LOADS

Dead Load – Volume times density

Live Load -

Design Truck – subjected for impact load

OR Design Tandem

Same transverse as design truck

AND Design Lane Load with (effect of one design truck) *** (review)

-9.34 kN/m

-transverse uniformly distributed to 3m width lane

-not subjected to impact factor, or dynamic load allowance

Permit Design Live load – special vehicular to pass

- Tire Contact area – 1 to 2 tires – 510mmx254mm
Position of Live load
Design truck/tandem – transversely
- 300mm from curb or railing
Loading for maximum stresses – continuous span (1 design truck or tandem per lane)
Fatigue Load – result from constant bend up and down
(Loading like design truck but use 9m) redefined footprint
Frequency of fatigue load
ADTTsl = p*ADTT (average no. of trucks 1 direction per design life)
(Lanes available to truck=p, 1= 1.00, 2=0.85, 3 or more=0.80)

Pedestrian Load
- 600mm width< sidewalks = 3.6kpa
- No act concurrently with vehicles

Dynamic Load Allowance (Impact Factor) Table 10.8-1

(1+IM/100) for design truck and tandem
Exceptions:
Lane load
Pedestrian
Retaining walls not subject to vertical reactions
Foundation underground

Centrifugal Force
 - Applied horizontally 1.8m above roadway surface
Braking Force
- Applied horizontally 1.8m above roadway surface
- Greater between 25% axle weights (design truck or tandem) or 5% design truck or
tandem plus lane load
Collision force *** (review)
- Pier or abutment static force apply 2700kN – act 1.525m above ground edge of
pavement, 0-15degrees

Water Loads
- Height * specific weight water
- Water Level (OWL or DFL)
Buoyancy *** (review)
Stream Pressure
- Acting at substructures
- Drag coefficient (Table 10.12.3.1-1/2-1)
- Skewed Bridge (Lateral and Longitudinal)
Wave Load (exposed to waves) *** Review if needed
Wind Load
- Base design wind velocity (160kph)
 - 10m above low ground or water level

Design wind velocity at Z

Vb=160kph or check 10.13.1.1 and 10.13.2
V10 =wind velocity above 10m (Wind Map PAGASA) (absence of criterion V10=160)
Z=height >10m
Vo = friction velocity (table)
Zo= friction length table

Wind pressure
- Horizontal
PD = Pb * Vdz/25600

Loads from superstructures- *** (review)

 Earthquake Loads
Level 1 – Bridge Service Life high probability (within elastics range)
Level 2 – return period event of 1000 yrs. (7% probability in 75years) (may suffer significant
damage)
-Seismic Zone 4 – except Palawan and Tawi-tawi
- Critical bridges – 0.5g

Earth Pressure (EH, ES, LS, and DD)

Lateral Earth Pressure = P= K(Ys)gz(*10^-9)
- Resultant H/3 above the base of the wall
K= coefficient of lateral earth pressure
Ko, Ka, Kp

Surcharge Loads (ES and LS)

- Greater of unfactored surcharge loads * load factor
- Or factored loads for the structure as applied to structural element caused by surcharge
Down drag
- On piles or shafts
- Liquefaction, Groundwater lowered, compressible soils (clays, silt)
Superimposed Deformations ***
Friction Force ***
Vessel Collision *** (review)
ABUTMENTS
Open end- low height seats
Closed end-

- Passive resistance shall be neglected in stability

Seismic design for abutments and conventional retaining wall
Pse= Pae+Pir
Pir=kh (Ww+Ws) ***
Pae=lateral earth pressure
Calculation of seismic earth pressure for non-yielding abutments and walls ***
STRUCTURAL MODELING AND ANALYSIS
Finite Element Models (FEMs)
- Location of joints and elements to describe geometry of structure
- Material properties
- Sectional properties
- Support locations
- Application of loads
Material Modeling
- Elastic – returns to its original shape, stress depends on the deformation
o Linear Hooke’s Law (Homogenous and Isotropic)
- Inelastic – residual deformation and stresses remain
Slab-Beam Bridges
1. Superstructure
- Spine Model – ordinary bridges
- Grillage Model – wide roadway, high skewed, steel composite deck, long narrow,
interchange connectors
2. Bents
- Single Element Model
- Multi-Element Model

3. Superstructure and bents connection

- Monolithic- no bearing
- 3 degrees of translation and rotation restrained

- With bearing
- Rotational are free
- In bearing, superstructure is not subjected to seismic moment transferred through
column
- Isolated bearing reduce the seismic displacement
Hinges *** review
- Separate frames in long structures
- Thermal, initial pre-stress, creep
Substructures *** review
1. Column-Pier Sections
2. Bent Foundation Connection
- Fixed support
Foundation

CONCRETE DESIGN THEORY

Reinforced Fc = 24 MPa
Pre-stressed Fc= 27.5MPa
Reinforcing steel Fy=

Design Limits
Design flood for scour
- Total scour- shall be assumed removed form structural analysis
Scour
- Lowering by erosion, expose foundations
a. Short term – scour at bends
b. Long term – timescale, progressive
Localized scour
a. Contraction – converges the bridge
b. Local – interference of the piers, vortex system
Design considering scour
- Increase waterway area - contraction
- Design of piers – local
How to deal with scour?
Pier – max calculated scour, protect the streambed (loose boulder apron, gabions etc)
- Lower number of piers, higher span length (for large stream boulders)
- Pier shape – oval decrease scour, circular large risk
- Align piers with flow
- Increase bridge length (reduce velocity)???
Abutment –
- Revetment toes (riprap)
- Gabions and mattresses
- Sheet pile toe walls – repair scour after flood

 Foundation deeper 1m from scouring

Live bed or Clear Water scour
Pile Foundation
-Driven (displace laterally) or Bored Piles (hole then fill with concrete)
- Friction Pile (skin friction) or End Bearing Pile (base)
Tests
1. Pile Integrity Test
- Ultrasonic echo test
- Voids, changes in cross sections
2. High Strain Pile Dynamic Test – bearing capacity
Pile Design
1. Structural
2. Geotech – slope
Driven Piles
- Spread footing not applicable
- Scour, liquefaction or lateral spreading
- Right of way

Through Embankment Fill

- Penetrate min of 3.048m
Batter Pile
- Driven on angle
Down-drag
 - Soil settles more than pile (drags the pile lower)
Earthquake effects (Japan Road Association)
Resistance Factor Article 5.4.1(5)
 N value at pile tip
Estimation of Nominal End Bearing Resistance Intensity (qd) ***review
Pull out Resistance – ultimate uplift
Seismically unstable Ground – extremely soft soil layer, sandy layer (liquefaction, lateral
spreading)
- Always consider stable (stable or stable and unstable)
3 cases shall be examined
1. Liquefaction and lateral spreading
2. Liquefaction only
3. Neither of the two
Liquefiable – reduction factor for soil spring
Piers
Type of Piers
1. Wall/ solid shaft – debris are present, fast flow
2. 2 column
3. Single column – skew bridges
4. Pile Bent – short span bridges, avoid using if exposed exceeds 2m due seismic

 Columns deformed inelastically – elastic force effects divided by R = modified seismic

force

REINFORCED CONCRETE SLAB BRIDGES

- Increase clearance below, minimal depth of slab
- Clean appearance
- Good lateral load distribution
- Heavy self-weight large span
- Small span
- Normal span – 6-12m
Equivalent Strip Widths
One lane

Two or more design lanes

Distribution of Loads
Other Design Load
- Temperature Range

DESIGN REQUIREMENTS STEP BY STEP

1. Cover slab – 50mm
2. Design life
3. Design lanes
4. Concrete and steel properties
5. Impact factors
6. Resistance factors
7. Strength I, Service I, Fatigue I

8. Thickness of Slab –
 9. Equivalent Strip
10. Skew modification -
11. Loads
 Dead Load – Factored Total (multiply by 1.2) plus 10% utilities
Strength limit – Positive moment – DC multiply by 1.25, DW multiply 1.50
Service limit – positive moment – multiply by 1.0
 Live Load –
Strength limit – LL multiply 1.75
Service limit – LL multiply Impact factor
12. Moment ultimate = strength limit
13. Area of steel provided per meter of slab
 Area provided = Abar/Spacing * 1000 (meter)

 Area required =
 Area provided > Area required if not decrease spacing
14. Crack Control by Distribution
 Limiting width of cracks
 Service Limit State Stress

Number of bars = 1000mm/spacing

Extreme tension fiber to steel bar

Effective tension area of concrete

 Actual stress
Assumption of neutral axis

Tensile force in reinforcing bar due to service limit state

 
15. Maximum Reinforcement
 For sufficient ductility
Stress block factor

Extreme compression to neutral

Extreme compression to centroid of tensile reinforcement

 Ok maximum reinforcement in +moment if Cpos/de pos < or equal to 0.42

16. Minimum Reinforcement
 1.2 greater than cracking moment
Modulus of rupture – moment before rupture

Section Modulus

Cracking Moment
Mcr = fr*S

Required flexural resistance


17. Shrinkage and Temperature Reinforcement
 Sizes of bar = 10mm, 12mm, 16mm
Bar Spacing
Area of bar

Gross area

Minimum spacing for shrinkage and temp


18. Distribution reinforcement provided
 Transverse distribution reinforcement shall be placed in the bottom of slab
 Sizes of bar = 10mm, 12mm, 16mm
Bar Spacing
Area of bar

Length span - in millimeter

Area for secondary reinforcement

***

Max spacing


19. Fatigue Limit State
 Allowable tensile for fatigue

Stress due to positive moment

Reinforced Concrete Deck Girder

- spans 12m to 20m
- depth to span ratios – 0.07 simple or 0.065 continuous
Spacing between -1.8 to 3m
Thickness

- Design first the exterior slab (cantilever) before the interior slab since it will affect the
forces in the interior span
DESIGN REQUIREMENTS STEP BY STEP PROCEDURE
1. Geometry of the structure
- Span length
- Beam width = web width
- Girder Spacing
- Span length of exterior slab
- Thickness of outer and inner slab
2. Design the exterior slab – design as one-way slab
a. Post, railing, sidewalk curbs, weight of exterior slab – DL
Vdl = sum, Mdl = weight multiply lever arm, sum
b. 15kN/m – LL multiply by 1.33 (Impact factor)
c. Strength I limit state
Vu, Mu (ultimate)
d. Main Reinforcements

-
- Minimum Reinforcement
 Cracking moment For pre-stress

Cracking moment No pre-stress

Design moment minimum 1.33Mu or Mcr

Rn=

Ratio=
Area of steel reinforcement=
Assign steel bar diameter
Required spacing = Asbar*1000/As
Check shear requirement

Thickness is OK if Vu (ultimate) < Vc

3. Design the interior slab – design as one way slab transverse direction (indeterminate –
use staad)
 IM=1.33 however at the joints it will have IM=1.75
- Dead Load – wearing surface and slab only
- Live load – design truck HL-93
Effective width *** review
= positive moment
= negative moment
Live load moment factors
MFpos = 1/effective width positive
MFneg = 1/effective width negative
Factored Live Loads
 (Live load*strength limit factor*moment factors*impact
factor)

Mu LL = PL/4 (used P review)

- Factored Demand Moment
Mu pos = 0.8 Mu(DL+LL) factored
 0.8 factor for continuity
Mu neg = 0.8 (DL+LL) factored
- Main Reinforcements
** Same as exterior slab
- Check Distribution reinforcement

If NG, As=0.67(As)
Compute required spacing (s) = As bar*1000/As>maximum spacing

4. Design Deck girder

- Loads are adapted from results of slab
a. Material Properties and Geometry of girder
o Span
o Overall width
o Girder width
o Girder Height – minimum depth requirements
o Slab thickness
o Concrete cover
o Roadway width
o # of girders
o Spacing of girder
o Haunch
o Effective width

b. Dead Load Analysis
o Post superimposed
o Wearing surface superimposed
o Railing superimposed
o Sidewalk superimposed
o Slab
o Girder
 o Haunch
o Plus 10% utilities

Wdc = 1.25(sum of superimposed/n) +Wgirder +Whaunch + Wslab

Wdw= 1.5(Wwearing surface+Wutilities)
Wu=Wdc+Wdw
c. Moment due to Dead Load
Mu= WuL^2/8

Point of load of design truck, design tandem, P-7 ***

d. Live Load Analysis – for single lane
o Design truck
 Maximum moment at center wheel located at center
o Design tandem

o Permit Load
 ***
o Design lane load
 Uniform load
- Impact factor multiply to higher value moment between truck and tandem

e. Longitudinal Stiffness parameter (Kg)

E concrete = 4700 sqrt f’c

Longitudinal Stiffness Parameter

 Permit Loading

For strength limit II

f. Minimum Reinforcement
“Same as Reinforced Concrete Slab Bridges”
g. Shear Reinforcement
“Same as RCSB”

CALTRANS
Bridge Design Specs
- ASD Allowable Stress Design
- LFD Load Factor Design
- LRFD Load and Resistance Factor Design –logical extension of LFD, more systematic
A. Limit States
1. Service limit - deformation
2. Fatigue – repetitive loads
3. Strength – overall structural integrity
4. Extreme – unique occurrences
B. ASD
- WSD
- Load multiply Factor of Safety less than or equal to Nominal Resistance
- Disadvantage – not recognize some loads
C. LFD
- USD

-
Load factor Strength reduction factor
- Disadvantage – no calibration in nature
D. LRFD

Loads and Load Combinations

A. Permanent
- Constant
1. Dead load of components
Structural member – unit weight, geometry, gravity load
2. Dead load of wearing surfaces and utilities
o Asphalt concrete – 3 inches/ 76mm
o 35psf
 3. Downdrag – Geotechnical Engineering (negative skin friction) pulls the
foundation downward
4. Horizontal Earth Pressure - okay
5. Earth Surcharge - okay
6. Creep – time dependent, affects deflection, loss of pre-stress
7. Shrinkage – loss pf pre-stress, as concrete cure
8. Post Tensioning – axial compression
B. Transient
1. Live Load – HL-93(Vehicle Load), P-load (Permit Load)
a. HL-93 (Highway Loading adopted in 1993) – (truck or tandem + lane)
b. P-load – conjunction in Strength II limit - CTBridge
c. Fatigue