scales
• Thermometers
Temperature and “Zeroth Law”

• We often associate the concept of temperature with how hot or cold an object feels when we touch
it.
In this way, our senses is a qualitative indicator of temperature (but it is unreliable and could be
misleading).
• For example, if two objects of different thermal conductivities (e.g a metal tray and a plastic bottle)
are removed from the freezer, the two objects are at the same temperature but will feel different when
touched.
• The object with the higher conductivity (the metal tray) will feel colder than the one with lower
conductivities if we touch them. This will give a
false idea that it is at a lower temperature.
Temperature and “Zeroth Law”
(cont’d)
HEAT is the transfer of energy from one object to another
object as a result of a difference in temperature between
them.
NOTE: (i)The two bodies must be in thermal contact.
(ii)Heat always flow from a higher temperature body to a
lower temperature body
• Two objects are said to be in thermal contact with each
other if energy can be exchanged between them.
 Temperature and “Zeroth Law” (contd)

Zeroth Law of thermodynamics

• This law states that if two objects A and B, which are not in thermal contact, are
separately in thermal equilibrium with a third object C, then objects A and B are in
thermal equilibrium with each other.
• This law allows the development of thermometers. Object C is our thermometer in
this case.
• For example, the length of a mercury column (object C in the zeroth as defined
above) may be used as a measure to compare the temperature of the two other
objects.
Temperature and “Zeroth Law” contd.

Thermal equlibrium
• This occurs when two objects in thermal contact with each other cease
to exchange energy by the process of heat or by electromagnetic
radiation.
• It also means that two objects in thermal equilibrium are at the same
temperature.
Thermometer and temperature scales

Temperature of an object depends on measuring

devices for its measurements and on the temperature
scale adopted.
The Most common temperature scales are:
❖ Thermodynamic (Kelvin)
❖Celsius
❖Fahrenheit
Though few scales have been used, there are many
types of devices for measuring temperature. The devices
are called Thermometers.
 Thermometer and temperature
scales

Thermometers are devices used to measure the

temperature of a system.
• All thermometers are based on the principle that some physical
properties change as temperature changes.
• Some of the physical properties that change with temperature are:
➢The volume/liquid of a liquid
➢The length of a solid
Thermometer and temperature
scales contd.
➢The pressure of a gas at constant volume (as in constant-volume gas
thermometer)
➢The volume of a gas at constant pressure (as in constant-pressure
gas thermometer)
➢The electric resistance of a conductor (as in resistance thermometer)
➢The colour of an object
➢The emf of a thermo couple
TEMPARATURE SCALES

❖Kelvin (Thermodynamic) scale

Characteristics of the Kelvin Scale
• On this scale, Ice point has temp. of 273.15 K
• Triple point of water is defined as 273.16 K
• Triple point of water is the temp. at which saturated water vapour, pure water
(distilled water from which dissolved air has been driven out) and melting ice are
in equilibrium.
• Triple point of water can also be defined as the temperature at which liquid
water, gaseous water and solid water coexist in equilibrium
Kelvin Scale contd.
• The difference in the values of triple point and ice point temperatures is
due to:
(1) pressure difference: ice point pressure is 760 mmHg
while triple point pressure is 4.6 mmHg
(2) Removal of dissolved air from distilled water used for
triple point.
• The steam point on this scale is 373.15 K
• The scale is divided into 100 equal degrees between the ice and steam
points.
• 0 K (or its equivalence, -273.15C) is referred to as absolute zero. It is
the temperature at which the pressure of a gas is zero. At a lower
temperature, the pressure will become negative.
❖ Celsius Scale
Characteristics of Celsius Scale
• Ice point is defined as 0 oC
• Steam point is 100oC at 760mmHg
• The scale is divided into 100 equal degrees between the two points.
• The number of division on this scale is the same with that of kelvin scale.
• Relationship between kelvin (TK) scale and Celsius (TC)scale
• TK = TC +273.15 or TC = TK -273.15 (1)
NOTE: The difference of two temperatures on Celsius scale is the same as the
difference of their corresponding temperature on kelvin scale and vice-versa. This can be
shown as follows:
• If two temperature T1C and T2C on Celsius scale have their corresponding kelvin scale
temperature as T1K and T2K respectively, then, using eqn (1) above
T1C = T1K - 273.15 (i)
T2C = T2K - 273.15 (ii)
Subtract equation (i) from (ii)
T2C - T1C = T2K - T1K (iii)
 Fahrenheit Scale
Characteristics of fahrenheit Scale
• Ice point is defined as 32oF
• Steam point is 212oF at 760mmHg
• The scale is divided into 180 equal degrees between the two points.
Relationship between fahrenheit (TF) scale and Celsius (TC) scale
9
𝑇𝐹 = 𝑇 + 32 (2)
5 𝐶
• Making 𝑇𝐶 the subject of the relation, we have,
5
𝑇𝐶 = (𝑇𝐹 −32) (3)
9
9
NOTE: The difference of two temperatures on the Fahrenheit scale is times the
5
difference of their corresponding temperature on Celsius scale.
This can be shown as follows:
9
𝑇1𝐹 = 𝑇1𝐶 + 32 (i)
5
9
𝑇2𝐹 = 𝑇2𝐶 + 32 (ii)
5
Subtracting (i) from (ii), we have,
9
𝑇2𝐹 − 𝑇1𝐹 = (𝑇2𝐶 −𝑇1𝐶 ) (4)
5
Conversion formula between two Temperature scales
• Examples of temperature conversion formulae are equations (1) and (2)
9
TC = TK - 273.15 and 𝑇𝐹 = 𝑇 + 32.
5 𝐶
• These can be derived using the following simple method:
Step 1
➢Draw two equal vertical lines to represent the two scales whose conversion
Formula you wish to establish
➢Step 2
➢On one of the line, label the lower point (TAL) and upper point (TAU) for the
ice and steam points of one scales respectively.
➢On the second line, label the lower point (TBL) and upper point (TBU) for
the ice and steam points of the second scales respectively as shown in the
figure below
Since the scales are of the same length, the reference temperature TA on the
scale A and its corresponding TB on the scale B should be at the same distance
from TAL and TBL so also from TAU and TBU respectively. Therefore we can write
𝑇𝐴 −𝑇𝐴𝐿 𝑇𝐵 −𝑇𝐵𝐿
= (5)
𝑇𝐴𝑈 −𝑇𝐴𝐿 𝑇𝐵𝑈 −𝑇𝐵𝐿
Examples
Let us consider kelvin and Celsius temperature scale
For Celsius, the ice (lower) point and the steam (upper) point
are respectively 00C and 1000C.
On kelvin scale, the two points are 273k and 373K respectively.
𝑇𝐴 −𝑇𝐴𝐿 𝑇𝐵 −𝑇𝐵𝐿
Therefore we can say = correspond to
𝑇𝐴𝑈 −𝑇𝐴𝐿 𝑇𝐵𝑈 −𝑇𝐵𝐿
𝑇𝐶 −0 𝑇𝐾 −273
=
100−0 373−273
𝑇𝐶 𝑇𝐾 − 273
=
100 100
100𝑇𝐶 = 100(𝑇𝐾 − 273)
Therefore, 𝑇𝐶 = 𝑇𝐾 − 273
Which is the formula to convert Celsius temperature to its
corresponding kelvin scale temp.
DIY 1:
NOTE: In this derivation we have considered the reference temperatures
𝑇𝐶 and 𝑇𝐾 with the ice points of the two scales.
(a) Use the reference temperatures and the steam points of the two scales
to derive the conversion equation.
(b) Derive the conversion formula to convert Celsius temperature to
Fahrenheit scale temperature and vice-versa.
(i) use the reference and the lower (ice) points
(ii) also, use the reference temperatures and the upper (steam) points.
 Worked Example on Temperature Scales
Find the difference of two temperatures 400C and 900C in Fahrenheit.
There are two approaches to this:
Approach 1
• Use conversion formula in equation (2) to determine the Fahrenheit equivalent
of each of the two temperatures and then find their difference
𝑇1𝐹 =(9/5)*40 + 32 = 1040F
𝑇2𝐹 =(9/5)*90 + 32 =1940F
Δ𝑇𝐹 = 194 – 104 = 900F
Approach 2
• Find the difference of the two temperatures in Celsius and then use equation
(4) to find their difference in Fahrenheit
Δ𝑇𝐶 = 90 – 40 = 500C
Δ𝑇𝐹 = (9/5)*Δ𝑇𝐶 = (9/5)*50 = 900F
• As expected, the two approaches gave the same result.
DIY 2:
(1) Find the equivalent of the following on a Celsius scale
(a) 253 K (b) 100°F.
(2) A pan of water is heated from 50°F to 160°F.
(a) What is the change in its temperature on the Kelvin scale
(b) What is the change in its temperature on the Celsius scale?
use the two approaches as in the previous example.
(3) If the difference between two temperatures given in Celsius is 45°C,
find the difference between the two temperatures in Fahrenheit
(4) If the difference between two temperature in fahrenheit is 45°F, find
the difference between the two temperatures in Celsius
 Fixed points
• If different thermometers are used to measure the temperature of an object,
perfect agreement (yielding exactly the same temperature value) are only at
the fixed points (because they are the points which are used for their
calibrations)
• The fixed points are:
(a) Triple point of water (is the single combination of temperature and
pressure at which liquid water, gaseous water, and ice (solid water) coexist in
equilibrium). On kelvin scale the temperature is 273.16 K (0.010C)
(b) Ice point (mixture of water and ice in thermal equilibrium at atmospheric
pressure). On the Celsius temperature scale, the mixture is defined to have a
temperature of 00C and 273K on Kelvin scale
(b) Steam point (mixture of water and steam in thermal equilibrium at
atmospheric pressure). On the Celsius temperature scale, the mixture is
defined to have a temperature of 1000C and 373 K on Kelvin scale.
 Thermometer Calibration
Calibration is the process of standardizing a temperature monitoring
instrument to ensure that it will measure within a specific temperature range in
which it is designed to operate.
It is a way of relating the thermometric quantity (the quantity which changes
as temperature changes) with temperature.
• Thermometer can be calibrated by placing it in thermal contact with any of the
natural systems (i.e. the systems that defined the fixed points).
Problems with Thermometers calibration.
• Extreme accuracy is not achievable. E.g. reading given by alcohol thermometer
calibrated at the ice and steam points of water might agree with those given by a
mercury thermometer only at the calibration points (for instance if one gives a
reading of 40°C, the other may give a slightly different value). Reason is because the
two liquids have different thermal expansion properties.
• The discrepancies between thermometers are especially large when the
temperatures to be measured are far from the calibration points.
• Problems with Thermometers calibration Contd
• Limited range of temperatures over which they can be used. The
limitation is usually associated with the physical properties of
the substance in the thermometer. For example, a mercury
thermometer cannot be used below -39°C which is the freezing
point of mercury.

Types of Thermometers
There are different types of thermometer, Some of them are:
❖ Liquid-in-glass thermometers
❖Constant-Volume gas thermometer
❖Electrical thermometers
 Liquid-in-glass thermometers
Examples are
• Mercury as the liquid (can measure between -35°C
and 750°C).
• Alcohol as the liquid (can measure between -80°C and
70°C.
• Thermometric property of this type of thermometer
is the length of the liquid (mercury and alcohol) that
expands in the glass.
• Thermometric property is the physical property that
changes with change in temperature
 The Constant-Volume gas thermometer and absolute zero
temperature
• At pressures of the order of 760 mmHg (i.e. 1atm), different gases give
slightly different temperature because none of them obeys gas law
perfectly.
• As the pressure is reduced, the gases approach close to ideal gas and their
temperature scales agree well together. Therefore, the thermometer’s
readings are independent of the Substance (i.e. the type of gas) used in it
and therefore it is free of the problems mentioned in a previous slide.
• For all the gases the pressure is zero at -273.15°C. This is the basis for
absolute temperature scale.
• -273.15°C is the zero point of this scale and it is often referred to as
absolute zero.
The Constant-Volume gas thermometer and
absolute zero temperature
• It is calibrated using ice and steam points of water.
• They cannot be used to monitor rapidly changing temperatures
• They are usually bulky and cumbersome and required lots of
expertise to operate
• It is used to calibrate electrical thermometers
• It can measure a wide range of temperature. With use of
different gases (Hydrogen, Helium and Nitrogen) it can measure
between -270 °C to +1500 °C
Electrical thermometers
Examples are
1. Resistance thermometers
2. Thermocouples
3. Thermoelectric (consisting of two thermocouples that are series
connected with a potentiometer and a constant-temperature bath).
Properties of Electrical thermometers
• They are more accurate than others with exception of gas
thermometers
• They are quicker in action and less cumbersome
 Resistance thermometers
• It cannot measure a local or rapidly changing temperature
• It can be used to measure temperatures between -200° to 1000°C if
the resistance wire is platinum. The resistance wire can also be nickel
and copper
• Thermometric property is the resistance of a metal wire.
Thermocouples
There are different types of thermocouple
• They can be used to measure temperature between -270°C and
approximately 2000°C
• The wire of thermocouples are either platinum or patinum-rhodium
• Thermometric property is electromotive force (emf)
 Thermoelectric
• Its measuring element is the welded junction of two fine
wires
It can measure temperature almost at a point.
• Measuring element is very small
• It can follow rapidly changing temperature because it has
very small heat capacity
• Thermometric property is electromotive force.
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