Lab#1

Date: October 27, 2021

Topic: Evidence of the Particulate Theory of Matter
Activity #1: Diffusion in liquids
Aim: To investigate diffusion in liquids
Process skills:
 Attitudes
 Observations
 Interpretation
 Manipulation
Apparatus & materials: 500 ml measuring cylinder, teat pipette or dropper, saturated sucrose
solution, copper sulphate solution, distilled water
Procedure:
1) 50cmᶾ of saturated sucrose solution was placed in a tall measuring cylinder. With care
50cmᶾ of copper (‫ )׀׀‬sulphate was added. 50cmᶾ of water was added disturbing the lower
layer as little as possible
2) The cylinder was set aside and observed at regular intervals over a seven day period.
Observation was recorded after the seven days had ended.
Observations:
Days Section Color Observed Distance of Spread
1 Bottom Dark Brown 40cmᶾ
40-50 cmᶾ
Dark Green
Middle Cobalt Blue 50-80 cmᶾ
80-100cmᶾ
Blue
Top Pale Blue 100-140cmᶾ
140-150cmᶾ
Clear\ Translucent
2 Unchanged Unchanged Unchanged
3 Unobserved Unobserved Unobserved
4 Unobserved Unobserved Unobserved
5 Bottom Dark Brown 48cmᶾ

Middle Dark Green 48-70cmᶾ

Top Pale Blue 70-142cmᶾ

6 Bottom Dark Brown 63cmᶾ

Middle Green 63-80cmᶾ

Top Pale Blue 80-142cmᶾ

7 Unchanged Unchanged Unchanged

Limitation:
 Colors weren’t completely uniformed after 7 days but the colors lessened
 A spatula had to be used to not cause disturbances
 lower layers were disturbed

Discussion:
Diffusion is the process by which particles of one substance spread out through the particles of
another substance. Diffusion is how smell spreads out through the air and how concentrated
liquids spread out when placed in water. Diffusion happens on its own when particles spread out
from an area of high concentration, where there are many of them, to an area of low
concentration where there are fewer of them. Diffusion happens when the particles are free to
move. This is true in gases and for particles dissolved in solution. In This experiment sucrose
solution gradually dissolved into the copper sulfate and changed from darker into a lighter brown
color. Diffusion took place where the two semi permeable solution merged to become one. In
liquids the particles are arranged at random giving the solutes space to diffuse. With the copper
sulphate and water particles are lighter than that of the sucrose solution.
Conclusion: Diffusion was investigated in liquid and it was concluded that liquids are arranged
randomly giving solutes space to diffuse.

Activity #2
Date: October 27, 2021
Topic: Diffusion in gases
Aim: To compare the rates of the diffusion of ammonia and hydrochloric acid.
Apparatus & materials: glass tubing 1m long, rubber bungs to fit the glass tubing, concentrated
ammonia solution, concentrated hydrochloric acid solution, cotton wool, stop clock or other
timing device.
Process Skills:
 Observing
 Inferring,
 Predicting
 Communication

Procedure:
1) An apparatus as showed in the diagram below was set up.

A1 A2

B C

2) Cotton wools soaked in ammonia and in concentrated hydrochloric acid were simultaneously
inserted at A and B respectively. The rubber bungs were quickly placed in A1 and A2 and a time
was started.
3) All observation was recorded and the time taken for the white ring to form was noted.

Observation:
As seen in the diagram below. A white ring (solid) was formed in the glass tube a few seconds
after the cotton wool were placed in the tube. Two gases could be seen diffusing
simultaneously .the white ring formed closer to side (A2, C) Hydrogen chloride.
DIAGRAM SHOWING THE APPARATUS AFTER THE EXPERIMENT
Limitation:
 The tube was not long enough
Discussion:
A white ring of Ammonium chloride forms inside the tube this experiment demonstrates that the
less dense gas ammonia, travelled (diffuse) faster than the more dense gas, hydrogen chloride.
The white ring is formed as a result of reaction between gaseous ammonia particles and gaseous
hydrogen chloride particles. The particles of the gases diffuse through the air inside the tube,
collide and react to form ammonium chloride. The ammonium chloride forms closer to the
cotton wool socked in hydrochloric acid because ammonia particles are lighter than the hydrogen
chloride particles therefore, the ammonia particles move much faster through the air than the
hydrogen chloride particle. This experiment shows that particles are able to move the ammonia
and hydrogen chloride particles have moved towards each other to form the white ring. There
must have been spaces between the air ammonia and hydrogen chloride particles to allow them
to move between each other. The distance from the cotton soaked in ammonia to the center of the
ring was 21.5cm while the distance from the cotton socked in hydrochloric acid to the ring was
0.5cm. The rate of movement for the gasses under similar conditions was:

Treatment of results:
Relative Rate of Movement of Ammonia = Distance
Time
= 0.25m
583s
= 0.00043m/s
Relative Rate of movement of HCL = Distance
Time
= 0.005m
 583s
=0.000009m

Conclusion: The rates of diffusion were compared between ammonia and hydrochloric acid.
And it was concluded that when gases are less dense it diffuse faster.
Activity #3
Topic: Diffusion in liquids
Aim: To investigate the effects of temperature on the rate of diffusion.
Apparatus & Materials: Potassium permanganate crystals, water (hot and cold), beaker,
thermometer, stopwatch
Process Skills:
 Measuring
 Observing
 Predicting

Procedure:
a) A beaker was filled with 50cmᶾ of tap water and a thermometer was used to take the
temperature of the water and recorded.
b) The top Balance was used to weigh 0.20gram of Potassium Permanganate crystals in the
petri dish then transferred carefully to the beaker with water and a time was started.
c) When the crystals dissolved and the color spread evenly in the beaker with water and a
timer was started.
d) An observation was recorded in a suitable table
e) Steps a-d was repeated using ice water, cold water, and warm water and boiling water.
f) A graph was plotted representing temperature of water against the rate of diffusion.
Observations
Water Temperature Rate of Diffusion
Tap Water 2.4°C 675s
Ice Water 1.1° C 820s
Cold Water 1.9°C 754s
Warm Water 3.2 °C 301s
Boiling Water 5.9°C 126s

TABLE SHOWING THE RESULTS OF DIFFUSION IN LIQUID

Discussion:

Diffusion is the movement of fluid particles from an area of high concentration to an area of low

concentration. Different factors can impact the rate of which particles diffuse such as;

Temperature, distance and the concentration gradient. Higher temperatures increase the energy

and therefore the movement of the molecules, increasing the rate of diffusion. Lower

Temperatures decrease the energy of the molecules thud decreasing the rate of diffusion. The

higher the temperature the more kinetic energy the particles will have, so they will move and mix

more quickly. In this experiment when temperature increases the kinetic energy of the particles

has increased. The increased motion of the particles causes them to diffuse faster; therefore the

potassium manganite will diffuse faster in the hot water then in the cold water.

Conclusion:
Temperature does affect the rate of reaction. The higher the temperature the more kinetic energy
the particles will have so it mixes quickly.
Lab#2
Topic: Types of Mixtures
Aim: To make and determine different types of mixtures
Apparatus and Materials: 100ml beakers, stirring rod, petri dish, top loading balance, mortar

and pestle, milk powder, copper sulphate crystals, soil, chalk, water

Process Skills:

 Observing

 Predicting

 Communicating

Procedure:

a) In a 100 ml beaker, 50ml of distilled water was poured .Then top loading balance was

used to weighed out 10gram of milk powder in a petri dish; the 10grams of milk was then

transferred into the beaker with water. A string rod was used to stir the mixture and the

after the mixture was left to stand for 30minutes.

b) In a 100 ml beaker, 50ml of distilled water was poured, the top balance was used to

weighed out 2g of the copper sulphate crystal, then it was transferred to the beaker with

water and stirred the mixture was left to stand for 30minutes.

c) A mortal and was used to crush some chalk and 20grams was weighed on the top

loading balance then transferred to a 100ml beaker with 50ml of distilled water . A

stirring rod was used to stir the mixture and it was left to stand for 30minutes.

d) 20 grams of soil was weighed out on a petri dish unto a top loading, transferred into a

100ml beaker with 50ml of distilled water. A stirring rod was used to stir the mixture and
 e) After 30minutes all observation was recorded and place on a table.

Observation:

Mixture Observations Separates upon Classification (solution,

standing (yes or suspension, colloid)

no)

Chalk The top layer was clear and the bottom Yes Suspension

layer was a white solution standing.

Copper Uniformed blue color was seen evenly No Solution

Sulphate distributed.

Soil Two distinctive layers were seen, the Yes Suspension

solid particles settled at the bottom and a

lighter brown layer of liquid was seen at

the top.

Milk powder A milky color was seen and appeared No Colloid

evenly dissolved / distributed.

TABLE SHOWING THE RESULTS OF MIXTURES

Discussion:

A mixture consists of two or more substances which are physically combined together in variable

proportions. Each component retains its own individual properties and is not chemically bonded

to any other component of the mixture. There are two types of mixture homogeneous and
heterogeneous, homogeneous mixture is a uniform mixture; it has the same composition and

properties throughout the mixture. It is not possible to distinguish the component parts for each

other. A heterogeneous mixture is a non-uniformed mixture; it is possible to distinguish the

component parts from each other, though not always with the naked eye. All solution are

homogeneous mixtures and heterogeneous mixture include suspensions and colloids.

Distinguish among solutions, suspensions and colloids. The solvent which is the substance that

does the dissolving was water in this experiment and the solute which is the substance that

dissolves was the; copper 2 sulphate and the milk powder. There were three different types of

mixtures in the experiment solution colloid and suspension. In a colloid mixture which was the

milk powder the size of the particles were small, didn’t settle and when they were dispersed the

particles were not visible. The other mixture was solution which was the copper 2 suphate the

particle size was also small and if left undisturbed the components won’t settle The finally

mixture was suspension (chalk and soil) the size of these particles were larger than those of a

colloid, could be seen with the naked eye and if left alone the particles would settle

Conclusion

The different types of mixture were determined and it was concluded that Chalk and soil is a

suspension mixture, copper 2 sulphates is a solution mixture and milk power is a colloid mixture.
Lab Activity #1
Topic: Filtration
Aim: To investigate the separation of mixtures using filtration
Apparatus and materials: filter paper, filter funnel, conical flask, stirring rod, water, soil,
beaker
Processing Skills:
 Observation
 Communicating
 Measuring

Diagram:

DIAGRAM SHOWING THE FILTRATION PROCESS

Procedure:
1. 100cm3 of water was added and some chalk was poured in a beaker, a stirring rod was
used to stir the mixture.
2. Filter paper was placed inside of a funnel and the funnel was placed into the conical
flask.
3. The mixture of soil and water was then poured inside of the funnel with the filter paper,
and the apparatus was left to stand and filter.
4. Observations were recorded when all the filtrate was collected in the flask.
Observations:
All the water was filtered leaving the residue of chalk in the filter paper. Water in the flask was
clear.
Discussion:
Filtration is a method used to separate suspended solids from a liquid when the solid does not
dissolve in the liquid. Filtration is based on the differences in particle size of the components.
The filter paper acts as selective physical barrier that allows the liquid to pass through it, but
does not allow the solid to pass through. Filtration can be used if you want to keep either the
liquid or the solid. Chalk and water can be separated using this technique because filtration is
based on differences in particle size. The final traces of water can be removed from the soil by
process of evaporation. Evaporation is used to separate and retain the solid salute from the liquid
solvent in a solution. Evaporation happens when a liquid turns into a gas.

Conclusion:
The separation of mixtures using filtration was investigated using chalk and water and the
mixture was successfully separated.
Lab # 2
Topic: Simple distillation
Aim: To investigate the separation of mixtures using simple distillation.
Apparatus and materials: round bottom flask, thermometer, Bunsen burner, wire gauze,
retort clamp and stand, condenser, distillation head, graduated cylinder
Process Skills:
 Observation
 Communicating
 Measuring

Diagram of apparatus:

DIAGRAM SHOWING THE SIMPLE DISTILATION APPARATUS

Procedure:
1. The apparatus as shown in the diagram above was assembled.
2. 20 mL of the mixture was added which contained an unknown amounts of acetone and
water.
3. The mixture was heated and allowed to be distilled. The distillation flask was watched to
see that it does not boil so vigorously that the liquid would run over the top. Distillation
should be dropwise.
4. The temperature on the thermometer was recorded for every 0.5 mL of the distillate
received in a suitable table.
5. A graph of temperature versus the volume of the distillate was plotted. Distillation
continued for two or three more data points on the graph after a temperature plateau is
reached close to the boiling point of water (for graphing purpose).
Results:
Amount of Interval Temperature
0.5ml 69°C
1.0ml 70°C
1.5ml 71°C
2.0ml 72°C
2.5ml 73°C
3.0ml 73°C
3.5ml 74°C
4.0ml 75°C
4.5ml 75.5°C
5.0ml 76°C
5.5ml 77.5°C
6.0ml 80°C
6.5ml 82°C
7.0ml 83°C
7.5ml 84°C
8.0ml 84.5°C
8.5ml 87°C
9.0ml 87.1°C
9.5ml 89°C
10.0ml 90°C
10.5ml 90°C

TABLE SHOWING THE RESULTS OF SIMPLE DISTILATION

Discussion:
Simple distillation involves heating the liquid mixture to the boiling point and
immediately condensing the resulting vapors. Simple distillation is used to obtain a pure
solvent from a solution, this method depends on the fact that the solvent vaporizes at a
much lower temperature than the solute. A vertical area on the curve represents a change
in temperature with no drops being collected. This signifies the transition between the
boiling points of two compounds. Therefore before the transition between the two boiling
points, the temperature actually decreases. This occurs because the lower boiling point
compound has been totally removed from the distillation flask and it sometimes takes a
few minutes for the higher boiling point compound’s vapor to reach the thermometer
bulb. During this period where no vapor is hitting the thermometer, the temperature
actually starts to decrease. Once the vapor of the higher boiling point compound hits the
thermometer, the temperature will shoot up to that boiling point. This decrease in
temperature before the boiling point transition is useful because it gives you an indication
 of when to change distillation collection flasks. The two liquids present in the distillation
flask are boiled and the liquid with lower boiling point, that is the acetone, vaporizes first
and gets condensed and isolated from the mixture, leaving behind the water in the flask.

Limitations
1. Impurities- Since the mixture with water and acetone is only boiled and condenses again;
the final product has significant impurities.
2. The liquid was separated but not enough time was given to distinguish which liquid was
separated.
Precautions
1. The apparatus should be set properly with all the components fit well.
2. Never heat the system that is totally closed from the outside atmosphere to prevent the
explosion.
1. Use the glass ware carefully.

Conclusion:
The separation of mixtures using simple distillation was investigated and it was concluded that in
a mixture of acetone and water, the acetone will vaporize first because of the difference in
boiling point.
Lab # 3
Topic: Fractional distillation
Aim: To determine if liquids vaporize at different temperatures and can be separated by
fractional distillation.
Apparatus and materials: round bottom flask, thermometer, condenser, conical flask,
fractionating column, Bunsen burner, clamp and stand.
Process Skills:
 Attitudes
 Observations
 Interpretation
 Manipulation

Diagram:

DIAGRAM SHOWING THE FACTIONAL DISTILLATION APPARATUS

Procedure:
1. The apparatus was set up.
2. The mixture was heated until the temperature at the top of the fractionating column was
78°C The ethanol vapor passed into the condenser, got cooled and collected in a beaker
kept at the other end of the condenser.
3. The temperature 78°C was maintained until no more liquid is collected in the beaker.
4. The beaker was replaced with another beaker.
5. The mixture was heated until the temperature at the top of the fractionating column was
100°C. The water vapor passed into the condenser, got cooled and collected in a beaker
kept at the other end of the condenser.
Discussion:
Fractional distillation is the separation of a mixture into its component parts, or fractions.
Chemical compounds are separated by heating them to a temperature at which one or more
fractions of the mixture will vaporize. It uses distillation to fractionate. Fractional distillation is
used to separate miscible liquids where the components of the liquid mixture have boiling that
are close together. Water boils higher than ethanol because hydrogen bonding is stronger in
water than in ethanol. Water needs higher energy to break those bonds. Hence, water has higher
boiling point at same atmospheric pressure than ethanol. Fractionating columns help to separate
the mixture by allowing the mixed vapors to cool, condense, and vaporize again.
Conclusion:
It was concluded that fractional distillation was carried out and therefore separation of two
liquids ethanol and water mixture occurred.
Lab # 4
Topic: Separation of iron from Sulphur
Aim: To investigate if iron can be separated from a mixture of iron and sulphur by physical
means.
Apparatus and materials: top loading balance, petri dish, filter paper, tissue paper, magnet,
iron powder, Sulphur powder
Process Skills:
 Attitudes
 Observations
 Interpretation
 Manipulation
Procedure:
1. A mixture was prepared that contained iron powder and sulfur powder in the ratio 7:4 by
mass. 7 g of iron powder and 4 g of finely powdered sulfur was weighed out onto
separate pieces of filter paper.
2. The two powders were mixed by pouring repeatedly from one piece of paper to the other
until a homogeneous mixture (by appearance) was obtained and placed in a petri dish.
3. The appearance was noted of the pure elements and the mixture. The end of a paper was
wrap on the end of a small bar magnet and the paper tissue was dipped into the mixture in
the petri dish.

4. The observation was recorded on a suitable table.

Observation:

Iron and Sulphur Powder

Observation 1 The color of iron was black. The color of Sulphur

was bright yellow

Observation 2 After the iron was mixed with the Sulphur the
color of the mixture was brownish color.

Observation 3 After the iron was separated from the Sulphur the
color changed to a darkish yellow
 TABLE SHOWING THE RESULTS OF SEPERATING MIXTURES
Discussion:
A mixture is made from different substances that are not chemically joined. In this experiment
powdered iron and powdered sulfur mixed together make a mixture of iron and sulfur. They can
be separated from each other without a chemical reaction. When iron filings and Sulphur powder
are mixed, both retain their properties. It means they have not undergone any chemical reaction.
Therefore, mixing of iron and Sulphur is a physical change. The separating technique used in this
lab was magnetic separation method, separation of a magnetic substance from non-magnetic
substance by the use of a magnet. Another method can be used to separate iron and Sulphur
mixture this method is called the solvent extraction method, in this method carbon disulphide is
added to a mixture, the Sulphur powder will dissolve in carbon disulphide and iron fillings will
remain undissolved.
Precautions:
1. Precision has to be exercised when weighing the Sulphur and iron to obtain the exact
mass.
2. While mixing the Sulphur and iron special attention was given to ensure there was no
spillage.

Conclusion:
Iron and Sulphur was investigated to observe the separation process by physical means and it
was conclude that iron can be separated from Sulphur using magnetic separation.
Lab # 5
Topic: Paper chromatography
Aim: To use paper chromatography to identify whether certain food colorings are pure
substances or mixtures.
Apparatus and materials: chromatography/filter paper, water, food colorings, beaker, pencil,
tape, plastic wrap
Process skills:
 Attitudes
 Observations
 Interpretation
 Manipulation

Procedure:
1. Hands were washed thoroughly to remove excess oils from the skin. A ruler was
obtained and a piece of chromatography paper from your instructor. The paper was only
handled on the edges to avoid leaving fingerprints.
2. Chromatography paper was placed on the sheet of a clean notebook paper or paper towel
to avoid picking up dirt or contaminants from the bench top. The sheet of paper was
turned into a “landscape” position and the names written on the top edge of the paper in
one corner. A pencil and ruler was used to measure accurately, a straight line was drawn
across the paper, about 1.5 cm above the bottom edge. This was the starting line.
Another line was drawn about 10 cm above the bottom edge. This was the finish line.
3. On the starting line, one side about 2.5 cm was measured and a lightly drawn a small “X”
centered on the starting line. 4 more were drawn, 1.5 cm apart.
4. In the center of each X, a small spot of color was made and at the end, a figure like the
one below was seen.
 DI
AGRAM SHOWING THE PREPARED CHROMATOGRAPHY PAPER

5. The colored spot was redrawn a second time to ensure there is enough color in the spot.
6. A small piece of tape was obtained and the paper gently curled into a cylinder, with the
spots on the outside. The ends were together near the top and bottom, taking good care
that the two edges of the paper do not touch.
7. A 500-mL beaker was taken and 25-mL of water was poured into the beaker. Plastic wrap
was obtained and a piece off to cover the top.
8. Gently the paper cylinder was placed into the beaker and the top covered with the plastic
wrap. The spots must be above the liquid level for the experiment to work. It took about
45-90 minutes for the solvent front to reach the finish line.
9. When the solvent front reached the finish line, the paper was removed from the beaker,
being careful to touch only the top. The excess was left to eluent drip into the beaker.
Gently the tape was removed and laid the chromatogram was on a piece of paper towel in
the hood. The paper was left in the fume hood, where it was dried completely.
10. The names of the original colors beneath each “X” mark were written (from the order in
which it was added to the colors). Each color was not on the “X” mark, and has travelled
up the paper, becoming one or more separate color spots between the starting and finish
lines. A circle was drawn around each color spot.
11. With use of a ruler a plus sign was drawn in the center of each spot. The distance was
measured from the starting line to each plus sign. This distance was recorded for each
spot on the lab report. These were the DD values, in cm.
12. The distance between the starting line and the finish line was measured or, the farthest
up that the solvent front reached. This distance was recorded. This is the FF value, in cm.
13. The retention factor (Rf) was calculated for each spot and the values recorded in the lab
report.
Results:
Colors of spot Distance travelled Distance travelled Retention Factor
(dyes) by different by solvent (Rf)
compounds (FF value)
(DD values cm)
Pink 6cm 10 0.6
Orange 8.4cm 10 0.84
Green 8cm 10 0.8
Blue 9.7cm 10 0.97

TABLE SHOWING THE RESULTS FOR CHROMATOGRAPHY

Discussion:
Paper chromatography is a technique used to separate, purify or identify several solutes which is
present in a solution. The solutes are usually colored and travel through absorbent paper at
different speeds. The solutes are based on how soluble each one is in the solvent used and how
strongly each one is attracted to the paper used. Chromatography can also be used for other
applications example; chromatography is useful in determining which antibodies fight various
diseases and viruses. Scientists used Chromatography in the fight against the Ebola virus, the
process was used to find out which antibodies are the most effective at neutralizing the deadly
virus. Chromatography can accurately identify substances within the bloodstream; it is widely
used in sports to test athletes for doping or performance enhancing drugs. Rf means that when
compared the Rf values of compounds run on the same plate at the same time. If two substances
have the same Rf value, they are likely (but not necessarily) the same compound.  In paper
chromatography, the starting line must be drawn with the help of pencil because the pencil lead
does not dissolve in solvent, thus it will not affect the separation.The main source of error in this
was not making each dot of solution, on the paper, dense enough before allowing the dots to
diffuse across the paper resulting in the values on the table not having the same Rf values.

Conclusion:
Paper chromatography was used to identify whether certain food colorings are pure substances or
mixtures the results were concluded that blue and pink food coloring were pure substance.
Lab # 6
Topic: Separation of immiscible liquids
Aim: To separate oil and water using a separating funnel
Apparatus and materials: separating funnel, filter funnel, stand with clamp, beaker, oil,
distilled water.
Process skills:
 Attitudes
 Observations
 Interpretation
 Manipulation
Procedure:

1. A separating funnel was fixed in a stand.

2. About 50ml of a mixture of oil and water was poured through a filter funnel into a
separating funnel.
3. Close the separating funnel using a lid.
4. The funnel was taken from the stand and inverted.
5. Then the funnel was shaken gently and slowly.
6. The stopcock was opened of the separating funnel to release the pressure inside the
funnel.
7. The funnel was placed in the stand and the two liquids allowed to separate completely.
8. A beaker was taken and placed below the separating funnel and the lid opened.
9. The stopcock of the separating funnel was opened and the lower layer of water carefully
poured into the beaker.
10. Stopcock of the separating funnel was then closed as the oil reaches the separating
funnel.
11. Another beaker was placed below the separating funnel to collect oil from the separating
funnel.

Observations:

The oil was not clearly separated from the water. When the oil was mixed with the water it
formed a cloudy look after shaking. When the separating funnel was placed on the stand a clear
separation of oil and water could be seen, oil bubbles were formed between the oil and water, the
separation of oil and water were observed an even distribution in the beaker.
Limitation:

1. The filter funnel was too short; the 50ml of oil was too much.

Inferences: 

1. The immiscible liquids separate out in layers depending on their densities.

2. The denser liquid will fall to the bottom, forming the lower layer, and the lighter
liquid forms the top layer.

Precautions:

1. Use the glass ware carefully.

2. Open the stopcock of the separating funnel after shaking to release the pressure inside the
funnel.

Conclusion:

The separation of oil and water using a separating funnel was investigated and Two separate
layers of oil and water are formed: water at the bottom and oil at the top.
Name: Manushka Thomas
I.D. #: CH21000046
Lecturer: Mrs. Laverne Napier
Course: Introduction to Chemistry 1