Bioleaching

Bioleaching is the extraction of specific metals from their ores through the use of living organisms. This
is much cleaner than the traditional heap leaching using cyanide.[1] Bioleaching is one of several
applications within biohydrometallurgy and several methods are used to
recover copper, zinc, lead, arsenic, antimony, nickel, molybdenum, gold, silver, and cobalt.

The process
Bioleaching can involve numerous ferrous iron and sulfur oxidizing bacteria,
including Acidithiobacillus  ferrooxidans and Acidithiobacillus (formerly known as Thiobacillus). As a
general principle, Fe3+ ions are used to oxidize the ore. This step is entirely independent of microbes. The
role of the bacteria is the further oxidation of the ore, but more importantly also the regeneration of the
chemical oxidant Fe3+ from Fe2+. For example, bacteria catalyse the breakdown of the
mineral pyrite (FeS2) by oxidising the sulfur and metal (in this case ferrous iron, (Fe2+)) using oxygen. This
yields soluble products which can be further purified and refined to yield the desired metal.

Pyrite leaching (FeS2): In the first step, disulfide is spontaneously oxidized to thiosulfate by ferric iron
(Fe3+), which in turn is reduced to give ferrous iron (Fe2+):

(1)        spontaneous

The ferrous iron is then oxidized by bacteria using oxygen:

(2)        (iron oxidizers)

Thiosulfate is also oxidized by bacteria to give sulfate:

(3)        (sulfur oxidizers)

The ferric iron produced in reaction (2) oxidized more sulfide as in reaction (1), closing
the cycle and given the net reaction:

(4)  

The net products of the reaction are soluble ferrous sulfate and sulfuric acid.

The microbial oxidation process occurs at the cell membrane of the bacteria.

The electrons pass into the cells and are used in biochemical processes to produce
energy for the bacteria while reducing oxygen to water. The critical reaction is the
oxidation of sulfide by ferric iron. The main role of the bacterial step is the
regeneration of this reactant.
 The process for copper is very similar, but the efficiency and kinetics depend on the
copper mineralogy. The most efficient minerals are supergene minerals such as
chalcocite, Cu2S and Covellite, CuS. The main copper
mineral chalcopyrite (CuFeS2) is not leached very efficiently, which is why the
dominant copper producing technology remains flotation followed by smelting and
refining. The leaching of CuFeS2 follows the two stages of being dissolved and then
further oxidised, with Cu2+ ions being left in solution.

Chalcopyrite leaching:

(1)        spontaneous
(2)        (iron oxidizers)

(3)        (sulfur oxidizers)

net reaction:

(4)  

In general, sulfides are first oxidized to elemental sulfur,

whereas disulfides are oxidized to give thiosulfate, and the
processes above can be applied to other sulfidic ores.
Bioleaching of non-sulfidic ores such as pitchblende also uses
ferric iron as an oxidant (e.g. UO2 + 2 Fe3+ ==> UO22+ + 2
Fe2+). In this case the sole purpose of the bacterial step is the
regeneration of Fe3+. Sulfidic iron ores can be added to speed
up the process and provide a source of iron.

[edit]Further processing
The dissolved copper (Cu2+) ions are removed from the
solution by ligand exchange solvent extraction which leaves
other ions in the solution. The copper is removed by bonding
to a ligand, which is a large molecule consisting of a number
of smaller groups, each possessing a lone electron pair. The
ligand-copper complex is extrcted from the solution using
anorganic solvent such as kerosene:

Cu2+(aq) + 2LH(organic) → CuL2(organic) + 2H+(aq)

 The ligand donates electrons to the copper, producing
a complex - a central metal atom (copper) bonded to the
ligand. Because this complex has no charge, it is no
longer attracted topolar water molecules and dissolves in
the kerosene, which is then easily separated from the
solution. Because the initial reaction is reversible, it is
determined by pH. Adding concentrated acid reverses
the equation, and the copper ions go back into an
aqueous solution.

Then the copper is passed through an electro-winning

process to increase its purity: an electric current is
passed through the resulting solution of copper ions.
Because copper ions have a 2+ charge, they are
attracted to the negative cathodes and collect there.

The copper can also be concentrated and separated

by displacing the copper with Fe from scrap iron:

Cu2+(aq) + Fe(s) → Cu(s) + Fe2+(aq)

The electrons lost by the iron are taken up by the
copper. Copper is the oxidising agent (it accepts
electrons), and iron is the reducing agent (it loses
electrons).

Traces of precious metals such as gold may be left

in the original solution. Treating the mixture
with sodium cyanide in the presence of free oxygen
dissolves the gold. The gold is removed from the
solution by adsorbing (taking it up on the surface)
to charcoal.

[edit]Bioleaching with fungi

Several species of fungi can be used for
bioleaching. Fungi can be grown on many different
substrates, such as electronic scrap, catalytic
converters, and fly ash from municipal
wasteincineration. Experiments have shown that
two fungal strains (Aspergillus niger, Penicillium
simplicissimum) were able to mobilize Cu and Sn
by 65%, and Al, Ni, Pb, and Zn by more than
95%.Aspergillus niger can produce some organic
acids such as citric acid This form of leaching does
not rely on microbial oxidation of metal, but rather
uses microbial metabolism as source of acids
which directly dissolve the metal.

[edit]Compared with other extraction

techniques
Extractions involve many expensive steps such
as roasting and smelting, which require sufficient
concentrations of elements in ores and are
environmentally unfriendly. Low concentrations are
not a problem for bacteria because they simply
ignore the waste which surrounds the metals,
attaining extraction yields of over 90% in some
cases. Thesemicroorganisms actually
gain energy by breaking down minerals into their
constituent elements. The company simply collects
the ions out of the solution after the bacteria have
finished.

Some advantages associated with bioleaching are:

 economical: bioleaching is generally simpler

and therefore cheaper to operate and maintain
than traditional processes, since fewer
specialists are needed to operate
complexchemical plants.

 environmental: The process is

more environmentally friendly than traditional
extraction methods. For the company this can
translate into profit, since the necessary
limiting of sulfur dioxide emissions during
 smelting is expensive. Less landscape damage
occurs, since the bacteria involved grow
naturally, and the mine and surrounding area
can be left relatively untouched. As the
bacteria breed in the conditions of the mine,
they are easily cultivated and recycled.

Some disadvantages associated with bioleaching

are:

 economical: the bacterial leaching process is

very slow compared to smelting. This brings in
less profit as well as introducing a significant
delay in cash flow for new plants.

 environmental: Toxic chemicals are sometimes

produced in the process. Sulfuric acid and
H+ ions which have been formed can leak into
the ground and surface water turning it acidic,
causing environmental damage. Heavy
ions such as iron, zinc, and arsenic leak
during acid mine drainage. When the pH of this
solution rises, as a result of dilution by fresh
water, these ions precipitate, forming "Yellow
Boy" pollution. For these reasons, a setup of
bioleaching must be carefully planned, since
the process can lead to a biosafety failure.

Currently it is more economical to smelt copper ore

rather than to use bioleaching, since the
concentration of copper in its ore is generally quite
high. The profit obtained from the speed and yield
of smelting justifies its cost. However, the
concentration of gold in its ore is generally very
low. The lower cost of bacterial leaching in this
case outweighs the time it takes to extract the
metal.
  Bioleaching

     Bioleaching involves the use of micro-

organisms to extract metals from low grade ores
and has been performed successfully on Earth
to obtain gold, copper and uranium[2]. About
20% of the world’s copper is produced by
bioleaching.  This type of process has been used
to extract uranium from the Elliott Lake district in
northern Ontario, Canada[3]. 
Bioleaching of nickel, zinc and cobalt can be
done with thermophyllic bacteria but has not
proven economical; however, on the Moon
where resources are sparse and imports
comparatively expensive, this may be
worthwhile.  Nickel and cobalt are used to alloy
steel and zinc is used to alloy magnesium. 

     Thiobacillus ferrooxidans, Leptospirillum

ferrooxidans, Thiobacillus thiooxidans,
Sulfolobus species and others have been used
for bioleaching.  Acidiphilium, Sulfobacillus,
Ferroplasma, Sulfolobus, Metallosphaera, and
Acidianus have also been used. These bacteria
tolerate acids and metabolize sulfur. Weak
solutions of acids are dripped through the ore
and a bacterial liquor forms that is then
electrolytically or chemically processed[4]. 
Sometimes this requires water and organic
substrate like potato peels as well as solvents to
extract the metals from the bacterial mass. 
Chaff from crops may be used for bioleaching
rather than livestock feed.  Precious water will be
recycled.  If bioleaching becomes a major
industrial activity on the Moon we will be pressed
to conserve our vital water and hydrogen
resources for this instead of wasting them in the
form of rocket fuel.  Only ores containing sulfur
can be bioleached because the bacteria feed on
sulfur.  Bioleaching does not require lots of
energy but it is slow.  High temperature roasting
and smelting is not required, so there are
decided benefits in addition to the fact that
bioleaching can get metals from low grade
ores.