CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

Background of the Study

The influence of the interns' self-efficacy and motivation is the primary cause of their

achievement and eagerness to create accomplishment. People with motivation do their

best to achieve efficacy beliefs. Self-efficacy in academic environments refers to the beliefs

of interns in their abilities to perform tasks, it functions as an index to measure the degree

of success and excellence of performance. However, several of the students who

perceived the importance of education most probably have a higher rate of self-efficacy

and motivation, which resulted in a higher chance of deciding for their career and focused

on their goals in life. Academic motivation is discussed in terms of self-efficacy, an

individual's judgments of his or her capabilities to perform given actions.

Thus, Mosier (2018) studied students who demonstrated lower academic self-

efficacy in their capability to understand rigid course material and choose to complete

optional tasks even if it did not guarantee them a good grade. There was no significant

relationship between the respondent motivation and academic self-efficacy score. Although

not statistically significant, results showed a trend indicating that the higher the cumulative,

the higher the academic self-efficacy scores. Effort, perseverance, and self-regulation are

three dimensions of self-efficacy; effort and perseverance bring success for interns in their

tackling with existing barriers, enhance their performance in confrontation with difficulties,

improve their sense of self-regulation, and help them flourish their potential self-efficacy

(Schunk, 2016). Academic environments are faced with educational insufficiencies which
could lower motivation, sense of empowerment, and self-efficacy of students (Arfaei K.,

2010).

Motivation is among the most important and widely studied concepts in educational

research because of its strong connection with academic outcomes such as learning and

achievement (Lens & Deci, 2006). To understand academic motivation, educational

researchers have adopted a number of theoretical approaches including the expectancy-

value model, attribution theory, goal orientation theory, and self-determination theory

(Opdenakker, Maulana & den Brok, 2012).

The experiences of researchers have shown that the failure of the process of

teaching and learning could result in frustration and reluctance among criminology interns

of Central Mindanao Colleges. Considering the crucial role of criminology in terns in

enforcing laws of society. Researchers active in this field are responsible for investigating

the Self-Efficacy and Academic Motivation of Criminology Interns of Central Mindanao

Colleges.

Thus, the present study was conducted to examine the self-efficacy and academic

motivation among Criminology Interns of Central Mindanao Colleges.

Statement of the Problem

This study aims to determine the Self Efficacy and Academic Motivation of

Criminology Interns. Specifically, this will seek answers to the following questions:

1. What is the level of Self Efficacy among Criminology Interns in Central Mindanao

Colleges in terms of:

1.1 Effort

1.2 Perseverance, and

2. What is the level of Academic Motivation among Criminology Interns in Central

Mindanao Colleges in terms of:

2.1 intrinsic;

2.2 extrinsic?

3. Is there a significant relationship between self-efficacy and academic motivation of

among Criminology Interns in Central Mindanao Colleges?

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Self-efficacy

Self-efficacy is the ability to produce designated performance levels that influence

events that affect their lives. Self-efficacy confidence identifies how people feel, think,

motivate them, and behave. Such practices have these different effects through four major

processes. It includes cognitive, motivational, affective, and selection processes. Bandura

Self-efficacy Theory, 1944 (as cited in Encyclopedia of Human Behavior, 2017)

As stated by Martinez and Maravilla (2020), the basis of human agency is efficacy

beliefs. Students' desire to learn was motivated by their beliefs. Self-efficacy beliefs in

students can change if one understands the origins of self-efficacy beliefs. Suppose given

the student's opportunity and instruction on self-efficacy values. In that case, they will

develop as self-efficient individuals and solve challenges they face in school or their future

lives. Public education system adapts educational delivery methods, school operations,

and policies. With this new paradigm change, self-efficacy in the student crisis and

dedication to the school are essential to study (Baloran & Hernan, 2020).
 According to Lowery (2018), students have higher self-efficacy. They are more likely

to have perseverance than when facing challenges and overcome it more comfortably than

those with low self-efficacy. (Deer, Gohn, Kanaya, 2018) It is significantly essential for US

College students to have higher self-efficacy levels than their anxiety levels. Receiving

positive feedback also helps them have higher levels of job search objectives for their

career preparation. (Lopez-Mcgee, 2018)

Using the Self-Efficacy in Study Abroad Scale (SESAS) to validate the analysis is

significant. Students gained more confidence who are studying abroad to interact with

locals and overcome language barriers. In support study above, Bhatt's (2020) study

showed a correlation between self-esteem and self-efficacy. The study highlights that

higher self-esteem leads to higher self-efficacy. The student is confident that they feel

competent to any task, and it turns to motivating them and working hard to achieve high

performance. If the essential psychological aspect is neglect, it can lead to severe

repercussions for the individuals. However, Bensley (2018) concluded that the self-efficacy

scales and persistence between enrolled students in Aggie Pathway Program had no

difference between those who are not enrolled. Students still wanted to finish their studies

from two-year college to baccalaureate degree. Beek (2019) shows that College Level

Examination Program (CLEP) significantly influences testing and increases students' self-

efficacy, mindset, and aspirations in considering getting a post-secondary degree. In the

study of Mabalay, Gaboy, & Soledad (2020), a high sense of self-efficacy achieved more

dreams in life. In addition, self-efficacy influenced achievement goals such as mastery,

performance, social and extrinsic goals. Nipaz, Belecina, and Garvida (2017) analyze that

by comparing the students' mathematics anxiety, selfefficacy, and performance, they

determined the effect of encouraging and praising language on mathematics anxiety self-
efficacy and performance. The results showed significant results in all outcome variables,

which reveals that encouragement can reduce mathematics anxiety, increase self-efficacy,

and improve students' performance. Hence, Yazon's (2018) study discovered that how

students plan to excel at a behavior has a statistically significant association with their

academic results. As a result, the University's Office of Students Affairs provides self-

esteem-enhancing services to help students maintain their self-efficacy. These would

encourage students to explore their thoughts and feelings in a more in-depth manner. The

scale of self-efficacy beliefs these variables can provide administrators with information

about learners' effectiveness and self-efficacy. Recognizing the Instructor education

programs may benefit from self-efficacy values to improve student outcomes. The

significance of training and students' beliefs in the educational system. (Prado, Tan, &

Pabualan, 2017) However, taking remedial reading courses to the students is suggested

because it will benefit them regardless of whether remedial reading community students

have higher self-efficacy than those who are not. (Wilson, 2017) Writing anxiety is

scientifically significant, with self-efficacy that stands as a predictor but not emotional

intelligence (Huerta, Goodson, Beigi, & Chlup, 2017) Thus, Blanco (2020) indicated that

Results revealed that both self-confidence and self-efficacy are high. Furthermore,

Pearson's r correlation was significant 95% confidence that there is a moderately high

positive correlation between self-confidence and self-efficacy among the students while

engaging in online learning. Rafiola, Setyosari, Radjah, and Ramli (2020) analyzed

learning motivation, self-efficacy and blended learning on students' achievement. The

results showed that Learning Motivation had a positive and significant effect on student

achievement. Self-Efficacy had no significant impact on students' achievement. Blended

learning had a positive and significant impact on achievement learning, and last learning
motivation, self-Efficacy, and blended learning substantially impacted the students'

achievement.

Pajares and Schunk (2002) contend that self-efficacy beliefs impact students in a

variety of ways. Self-efficacy plays a role in academic self-motivation (Bandura, Martinez-

Pons, & Zimmerman 1992). Students with high self-efficacy tend to perceive themselves as

capable of regulating learning and are apt to set challenging personal goals. More

efficacious students are able to be more resistant to negative affective impacts of failure

(Bandura, 1986). Students make choices based upon what they are confident in

attempting. For instance, efficacious students will select rigorous coursework having the

confidence to complete challenging material. Students with low self-efficacy may even

perceive a task as more difficult than it really is and will give up prematurely. Williams and

Williams (2010) attest that while students with high self-efficacy feel motivated to approach

complicated tasks, students with low self-efficacy develop anxiety and nervousness.

Effort

Student effort is one of the important constructs that is used to understand the

behavior of the student towards the teaching-learning process. Understanding the behavior

of students in the academic institutions will provide a glimpse of how the instructions and

academic practices are going on in the university. As such, it could be used as a powerful

tool by the teachers and academic supervisors to design an effective pedagogical

technique to maximize the learning experiences of the students. The data on student

engagement has the advantage of providing information on what students are doing. The

data has a broader significance for the management of institutions, students, and academic

programmes. Rather than work from assumptions or partial anecdotal reports about
student activities, institutions can make decisions based on more objective information.

Information about student activities would provide institutions with valuable information for

marketing and recruitment and help them become more responsive to student learning

needs. Only with accurate and reliable information on what students are doing can

institutions move beyond taking student activities for granted. (Coates, 2005).

Coates (2005) stressed that there is growing recognition of the importance of

understanding student effort and the problem of disengagement in tertiary institutions.

Investigating factors affecting engagement and disengagement can provide insights into

student performance, progression, and retention. Assessment of engagement is potentially

useful when evaluating the quality of student learning experiences and making decisions

about resource provision, course content and delivery.

Student engagement refers to a meaningful engagement throughout the learning

environment. It is best understood as a relationship between the student and the school,

teachers, peers, instruction, and curriculum (Martin and Torres). The term has its historic

roots in a body of work concerned with student involvement, enjoying widespread currency

particularly in North America and Australasia, where it has been firmly entrenched through

annual large scale national surveys (Trowler, 2010).

Perseverance

Perseverance is the non-cognitive trait that is associated with the Grit Scale, as well

as demonstrated to be necessary for success in reaching goals. Perseverance is unrelated

to intelligence (IQ). It is defined as being passionate about your work and resilient in the

face of setbacks (Mangan, 2012).

(Glenn, 2010) found that it is better for students if schools, colleges, and parents look at

intelligence as malleable. Looking at intelligence as flexible rather than fixed allows

students and others who are reaching for goals to continue their quest in spite of setbacks

along the way. Those who look at intelligence with a growth mindset (meaning intelligence

is flexible) are better able to withstand the disappointments of life and look at the

acquisition of knowledge as a journey rather than a given (Dweck, 2006). For those with a

growth mindset, setbacks or barriers are seen as opportunities to overcome rather than the

end of their journey toward their goals.

Angrist, Lang, and Oreopoulos (2009) conduct a large randomized field experiment

designed to assess strategies for improving the academic performance of students.

Specifically, the authors investigate whether performance is affected by student services,

such as peer advising and organized study groups, or incentives in the form of merit-based

scholarships, or a combination of the two. Primary results show that women are more likely

to take up services and incentives than men, and are also more likely to improve their

academic performance after such interventions. These results are consistent with other

international studies showing that female high school students reap greater benefits from

intervention strategies than their male counterparts (Angrist and Lavy, 2009). Furthermore,

combined interventions contribute to superior performance in the form of better grades and

a lower rate of academic probation than either student services or student incentives alone.

Self Regulation

There is no simple way to define the concept of self-regulation. And many models

are put forward based on the different aspects of self-regulated learning. According to
Pintrich, self-regulated learning (SRL) is an active, constructive process whereby students

set goals for their learning and then attempt to monitor, regulate, and control their

cognition, motivation, and behavior guided and constrained by their goals and the

contextual features in the environment (M. Bowkaerts and P. Pintrich, and M. Zeidner,

2000). Many different models focus on different aspects of selfregulated learning. But most

models propose a general time-order sequence that students follow as they fulfill a task.

Zimmerman, for instance, underlined the cyclical nature of self-regulation, assuming that

students use feedback from prior learning experiences to make adjustments to goals and

strategies for subsequent efforts. Pintrich put forward a general conceptual framework

which brought together different cognitive, motivational, emotional and contextual

concepts. And one of the outstanding features of his model is the integration of

motivational components in self-regulated learning.

The motivation includes the students’ expectations about the competence to perform

the task and task value. In terms of motivational beliefs, three components were

considered to be related to out study. The first is academic efficacy, which can be defined

as student’s judgments of their own capabilities to successfully perform academic tasks

(Bandra, 1997). Generally, self-efficacy beliefs provide individuals with “a sense of agency

to motivate their learning through use of such self-regulatory processes as goal setting,

selfmonitoring, self-evaluation, and strategy use”. The second motivational component was

intrinsic value. It can be defined as students’ judgments of how interesting, important, and

useful a course is to them. Schunk once drew a conclusion that students who find learning

activities interesting, important and useful are more likely to use adaptive learning

strategies and perform well on those activities. And it is also generally accepted that

intrinsic value is positively related to student’s performance and learning. For instance,
Pintrich’s research has demonstrated that intrinsic value was an important predictor of

academic achievement. The third motivational component concerns students' test anxiety.

This study focused on negative emotions because it earlier works revealed that many

students had negative feelings about test, which would negatively affect students’

achievement. Research on test anxiety has been linked to student's met cognition,

cognitive strategy use, and effort management (Zimmerman, 2000).

Self regulation is the basis for the most autonomous form of extrinsically motivated

behavior. Integrated regulation results when identifications have been assessed and

brought into congruence with the personally endorsed values, goals, and needs that are

part of the self. Previous studies showed that integrated extrinsically motivated behaviors

are associated with more positive experiences than the less fully internalized forms of

extrinsic motivation. Integrated extrinsic motivation and intrinsic motivation have many

similarities (Deci & Ryan, 2002).

Self-determination theory is a concept included in intrinsic motivation. Self -

determination theory takes the experience of freedom inside one’s commencing behavior

as reference. The pressure caused by the condition of strengthening and any other

pressure is decisive on one’s actions. Self-determination often includes results or one’s

environmental control and choices (Deci & Ryan, 1985). Self-determination theory takes

personal growth, selfarrangement, global psychological needs, purpose of living, longings,

energy and validity, unaware periods, cultural relations for motivation and effects of

motivation on social environments as reference (Deci & Ryan, 2008). Selfdetermination

theory offers relatively more autonomy supplying social content or enriches internal

motivation (Vansteenkiste, et al., 2006).

Self-efficacy determines how people feel, think, motivate themselves and behave.

This concept is related to the beliefs that people have about their capacity to complete a

specific task. This is constructed from the information arriving from a range of different

sources (Bandura,1993, 1994; Bandura & Locke, 2003). So, judgments of self-efficacy

result from previous experiences / accomplishments, from vicarious experience (modeled

by others), from social persuasion resulting after training and evaluative feedback, and

from the physical and emotional conditions of the subjects.

Beliefs about self-efficacy have a significant impact on the definition of goals, and

compliance through the influence they exert on individually choice, motivation, resilience,

and on emotional reactions. These, on the other hand, will influence the effort and

persistence in performing a given task. This means that self-efficacy influences either the

cognitive or the affective dimension of the learning process.

However, when it comes to online contexts, the information sources may have other

origins. The variables that influence self-efficacy in online contexts may come either from

previous successes in online systems, anxiety towards technology learning, feedback from

teacher / trainer or frequency of a pretraining course (Stone, 1993).

Bates & Khasawneh (2007) attempted to study the influence on the perception of

self-efficacy in online learning, the variables that precede the learning process and its

repercussion on the expectation of result. For them the successes that students obtained in

the past in online contexts influence their self-efficacy. So, they point out to the importance

of adequate and premature training enabling students to meet and practice the different

elements that a system of online learning provides. This point can connect to the feeling of

ability to work / study / use a virtual learning system as an incorrect perception of this ability
can influence the feeling of self-efficacy and, consequently, performance. The feedback

provided by the teacher is another very important source of information to enhance /

regulate the sense of self-efficacy.

Academic Motivation

Motivation is essential in almost every aspect of human behavior (Muraya, 2018).

According to Priest and Yandell (2019), motivation remains a strong influence on guiding

human behavior. Students often experience motivation in their desires to learn or to get a

grade. These learning-oriented and grade-oriented interpretations of motivation help

orchestrate student behavior. With college courses' strong emphasis on group work,

students rarely demonstrate these academic motivations independently. One study

subsequently explored the connection of academic motivations to group dynamics. Thus,

Eisenkraft (2017) explained that students know who like them but not who competes

against them. It was also found that students have difficulty perceiving what motivates their

peers, be it learning or grades. Results indicated that arrangements of what motivated

group members connected to the respondents, but not performance. These studies

collectively suggest that even though students may not know what motivates their peers,

those motivations relate to how enjoyable the group experience.

Although a variety of predictors of procrastination have been explored, the current

study looked specifically at academic motivation. Vallerand and Bissonnette (1992) defined

seven specific subtypes of academic motivation: three types of IM (to Know, Toward

Accomplishment, to Experience Stimulation), three types of EM (Identified, Introjected,

External Regulation), and Amotivation. IM actions and thoughts are brought forth

voluntarily with awareness of no external gain or reward; they are behaviors performed
strictly for the pleasure of the behavior (Vallerand & Bissonnette, 1992). IM to Know

indicates motivation out of the satisfaction from learning new material. IM Toward

Accomplishment indicates motivation out of the enjoyment from achieving something. IM to

Experience Stimulation indicates motivation out of desiring both mind and physical sensory

stimulations (Fairchild, Horst, Finney, & Barron, 2005).

In contrast, extrinsically motivated actions and thoughts are brought forth for goals

or rewards extending past the act itself (Vallerand & Bissonnette, 1992). EM Identified

indicates motivation from the person feeling as if they will benefit from it in the future. EM

Introjected indicates motivation from an internalization of feelings such as guilt for not

completing or pride in completing work. EM External Regulation indicates motivation from

an external person applying incentive or limitation to an activity. Amotivated behaviors are

characterized by a lack of selfdetermination, purpose, and care for internal or external

rewards (Vallerand & Bissonnette, 1992).

Yoshida et al. (2008) studied the relationship between academic motivation and

performing easy and difficult tasks in a sample of college students. After completing easy

and difficult square or jigsaw puzzle tasks (signifying academic tasks), the participants’

motivational levels were scored. Yoshida et al. (2008) found that those with higher

academic motivation tended to persevere to complete the difficult tasks, and those with

lower academic motivation tended to continue working on easy tasks.

 Intrinsic

Intrinsic motivation is a source that is central to the nature of the organism.

Intrinsic motivation depends on the innate need for competence and self-determination.

It provides the fuel for various behaviors and psychological processes. Intrinsic needs
are different from primary drives because they are not based in deficits and they do not

function cyclically. However, both of them are innate and provide an energy source for

behavior. In addition, intrinsic motivation can increase or decrease the intensity of

drives and also influence the way one satisfies one’s drives (Deci & Ryan, 1985).

Furthermore, intrinsic motivation serves as a possible mechanism through which

academic buoyancy is associated with the perceived literary award. Findings

emphasize the educational benefits of cultivating students' capability to deal with daily

academic hassles (Bernardo, 2017).

In support of the study above, Allen & Kern (2017) suggests that academic

motivation influences a sense of belonging and belonging influences student motivation.

Researchers show various evidence-based strategies to increase academic motivation,

with the flow-on effects for school belonging. These individual-based plans include

perceived academic ability, future aspirations, goal pursuit, embracing failure,

motivation, meaningful learning, and self-regulation. Thus, in her study, Lucey (2018)

found that when motivation is present in adult online learners, they are most likely to

attend class and complete their activities. However, lack of motivation is the primary

cause of student dropout. But when reason is present, students are more likely to

continue and persist with their studies. Nevertheless, Staumont (2017) claims that

having a process will help collaborate with best ideas, self-efficacy, and effective

leadership, influencing students' behavior and motivation from a clearer vision of a

leader.

David (2018) studied how students detect and address motivational deficits using

current motivational regulatory models (e.g., not enough motivation or not the correct

type of inspiration). We recommend that meta motivational mechanisms play an

motivation, metacognition, and emotion regulation literature.

The study Balaskova (2018) investigates motivation in higher education and

connects it to the idea of sustainability. It compromises a theoretical examination of the

terms' sustainable motivation' and 'academic motivation' and specifically postulates and

explains 'sustainable academic motivation.' Results also emphasized a discrepancy

between the opinions of respondents. Based on the outcome, and with the support of

other views, sustainable academic motivation is subsequently defined from five

perspectives: (a) As an essential component of conscious action; (b) as the starting

place of behavior; (c) as the control of behavior and development; (d) as the process;

and (e) as the conclusion level of all motivational efforts and powers at higher-education

institutions.

 Extrinsic

Extrinsic motivation is separated into four categories four as external

regulation, introjected regulation, identified motivation and integrated regulation

(Deci & Ryan, 2002). External regulation occurs when the behavior is formed

externally (Vallerand & Bissonnette, 1992). External regulation occurs when

students relate results in order to control for the function of time and rewards they

attribute to learned activities (Zimmerman, 2012). The least autonomous type of

extrinsic motivation is external regulation, which involves being motivated to obtain

rewards or avoid punishments. External regulation has an external perceived locus

of causality (Skinner, 1953, as cited by Deci & Ryan, 2002). Introjected regulation

refers to an internalized external regulation but which is not truly accepted as one’s

own. It is some form of partially internalized extrinsic motivation. Introjection is a

are performed in order to avoid guilt or to produce ego enhancements and feelings

of worthiness. This type of regulation depends on contingent self-esteem (Deci&

Ryan, 1995, as cited in Deci &Ryan, 2002). Regulation through identification is a

more self-determined form of extrinsic motivation, because it includes valuing of a

behavioral goal or regulation. Identification is important in transforming external

regulation into true self-regulation. Identification seems to have an internal perceived

locus of causality (Deci, & Ryan, 2002). Identification is the process of specification

of an activity by its value and the way an acceptable regulation of one’s dynamism is

taken as reference (Vansteenkiste, Lens, & Deci, 2006).

Using the academic motivation scale researcher examines the motivation of

undergraduate business students. The researcher looks into the difference in

motivation between business majors and a variety of nonbusiness majors. There

were contrasts in the motivation patterns, but business majors were not less

motivated than non-business students. As anticipated, business students reveal an

overall robust extrinsic orientation. Nevertheless, they scored significantly high on

the intrinsic desire with regard accomplishment subscale (Scifres, 2021). The study

Berestova, Kolosov, Tsvetkova, Grib (2021) deals with developing critical thinking

among university students, its connection with motivation for learning, and student's

academic achievements. The basis of the study is to elaborate on the relationship

linking academic motivation and critical thinking.

The study implies a survey based on the academic motivation scale. Results

of the analysis of the questionnaires showed that among the students surveyed, the

types of motivation contributing to self-development and research predominate. The

that contributes to critical thinking was rejected. Few ways have been proposed to

track and help students with low academic motivation: regular testing, student

identification with Motivation and solid extrinsic Motivation, and psychological

support.

Relationship of Self-efficacy and Academic Motivation

Self-efficacy is the root of an individual's belief in their capability to achieve.

Nevertheless, motivation is based on the individual's wants to achieve. Therefore, those

with higher self-efficacy most have higher motivation and vice versa (Ackerman, 2020).

Thus, Weda, Sukardi and Abdul Samad, Iskandar and Patak, Andi Anto and Fitriani,

Siti and Sarah (2018) examine whether self-efficacy, motivation, and learning strategies

correlate to students' academic performance. One hundred and twenty-five

undergraduates participated in this study. Students were administered a questionnaire

consisting of three critical key topics: self-efficacy belief, motivation, and learning

strategies. The study shows a significant relationship between self-efficacy and academic

performance, motivation learning strategies. According to Ahmad (2019), there is a

significant relationship between self-efficacy and academic motivation. Therefore, to

improve self-esteem, self-regulation, and academic motivation among students, there is

essential that teachers must do so in their style of teaching when exposing in the

classroom to make sure delivering are more successful towards students.

In support of the study mentioned above study of Rhew, Piro, Goolkasian,

Cosentino (2018) showed that having the broad mindset intervention had a significant

difference in the academic motivation but not adolescent select education's participant in
self-efficacy. The more they have developed in thinking, it can highly affect in motivations

academically. Gallagher (2017) eloquently stated that self-efficacy has a significant

connection to their careers and studies. Therefore, having relatedness to this may

conclude that it can affect their academic motivation and career goals. However, lack of

guidance is the cause of their low confidence in their performance. But when their parents

are here in the Philippines, their self-efficacy increases and motivates them to do their

studies (Campos, 2020).

Triasanti's (2019) study shows that interest and motivation significantly influenced

students' learning outcomes, as demonstrated by their final exam grades in the subject. It

concludes that that high level of interest and motivation determined learning outcomes. On

the side of Steinmayr (2019), domain-specific ability self-concept, motives, task values, and

learning goals but not performance goals prove a significant amount of variance in grades

above all other predictors of which ability self-concept was the strongest predictor.

As Malkoc (2018) mentioned, his study concludes that there is a relationship

between self-efficacy, academic motivation, self-regulated learning, and students'

academic achievement. Students with high selfefficacy, academic motivation, and self-

regulated learning can improve their academic achievement. Regarding the relationship

between self-efficacy, academic motivation, and self-regulated learning, students with high

self-efficacy and academic motivation can manage self-regulated learning. However, a

negative relationship is observed between self-efficacy and academic achievement. This

relationship can occur because students are overconfident and underconfident in their

abilities. On the other hand, the association between academic motivation and academic

achievement is significantly positive, signifying that high academic motivation can

encourage students to become academic achievers.

academic motivation, self-regulated learning, and academic achievement. Moreover,

empirically proved the mediating role of self-regulated learning on self-efficacy, academic

motivation, and student achievement. Results found a relationship between self-efficacy,

academic motivation, self-regulated learning, and academic achievement.

The Relationship Between Motivation And Self-Regulation Learning

Motivational control and the process of regulation lead to positive conditioned results

on academic performance (Schunk, 2005). Self-regulation learning is related to motivation

(Schraw, Crippen, & Hartley, 2006; Schunk & Ertmer, 2010; Pintrich, 2010; Zimmerman,

2010; Zimmerman & Schunk, 2004). Self-regulation increases learning and maintains

motivation (Schunk & Ertmer, 2010). Motivation predicts self-regulation (Schunk, 2008).

School belonging, affective response, affective motivation, cognitive resources, and self-

regulation are associated with academic achievement (Baumeister & Leary, 1995, cite by

Anderman & Freeman, 2004). There is a significant relationship between motivation and

self-regulated learning (Mahmoodi, Kalantarib & Ghaslanic, 2014).

Ekhlas and Shangarffam (2013) found correlations between academic self-regulated

strategies and reading, writing, speaking, listening, and language experience. Heikkilä and

Lonka (2006) detected a low positive relationship between academic average and self-

regulated learning. Carolina, Lucia and Rossana (2014) determined that selfregulated

learning and motivation had positive effects on academic achievement. Rytkonen, Parpala,

LindblomYlanne, Virtanen, and Postareff (2012) demonstrated that social support and self-

regulation skills are important for academic achievement. Gaythwaite (2006) found a

significant relationship between final scores and self-regulated learning. Amrai, Motlagh,
Zalani, and Parhon (2011) detected a correlation between academic achievement and

motivation. Özder and Motorcan (2013) found a significant correlation between academic

motivation and academic achievement. McGhee (2010) determined a low negative

correlation between motivation and academic achievement. Lavender (2005) found a

significant correlation between extrinsic motivation external regulation, which is one of the

sub factors of academic motivation scale, and academic achievement.

Önder, Beşoluk, İskender, Masal, and Demirhan (2014) determined that academic

motivation has a significant effect on academic achievement. Cokley, Bernard,

Cunningham, and Motoike (2001) found significant correlations between GPA and the

amotivation, intrinsic motivation to know, intrinsic motivation to achieve, and intrinsic

motivation to experience stimulation sub factors. Robinson (2003) detected a positive

correlation between intrinsic motivation to achieve and achievement and a negative

correlation between amotivation and achievement. Lavender (2005) found a significant

relationship between academic achievement and the amotivation sub factor of the

academic motivation scale. Kosnin (2007) detected a significant correlation between

academic achievement and selfregulated learning. Ning and Downing (2012) determined

that self-regulation and motivation have minor regulating effects on the relationship

between academic performance and learning experiences.

Ekhlas and Shangarffam (2013) found that academic self-regulated learning

strategies predicted 17.5% of the variance in IELTS reading skills. Kim and Seo (2013)

showed that self-regulated learning explained academic achievement. Komarraju, Karau,

and Schmeck (2009) determined that the best predictors of achievement are amotivation

and intrinsic motivation to accomplish. Robinson (2003) found that the intrinsic motivation,

extrinsic motivation and amotivation subscales of the academic motivation scale explained
8% of the variance in academic achievement. Kosnin (2007) determined that self-regulated

learning is the best predictor of academic achievement in college students. Also, student

motivation was the strongest predictor of academic performance (Kosnin, 2007; cited by

Ning & Downing, 2012).

Summary

In the present study, we assessed self-reported levels of different types of self-

efficacy and academic motivation in Criminology Interns of Central Mindanao Colleges. We

hypothesized that, consistent with previous studies, academic motivation and self-efficacy

together would have a strong relationship among Criminology Interns. In addition,

consistent with previous research that has emphasized the strong relationship between

motivation and academic outcomes (Klassen et al., 2010; Klibert et al., 2011; Prat-Sala &

Redford, 2010; Yoshida et al., 2008), we hypothesized that academic motivation would

have a stronger negative relationship with procrastination than self-efficacy.

Theoretical Framework

Within the framework of Social Cognitive Theory by Bandura (2017) self-efficacy is

viewed as a core construct and defined as “belief in one’s capabilities to organize and

execute the courses of action required to produce given attainments”. Research on self-

efficacy suggests that people with higher levels of self-efficacy tend to pursue challenging

goals and to have strong commitment even when they encounter with difficulties. On the

contrary, people with lower levels of self-efficacy are more likely to avoid difficult tasks,
have less commitment and effort to pursue their personal goals, and are more vulnerable

to stress and depression (Bandura, 2013).

As another specific domain of self-efficacy, academic self-efficacy refers to a

student’s perception regarding competence in learning and performing academic tasks

(Schunk & Pajares, 2002). It must be mentioned that academic self-efficacy is similar to but

distinct from academic self-concept which refers to “individuals’ knowledge and perceptions

about themselves in achievement situations” (Bong & Skaalvik, 2003, p.6). Ferla, Valcke

and Cai’s (2009) research indicates that academic self-efficacy and academic self-concept

were two correlated but conceptually and empirically distinct psychological constructs.

Their findings further revealed that academic self-efficacy was a stronger predictor of

academic achievement whereas academic self-concept had more influence on motivational

variables. A study by Zajacova, Lynch and Espenshade (2005) showed that academic self-

efficacy was a better predictor of academic success than stress in college freshman.

Motivation is among the most important and widely studied concepts in educational

research because of its strong connection with academic outcomes such as learning and

achievement (Fortier, Vallerand, & Guay, 1995; Green et al., 2006; Vallerand et al., 1992;

Vansteenkiste, Lens & Deci, 2006). To understand academic motivation, educational

researchers have adopted a number of theoretical approaches including the expectancy-

value model, attribution theory, goal orientation theory, and self-determination theory

(Opdenakker, Maulana & den Brok, 2012). Among these, Self Determination Theory (SDT)

of academic motivation by Deci and Ryan (1985, 2000, 2008) is viewed as a sound

framework for explaining the differences among students in terms of learning strategies,

persistence and performance (Vallerand et al., 1992; Vansteenkiste, Lens & Deci, 2006)
and for linking motivation to educational environments such as the classroom climate

(Opdenakker, Maulana & den Brok, 2012; Vansteenkiste, Lens & Deci, 2006).

In a recent conceptualization of SDT, three types of motivational construct have

been proposed: (1) Autonomous motivation refers to engaging in an activity with a sense of

volition and self-endorsement and includes intrinsic motivation and well internalized forms

of extrinsic motivation. (2) Controlled motivation consists of both external regulation such

as reward and punishment and introjected regulation in which a partial internalization has

occurred because of the desire for approval, avoidance of shame and self-esteem. (3)

Amotivation denotes absence of intention and motivation (Deci &Ryan, 2008, 2010).

Conceptual Framework

Figure 1 shows the conceptual model of the relationship of the variables. The

independent variable is the level self-efficacy of the criminology interns in terms of Effort,

Perseverance and Self-Regulation. The dependent variable is the profile academic

motivation of the criminology interns as intrinsic or extrinsic.

Independent Variable Dependent Variable

Level of Self-Efficacy Academic Motivation

a. Effort a. Intrinsic
b. Perseverance b. Extrinsic
c. Self-Regulation

Figure 1. Showing the Relationship of Independent and Dependent Variables