Process Diagrams

The chemical process industry (CPI) is involved in the production of a wide variety of products.
In general, chemical processes are complex, and chemical engineers in industry encounter a variety of chemical
process flow diagrams. Chemical processes often involve substances of high chemical reactivity, high toxicity, and
high corrosivity operating at high pressures and temperatures. These characteristics can lead to a variety of potentially
serious consequences, including explosions, environmental damage, and threats to people’s health. It is essential
that errors or omissions resulting from missed communication between persons and/or groups involved in the design
and operation do not occur when dealing with chemical processes. Visual information is the clearest way to present
material.

The most effective way of communicating information about a process is through the use of flow diagrams.

Three diagrams are important to chemical engineers: block flow, process flow, and piping and instrumentation
diagrams. Of these three diagrams, the most useful to chemical engineers is the PFD.
BLOCK FLOW DIAGRAM (BFD)

Block flow diagrams were introduced early in the chemical engineering curriculum. In the first course in material
and energy balances, often an initial step was to convert a word problem into a simple block diagram. This diagram
consisted of a series of blocks representing different equipment or unit operations that were connected by input and
output streams. Important information such as operating temperatures, pressures, conversions, and yield was included
on the diagram along with flowrates and some chemical compositions. However, the diagram did not include any
details of equipment within any of the blocks.
Characteristics of BFDs
1. Operations shown by blocks.
2. Major flow lines shown with arrows giving direction of flow.
3. Flow goes from left to right whenever possible.
4. Light stream (gases) toward top with heavy stream (liquids and solids) toward
bottom.
5. Critical information unique to process supplied.
6. If lines cross, then the horizontal line is continuous and the vertical line is broken
7. Simplified material balance provided.
Utility Summary Table
Equipment Information
The process flow diagram (PFD) represents a quantum step up from the BFD in terms of the
amount of information that it contains. The PFD contains the bulk of the chemical engineering data necessary for the
design of a chemical process. A typical commercial PFD will contain the following information:

• All the major pieces of equipment in the process will be represented on the diagram along with a description
of the equipment. Each piece of equipment will have assigned a unique equipment number and a descriptive
name.

• All process flow streams will be shown and identified by a number. A description of the process conditions
and chemical composition of each stream will be included. These data will be either displayed directly on the
PFD or included in an accompanying flow summary table.

• All utility streams supplied to major equipment that provides a process function will be shown.

• Basic control loops, illustrating the control strategy used to operate the process during
normal operations will be shown.
The basic information provided by a PFD can be categorized into one of the following:

1. Process topology
2. Stream information
3. Equipment information

Process Topology

Process topology illustrates the location of the major pieces of equipment and the connections that the process
streams make between equipment. The location of and interaction between equipment and process streams are
referred to as the process topology.

Equipment is represented symbolically by “icons” that identify specific unit operations. Although the American
Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) publishes a set of symbols to use in preparing flowsheets, it is not
uncommon for companies to use in-house symbols.
Table provides the information necessary for the identification of the process equipment icons shown in a PFD. As
an example of how to use this information, consider the unit operation P-101A/B and what each number or letter
means.

P-101A/B identifies the equipment as a pump.

P-101A/B indicates that the pump is located in area 100 of the plant.
P-101A/B indicates that this specific pump is number 01 in unit 100.
P-101A/B indicates that a backup pump is installed. Thus, there are two identical
pumps, P-101A and P-101B. One pump will be operating while the other is idle.

C - Compressor or Turbine E - Heat Exchanger H - Fired Heater P – Pump

R – Reactor T – Tower TK - Storage Tank V – Vessel
Y designates an area within the plant A/B identifies parallel units or backup units not shown on a PFD

Stream Information

Each of the process streams is identified by a number in a diamond box located on the stream. The direction of the
stream is identified by one or more arrowheads. The process stream numbers are used to identify streams on the
PFD.
Utilities are needed services that are available at the plant. Chemical plants are provided with a range of central
utilities that include electricity, compressed air, cooling water, refrigerated water, steam, condensate return, inert
gas for blanketing, chemical sewer, wastewater treatment, and
Flares.

Utilities:

lps Low-Pressure Steam: 3–5 barg (sat)*

mps Medium-Pressure Steam: 10–15 barg (sat)*
hps High-Pressure Steam: 40–50 barg (sat)*
htm Heat Transfer Media (Organic): to 400°C
cw Cooling Water: From Cooling Tower 30°C Returned at Less than 45°C†
wr River Water: From River 25°C Returned at Less than 35°C
rw Refrigerated Water: In at 5°C Returned at Less than 15°C
rb Refrigerated Brine: In at −45°C Returned at Less than 0°C
cs Chemical Wastewater with High COD
ss Sanitary Wastewater with High BOD, etc.
el Electric Heat (Specify 220, 440, 660V Service)
bfw Boiler Feed Water
ng Natural Gas
fg Fuel Gas
fo Fuel Oil
fw Fire Water

Information Provided in a Flow Summary

Required Information
Stream Number
Temperature (°C)
Pressure (bar)
Vapor Fraction
Total Mass Flowrate (kg/h)
Total Mole Flowrate (kmol/h)
Individual Component Flowrates (kmol/h)

Optional Information

Component Mole Fractions

Component Mass Fractions
Individual Component Flowrates (kg/h)
Volumetric Flowrates (m3/h)
Significant Physical Properties
Density
Viscosity
Other
Thermodynamic Data
Heat Capacity
Stream Enthalpy
K-values
Stream Name

Equipment Information

The final element of the PFD is the equipment summary. This summary provides the information necessary to
estimate the costs of equipment and furnish the basis for the detailed design of equipment. Table 1.6 provides the
information needed for the equipment summary for most of the equipment encountered in fluid processes.
Symbols for stream identification
Piping & Instrumentation diagrams (P&IDs)

The piping and instrumentation diagram (P&ID), also known as mechanical flow diagram (MFD), provides
information needed by engineers to begin planning for the construction of the plant.
Conventions used for identifying Instrumentation on P&IDs
Problems from Fourth Edition

Problem 1.1
What are the three principal types of diagrams used by process engineers to describe the flow of chemicals in a process? On which of
these diagrams would you expect to see the following items?
a. The temperature and pressure of a process stream
b. An overview of a multiple-unit process
c. A major control loops
d. A pressure indicator
e. A pressure-relief valve

Solution
(a) PFD (b) BFD (c) PFD or P&ID (d) P&ID (e) P&ID

Problem 1.2
A problem has occurred in the measuring element of a level-indicating controller in a
batch reactor. To what principal diagram should you refer in order to troubleshoot
the problem?

Solution
P&ID
Problem 1.3
Why is it important for a process engineer to be able to review a three-dimensional model (actual or virtual/electronic) of the plant prior
to the construction phase of a project?

Solution
It is important for a process engineer to be able to review a 3-dimensional model prior to
the construction phase to check for clearance, accessibility, and layout of equipment, piping, and instrumentation.

Problem 1.4
Name five things that would affect the locations of different pieces of equipment when determining the layout of equipment in a
process unit.

Solution
(1) Clearance for tube bundle removal on a heat exchanger.
(2) NPSH on a pump – affects the vertical separation of feed vessel and pump inlet.
(3) Accessibility of an instrument for an operator – must be able to read a PI or change/move a valve.
(4) Separation between equipment for safety reasons – reactors and compressors.
(5) Crane access for removing equipment.
Problem 1.5

There are two common reasons for elevating the bottom of a tower by means of a “skirt.” One reason is to provide enough NPSHA for
bottoms product pumps to avoid cavitation. What is the other reason?

Solution

Another reason to elevate the bottom of a tower is to provide enough hydrostatic head
driving force to operate a thermosiphon reboiler.

Problem 1.6
What is the purpose(s) of a pipe rack in a chemical process?

Solution
A pipe rack provides a clear path for piping within and between processes. It keeps piping off the ground to eliminate tripping hazards
and elevates it above roads to allow vehicle access.
Problem 1.7

During a retrofit of an existing process, a vessel used to supply the feed pump to a batch reactor has been replaced because of excessive
corrosion. The vessel is essentially identical to the original one, except it is now grounded differently to reduce the corrosion. If the
function of the vessel (namely, to supply liquid to a pump) has not changed, answer the following questions:

a. Should the new vessel have a new equipment number, or should the old vessel
number be used again? Explain your answer.

b. On which diagram or diagrams (BFD, PFD, or P&ID) should the change in the
grounding setup be noted?

Solution

(a) A new vessel number need not be used, but it would be good practice to add a letter to donate a new vessel, e.g. V-203 → V-
203N. This will enable an engineer to locate the new process vessel sheet and vendor information.

(b) P&ID
Problem 1.8

Draw a section of a P&ID diagram for a vessel receiving a process liquid through an
insulated 4-in schedule-40 pipe. The purpose of the vessel is to store approximately 5
minutes of liquid volume and to provide “capacity” for a feed pump connected to the
bottom of the pump using a 6-in schedule-40 pipe. The diagram should include the
following features:

a. The vessel is numbered V-1402 and the pump(s) are P-1407 A/B.
b. The discharge side of the pump is made of 4-in schedule-40 carbon steel pipe and
all pipe is insulated.
c. A control valve is located in the discharge line of the pump, and a double block
and bleed arrangement is used (see Problem 1.15 for more information).
d. Both pumps and vessel have isolation (gate) valves.
e. The pumps should be equipped with drain lines that discharge to a chemical sewer.
f. The vessel is equipped with local pressure and temperature indicators.
g. The vessel has a pressure-relief valve set to 50 psig that discharges to a flare system.
h. The vessel has a drain valve and a sampling valve, both of which are connected to
the vessel through separate 2-in schedule-40 CS lines.
i. The vessel level is used to control the flow of liquid out of the tank by adjusting the
setting of the control valve on the discharge side of the pump.
Solution
Problem 1.9
A standard method for instrumenting a control valve is termed the “double block
and bleed,” which is illustrated in the following figure:
Under normal conditions, valves a to c are open and valves d and e are closed. Answer the following:
a. Explain, carefully, the sequence of opening and closing valves required in order to
change out the valve stem on the control valve (valve b).
b. What changes, if any, would you make to Figure P1.15 if the process stream did
not contain a process chemical but contained process water?
c. It has been suggested that the bypass valve (valve d) be replaced with another
gate valve to save money. Gate valves are cheap but essentially function as on-off
valves. What do you recommend?
d. What would be the consequence of eliminating the bypass valve (valve d)?

Solution
(a)
(i) Open globe valve d
(ii) Shut off gate valves a and c
(iii) Open gate valve e and drain contents of isolated line to sewer
(iv) Perform necessary maintenance on control valve b
(v) Reconnect control valve b and close gate valve e
(vi) Open gate valves a and c
(vii) Close globe valve d

(b) Drain from valve E can go to regular or oily water sewer.

(c) Replacing valve D with a gate valve would not be a good idea because we lose
the ability to control the flow of process fluid during the maintenance operation.
(d) If valve D is eliminated then the process must be shut down every time
maintenance is required on the control valve.

Problem 1.16 (Third edition)

Often, during the distillation of liquid mixtures, some noncondensable gases are dissolved in the feed to the tower. These
noncondensables come out of solution when heated in the tower and may accumulate in the overhead reflux drum. In order for the
column to operate satisfactorily, these vapors must be periodically vented to a flare or stack. One method to achieve this venting process
is to implement a control scheme in which a process control valve is placed on the vent line from the reflux drum. A pressure signal
from the drum is used to trigger the opening or closing of the vent line valve. Sketch the basic control loop needed for this venting
process on a process flow diagram representing the top portion of the tower.
Solution
Problem 1.17 (Third edition)
Repeat Problem 1.16, but create the sketch as a P&ID to show all the instrumentation
needed for this control loop.
Solution
Problems from second edition

Problem 1
Prepare a block flow diagram (BFD) for the following process and indicate the flow rates of the principal chemical components:
A refinery stream containing paraffins and a mixture of aromatics (benzene, toluene, xylene and heavy aromatics) is extracted with a
liquid solvent to recover the aromatics. The solvent and aromatics are separated by distillation with the solvent recycled to the extraction
column. The aromatics are separated in 3 columns, recovering benzene, toluene, xylene in that order.
The feed stream consists of the following:

Paraffins: 300000 kg/h

benzene: 100000 kg/h
toluene: 180000 kg/h
xylene: 70000 kg/h
heavy aromatics: 40000 kg/h

A 3 to 1 weight ratio of solvent to aromatics is used.

Problem 2
In a process to separate and purify propane from a mixture of propane and heavier straight chain saturated hydrocarbons (n-butane, n-
pentane etc), the feed stream is fed to the 18 th tray of a 24-tray distillation column. The overhead vapor stream from the column is
totally condensed in a water cooled heat exchanger prior to being fed to an overhead reflux drum. The liquid product from the drum is
sent to the reflux pump (which has a spare) and the discharge from the pump is split into two streams. One of these streams is the
overhead reflux to the column and is fed back to the column on tray 1. The second liquid stream from the pump discharge is the overhead
product and is sent to storage.
The bottom of the distillation column is used to store the liquid leaving the bottom plate. From the bottom of the column a liquid stream
leaves and is immediately split into two. One stream is the bottom product which is sent for further processing in unit 400. The other
stream is sent to a thermosiphon reboiler where a portion of the stream is vaporized by condensing low pressure steam on the other side
of the exchanger. The partially vaporized steam from the reboiler is returned to the column just below the 24 th tray. The two phase
mixture separates with the vapor portion passing upward through the bottom plate to provide vapor flow in the column. The liquid
portion returns to the liquid accumulated at the bottom of the column.
For the process described above, draw a PFD. You may assume that the process is unit 200 and you should identify and number
all the equipment appropriately.
Problem 3
For the process described in Problem 2, the following control scheme has been suggested for the overhead portion of the column:
The flow of overhead product going to storage is controlled by a signal from the liquid level indicator on the reflux drum, which is used
to control the position of a pneumatic control valve in the product line (pipe). The flow of reflux back to the column is also regulated
by a pneumatic control valve which uses the signal (electrical) from a flow indicator on the overhead product line to adjust the valve
such that the flow of reflux is always in a certain proportion to the product flow.
On the PFD developed in problem 2, add the controllers to give the desired control action described above.

Problem 4
For the process described in Problem 2, the flow of bottom product sent to unit 400 is controlled by a pneumatic control valve that
receives signal from a liquid level indicator that senses the level of accumulated liquid in the bottom of the column. Add this control
loop to the PFD developed in Problem 2

Problem 5

For the process described in Problem 3, it is desired to control the purity of the top product. If we assume that the pressure of the
column does not vary, we may infer the product purity from the temperature of the top tray.
Device a control scheme to implement a feedback loop to control the top product purity. Draw the control loop on the PFD for
Problem 3.
Problem 6
Drying oil (DO) is produced by thermally decomposing acetylated castor oil (ACO) according to the following reaction:

ACO(l ) ⎯⎯ ⎯→ DO (l ) + CH 3COOH ( g )
0
340 C

ACO is fed from storage to a small horizontal storage vessel, (V-101).

From V-101, ACO liquid at 300C is fed to a feed pump (P-101 A/B) where it is pressurized to 2 barg.
The flow of ACO is controlled by a flow control valve situated on the discharge side of the pump.
ACO is fed to a reactor feed furnace (H-101) where the temperature is increased to 3400C and the stream leaving the furnace is sent
directly to a reactor (R-101)., containing inert ceramic packing, where the decomposition reaction takes place.
The single pass conversion of ACO to DO in the reactor is 40%. The stream leaving the reactor is then fed to a gas-liquid separator (V-
102) where the acetic acid flashes off and leaves in the overhead vapor stream.
The heavy ACO and DO liquids do not vaporize and leave the vessel as hot liquid product.
This hot liquid product stream at 3100C leaves V-102 and is then fed to a waste heat boiler (E-101) where the hot oil is cooled to 1600C
by exchanging heat with boiler feed water to produce medium pressure steam at 10 barg.
The temperature of the cooled oil stream is controlled by adjusting the set point on the level controller on E-101.
This level controller in turn regulates the level of water in E-101 by adjusting the flow rate of boiler feed water.
The cooled oil stream at a pressure of 1.3 barg is sent to unit 200 for further processing.
For the process described above, draw a PFD showing the following details:
Equipment numbers and description.
Basic control loops.
Temperature and pressure flags.
Footprint and pipe diameter calculations

Problem 1

Estimate the footprint for E-202 in the DME process.

Data and given information: From Table B.1.3, the following information can be found:

Assume that the front and rear heads are 3 in more than the Shell diameter and the two heads require 2 ft each in length.

From Table B.1.3 the following information can be found:

Floating-Head Shell-and-Tube design

Area = 171 m2

Hot Side—Temperatures: in at 364oC and out at 281oC

Cold Side—Temperatures: in at 154oC and out at 250oC

Choose a two-shell pass and four-tube pass exchanger

Area per shell = 171/2 = 85.5 m2

Using 12 ft, 1-in OD tubes, 293 tubes per shell are needed.
Assuming the tubes are laid out on a 11⁄4-in square pitch, a 27-in ID shell is required.

Assume that the front and rear heads (where the tube fluid turns at the end of the exchanger) are 30 in in diameter and require 2 ft each
(including flanges), and that the two shells are stacked on top of each other. The footprint of the exchanger is given in the following
figure.
Problem 2
Test the problem with ¾ in OD tubes laid out on 1 in square pitch with the revised temperatures of hot fluid temperatures from 2300F
to 1500F and cold fluid temperatures of 1000F and 1600F.
Problem 3

Estimate the footprint for E-208 in the DME process.

Problem 4
Consider the suction line to P-202 A/B; what should be the pipe diameter?

Solution
From Table 11.8, 1(b) for liquid pump suction, the recommended liquid velocity and pipe diameter are related by u = (1.3 + D (in)/6)
ft/s.

Table 11.8 Heuristics for Piping

1. Line velocities (u) and pressure drop (ΔP):
(a) For liquid pump discharge: u = (5 + D/3) ft/sec
and ΔP = 2.0 psi/100 ft;

(b) For liquid pump suction: u = (1.3 + D/6) ft/sec and ΔP = 0.4 psi/100 ft;

(c) For steam or gas flow: u = 20D ft/sec and ΔP = 0.5 psi/100 ft, D = diameter of
pipe in inches.

From Table B.1.1, the mass flowrate of the stream entering P-202, m˙ = Stream 16 + Stream 10 = 2170 + 5970 = 8140 kg/h and the
density is found to be 800 kg/m3.
The volumetric flowrate is 8140/800 = 10.2 m3/h = 0.00283 m3/s= 0.0998 ft3/s.
The procedure is to calculate the velocity in the suction line and compare it to the heuristic. Using this approach, the following table is
constructed:
Problem 5
Determine the pipe diameters for all other pumps of DME process