StudentStudyGuide V012
StudentStudyGuide V012
StudentStudyGuide V012
Prologue
This document summarises my study notes of the Analogue component of André LaMothe
“Crash Course Electronics”, it primarily my own work and not for publication.
To assist with clarity, some headings include a reference to the course lecture number (Lnn),
e.g. “Low Pass Filter L52”.
Rules to Remember
a. Resistor Wattage – Calculate the Power and then X 2 for safety
b. Milli Amps – Volts / K ohms always results in Milli Amps
c. Heat – Devices should be able to dissipate twice the amount of power
d. Parallel Resistance Calculation - is the product over the sum, and the result is
always less than the smallest resistor.
Common Prefixes
Symbol Prefix Scaling Factor 10 to the Minus
a atto 10-18th
f femto 10-15th
p pico 10-12th
n nano 10-9th
µ micro 10-6th
m milli 10-3rd
k kilo 10-3rd
M mega 10-6th
G giga 10-9th
T tera 10-12th
P peta 10-15th
E exa 10-18th
Note:
Other prefixes are based on multiples of 100, but most commonly in electronics, the
multiples of 1000 or 103 are used.
In pure scientific notation = 3.0x10-4th watts
Using the kilo (10-3rd) prefix = 30k watts or 30kW
Using the mega (10-6th) prefix = .03M watts or .03MW
005 amps In pure scientific notation = 5.0x10-3rd amps
V = Volts Measured in V. mV
R = Resistance Measured in Ohm’s
I = Current Measured in Amps
C = Capacitance Measured in Farad’s
L = Inductance Measured in Henry’s
X = Reactance Measured in Ohm’s
Q = Capacitor Charge Measured in Coulomb’s
Z = Impedance Measured in Ohm’s Φ(Phi = Flux) = Induction Flux
Mathematical Equations
(𝑅1 . 𝑅2)
Resisters in Parallel PR = = 3.33 Ω The result is always less than the smallest
𝑅1+𝑅2
resistor in the parallel circuit. – Refer Fig 3 & Fig 5
𝑉𝑖𝑛
Voltage Dividers V1 = R1 * 𝑅1+𝑅2 = 1.899v
𝑉𝑖𝑛
V2 + R2 * = 3.100v - Refer Fig 4 & Fig 6
𝑅1+𝑅2
Resisters in Parallel
R1 R2 R3
1kΩ 1kΩ 1kΩ
1A + 0.5A = 1.5A
Resistance in Parallel – The result is always less than the smallest resistor in the parallel circuit.
(𝑅1 . 𝑅2)
PR = 𝑅1+𝑅2
= 3.33 Ω
𝑉𝑖𝑛
V1 = R1 * 𝑅1+𝑅2 = 1.899v
𝑉𝑖𝑛
V2 + R2 * = 3.100v
𝑅1+𝑅2
Vs = 18v
R1 + R2 =30 Ω ohms
R3 + R4 = 1.2k Note: These values should be added together when calculating parallel resistance.
Refer below.
R5 100 Ω
R6 = 10 Ω
(R3+R4).R5 (200Ω+1k).100Ω
Resistance over R3 + R4 II R5 ( Product over the Sum) = (R3+R4)+R5 = (200Ω+1k)+100Ω = 92.3 Ω
∴ Rtot = 30 + 10 + 92.3 = a total circuit resistance of 132.3 Ω
Node “B”
Current at “B” = 136.6ma
Volts = Vs – (V1 + V2) = 13.92v
Node “C”
Current = 136.6ma
Volts = V6 = I . R +136ma * 10 Ω = 1.36v
Note The other reference of R6 is the ground reference ∴ it is 0v (KVL)
Node “D”
Voltage – The voltage differential between Node B & C is 13.92v – 1.36v = 12.56v
𝑉 12.56𝑣
Current – I5 = current over R5 = 𝑅 = 100 Ω = 125.6mA
Current - I3,4 = 136 – (I3,4 +125.6) = 136 – 125.6 = 10.4
∴ I3,4 = 10.4ma
Voltage Divider
Voltage Dividers are constructed by having two resistors in series with the second connected to
ground. The junction between the two resisters is the reduced voltage value because of the
resistance values of the individual two resisters.
R2
Vout = ( R1+R2 ) . Vin
Voltage divider circuit 3.3v with a 10mA current. – How to work out the R1 and R2 Values.
5. What do we know?
a. S1 = V = 5v
b. S2 = = 3.3v
c. Total Resistance 500mA
RC Circuit
Cap Discharging
Vc of (τ) = Vs . e – τ/rc
Note: Vs may not be the same voltage as Vc
𝒅𝒊
V=L. the change in time
𝒅𝒕
Time Domain
ICE
Current Voltage
Capacitance
Current i
900
Volts V or E
ICE – Current is always at its maximum when it’s on the zero plane
LC Circuit
ELI
Voltage Current
Inductance
Volts V or E
900
Current i
A =Amplitude
F = Frequency
T = Time ( in Sec)
Φ= Phase Angle (Phi)
ω = Omega
Volts as a function of time =
V(t) = A . Sin (2π. F. T ) + Φ
OR we could use Omega ω = 2π F T
∴ A . Sin . ω + Φ
As we only care about Frequency and Amplitude so we can remove time and proceed as follows:
10𝑣
We require 10v RMS (Root Mean Squared). The Peak voltage from 10v rms is V1 = =
0.707
Peak v
RMS v
Volts & current i
Figure 11 – Phase Shift
Magnitude
With Capacitor and Inductor, Current and Voltage are not in phase.
Phases
Reactance (X)
Reactance is the term for the AC resistance within a capacitor and Inductor.
As frequency goes up, Reactance (Xc) goes down. ∴ As frequency goes down, reactance (Xc) goes
1
up. Xc = 2π.F.C
-90 ͦ
Resister is resistive
Inductor and Capacitor are reactive
Both are known as Impedances for AC circuits
Impedance does cover the full frequency spectrum, which includes 0hz (DC) but is referred
to in AC circuits.
When considering Impedance, there are always two parts.
Current
𝑉 10𝑣
I= 𝑍
=123.42Ω = 81.0mA
Volts:
V = I.R ∴ V = I . Z
VR = I.Z = 0.081A . 100 Ω = 8.1v
Vc = I.Xc = 0.081A . 72.34 Ω = 5.85v
Note: Vr + Vc does not add up to 10v due to the phase shift.
𝑉𝑐 5.85𝑣 =
φ = Tan-1 𝑉𝑟 = Tan-1 8.1𝐴
35.8 ͦ
Or
𝑉𝑐 5.85𝑣 =
φ = Sin 𝑉𝑠 = Tan-1 10𝑣
35.8 ͦ
𝑉𝑟 8.1𝐴
φ = Cos 𝑉𝑠 = Tan-1 10𝑣 = 35.8 ͦ
Inductor Note: All the above math is the same for Inductors except XL = 2π . F. L
1
i-1 = -I , 𝑖
= -I, i2 = -1
Impedance Z = ℜ . (X . j) the “ℜ” is the real number and the “x.j” is the imaginary number.
Complex numbers are a combination of real and imaginary numbers and defined by using an “*”
superscript. E.g. A*
A* = a + (b.j)
B* = c + (d.j)
Magnitude – “II” is used to represent a magnitude variable, eg IC*I = √e2 + f 2 = Length
𝑉𝑐
Angle of φ - φ = Tan-1 𝑉𝑟 (inverse tan “Tan-1” is the opposite over the adjacent e.g. Vc over Va
Length of A (the length of the hypotenuse) - IAI = √e2 + f 2
Calculating the diagram above, we see that A = a magnitude of 3 on the ℜ axis and B has a
magnitude of -5 and on the “J” axis A = 2 and B=10.
Hence:
A= 3 + 2j
B = -5 + 10j
---- ----
ℜ Imaginary No.
To calculate all phase angles and voltages for the dig above - We require:
10
Calculate φb φb = Tan-1 −5 = -63.4 ͦ
Note:3 Use the minus 5 in this case as the phase angle is on the negative side.
Note:4 Because φb is on the negative side, we need the plus side angle, so 180 ͦ- 63.4 =ͦ 116.56 ͦ
refer diag above.
A* = 3.6 ∠ 33.69 ͦ
B* = 11.8 ∠ 116.56 ͦ
Zc = 0 -j . Xc = 0 -j . 318 = -j318.3Ω
Zr = 100 + j0 = 100Ω (Resistances do not have an imaginary number)
Polar Form
To convert Rectangular to Polar form, take the square root of the sum of the squared values.
V = I . R = I . Z for impedance.
Because Zc does not have a real part and Zr does not have an imaginary part – Then:
Zt = 100 -j318
The voltage source Vs has a phase angle of 0 ͦ as the reference point for the circuit.
∴ Vs = 10v ∠ 0 ͦ or 10 +j0
𝑉 10𝑣 ∠ 0 ͦ 10
I = 𝑍𝑡 = 333Ω ∠−72.5 ͦ
= 333
= 30mA ∠ 0 – (-72.5) = 72.5
∴ I = 30mA ∠ 72.5 ͦ
To calculate the magnitude (II) of Zt = I ZtI = √Zr 2 + (Zc 2) = I ZtI = √1002 + (−3182) = 333Ω
The voltage and impedance angle over the capacitor = (multiply the real numbers and add the
imaginary numbers)
Note: There is zero power being dissipated over the Capacitor because the current and the voltage
are 90 ͦ out of phase, and therefore no power can be dissipated – impossible.
In summary:
I = 30mA ∠ 72.5 ͦ - Blue
Vr = 3v ∠ 72.5 ͦ - Red
Zc = 0 ∠ 318.3 Ω at -90 ͦ -
Vs = 10v ∠ 0 ͦ - Red
Note: the angles are turned around because we have mixed the components e.g. both a Resister and
a Capacitor.
If we look at the above circuits from the Impedance point of view, they could be considered a
ZL
Voltage Divider, e.g. V2 = V1 .
ZR+ZL
Inductors are mostly measured in Micro “µ” or Milli “m” Henry’s and it’s difficult to design circuits
that do anything at low frequencies. The 200 Ω resister was picked because at a frequency of 100
Hz the calculated inductance will be acceptable for low frequencies, but useless for higher
frequencies.
Inductor Reactance Calculations
V = I . R OR I . Z
𝑉 7.07𝑣 ∠ 0 ͦ
= 𝑍𝑡 = 200Ω ∠0.4 ͦ
= 35.35mA ∠ 0.4 ͦ
Zt = Zr + ZL = 200 + 0j + 0 + 1.38j
= 200 + 1.38j
=200 ∠ 1.38 Ω
The above result indicates that due to the low frequency, the Inductor is not doing anything
because the Inductor at this frequency has an Impedance of 1.38 Ω. Remember, the Inductor is a
frequency dependant Resister, and its Impedance goes up linearly with the increase in
frequency.
Voltage over the Resister
The 20 log rule below states that the voltage gain and the power gain are the same if (and only if)
the input and output impedances are the same. This means that if the output impedance of one
electronic circuit section has the same Impedance of the input section, then the power will be at
“Maximum Power Transfer”.
To compute power, use the 10 Log db scale and for voltage use the 20 Log db scale (detailed below).
1
Magnitude: IH(f)I =
√12+j2 (R2 +Xc)2
1
Cut-off Frequency: F = of 2π.R.C
1
If we make R=1 then we get = 0.707 = -3db
√2
Logarithms
Basic info for Logs and Exponents
Logs
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡
Voltage gain: db = 20Log 𝑉𝑖𝑛
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡
20db of gain = db 20 Log 𝑉𝑖𝑛
= 20db
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡
= Log (base 10) 𝑉𝑖𝑛
= 1db = 101 = 10 = 𝑉𝑖𝑛
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡
From above: 1 db ≡ X and ≡ Y and 10 ≡ Base ∴ 101 = 10 ∴ the voltage gain =10
𝑉𝑖𝑛
For -3 db
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡
10(-3/20) = Voltage gain of 𝑉𝑖𝑛
= 10(-3/20) = 0.707
1 1
≡G= = (−0.707) same as the gain of the Low Pass Filter =
√2 (2𝜋.𝑅.𝐶)
CAPACITORS
Mr Carlson Comments
Name +/- PPM/0C Temp
NP0 (zero) Negative Extremely Stable found in Oscillators, RF and 0-30 -55c +125c
Positive (or C0G) Coupling circuits – Does not move with temp
changes.
Mica Very Stable over a wide temp range, same circuits as 50 Really good
above, they rarely fail. temp
stability
Polystyrene OK if Stable, found in Tuners, not good for RF Temp
oscillators – Very poor with temp. They will change Sensitive
when hot and the stay at the changed setting
Ceramic – X5R Disc Type - Great for Bypass, Never use for Oscillator -55 - +85
or tuned circuits, or Audio signal path – Very poor
with temp.
Ceramic – X7R Ditto – Not good if vibrations e.g. Audio -55 - +125
Ceramic – Y5V Ditto -30 - +85
Ceramic – Z5U Ditto +10 - +85
Polypropylene Good for Audio and RF stage coupling – Not as Reasonably
Stable as above. Never use for Oscillator or tuned good for
circuits. Good vibration tolerance. heat
tolerance
Tantalum Bad for Audio (Non-Linear) very good for bypass or Temp Stable
timing e.g. 555 circuits
Paper No good at all
Notes: Tantalum – Tantalum Caps would be better than Electric if you could afford them.
A decoupling capacitor's job is to suppress high-frequency noise in power supply signals. They take
tiny voltage ripples, which could otherwise be harmful to delicate ICs out of the voltage supply. ...
Decoupling capacitors are used to connect between the power source (5V, 3.3V, etc.) and ground.
While decoupling capacitors are connected in parallel to the signal path and are used to filter out the
AC component.
Coupling capacitors, on the other hand, are connected in series to the signal path and are used to
filter out the DC component of a signal. They are used in both analogue and digital circuit
applications.
Decoupling capacitors help to provide a local instantaneous charge source that prevents the voltage
source from dipping and a bypass path that dampens ringing. Noise on the PCB is also locally
damped, helping the local circuit remain unaffected by ripple on the power plane that could
otherwise disturb the circuit.
ESR is always an AC resistance, it is measured at specified frequencies, 100 kHz for switched-mode
power supply components, 120 Hz for linear power-supply components, and at its self-resonant
frequency for general-application components. Additionally, audio components may report a "Q
factor", incorporating ESR among other things, at 1000 Hz. – DC Voltage has a frequency of 0 hz.
Parallel Capacitors
Total C = C1 + C2+ C3
Series Capacitors
RC Filters
Filter tools
From a mathematical point of view, the filter circuit is very similar to a voltage divider circuit. This is
also known as a Transfer function. Hence:
Zc
Vout = ( Zc+Zr ) . Vin
Resistors are real and do not have an imaginary part. Complex impedance Zr = R + 0j
Capacitors and Inductors are reactive and only have an imaginary part and do not have a real
part. Complex impedance Zc = 0 Xc .j
1 Zc
As above Xc = and Vout = Vout = ( ) . Vin . Vin Then to calculate the Transfer Function:
2π.F.C Zc+Zr
Zc 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 Zc
Vout = ( Zc+Zr ) . Vin = 𝑉𝑖𝑛
= ( Zc+Zr ) = H(f) - The only variable in the impedance calculation is
1
Frequency ∴ H(f) = The Transfer Function. After some Algebra, we have H(f) = 1+𝑗 (2𝜋.𝐹.𝑅.𝐶)
∴ Can we get rid of the “j” and calculate the magnitude (the square root of the real and imaginary
parts) IH(f)I = Z = √R2 + Xc 2
1 1
∴ IH(f)I = at the frequency of 2π.R.C
then the output of this IH(f)I function = 0.707 or
√12+j2 (R2 +Xc)2
70%. This is known as the cut off frequency when the magnitude of H(f) is at 70%.
Passive filters can have 1,2 or 3 poles to make them stiffer (rate of drop off), if more poles are
required, they would need to be Active Filters.
1
Cap Reactance Xc = 2π.F.C
1
Cap Impedance Zc = 0 -Xc J Note: -J = 𝑗
Complex Impedance for R = ZR = 0 + 0J
𝑍𝑟
voltage - Vout = Vin . (𝑍𝑟+𝑍𝑐 ) Just like a Voltage Divider.
𝑍𝑟 𝑅 𝐽.2𝜋.𝑅.𝐶
Transfer Function - H(f) = (𝑍𝑟+𝑍𝑐 ) = 𝑅+(−𝑋𝑐 .𝑗) ∴ H(f) = 1= 𝐽.2𝜋.𝑅.𝐶
Magnitude or Gain – real part = Rp & imaginary part Jp = IH(f)I = √Rp2 + Jp2
2𝜋.𝐹.𝑅.𝐶
∴ JpIH(f)I =
√1+ (2π.F.R.C)2
1
High Pass Cut off Frequency – F(hp) = 2π.R.C
Note: Both High and Low pass filters have the same Cut Off formula. This is the charging
constant of the circuit; an RC circuit does not care about the “R” and “C”. The charge is going to
happen the same way. However, the action of the Current is going to be different depending on
where you take the Voltage. If we take the Voltage reading from Vout in the High Pass Filter, it
will be different to the Voltage reading from Vout in the Low Pass Filter, because the “C’s” are
changing as a function of frequency.
At a frequency of 0hz the gain for the High Pass Filter is 0 and for a Low Pass Filter it is 1.0. As F
goes to ∞ then, the gain goes to 1.
Inductors
Inductors are the opposite of capacitors, as the frequency goes up the reactance goes up, and as
the frequency goes down, the reactance goes down. Inductors can be thought of as a linear
frequency resister. XL = 2π . F . L
An Inductor also called a coil, choke, or reactor. It is a passive two-terminal electrical
component that stores energy in a magnetic field when electric current flows through it.[1] An
inductor typically consists of an insulated wire wound into a coil around a core.
When the current flowing through an Inductor, the change in the time-varying magnetic field
induces an electromotive force (e.m.f.) (voltage) in the conductor. Described by Faraday's law of
induction. According to Lenz's law, the induced voltage has a polarity (direction) which opposes
the change in current that created it. As a result, inductors oppose any changes in current
through them.
An inductor is characterised by its inductance, which is the ratio of the voltage to the rate of
change of current. In the International System of Units (SI), the unit of inductance is the “Henry”
(H) named for 19th century American scientist Joseph Henry. In the measurement of magnetic
circuits,
The Capacitor pushes back current, and the Inductor pushes back voltage. For Lenz’s law and
Faraday’s law of Induction refer Wikipedia. Note the Induction Right Hand Rule, check this out
on Wikipedia and why we need to know?
The symbol for Inductance is Φ(Phi = Flux) Φ = L * I or Inductance * Current.
Capacitor Charge (Coulomb’s) – The symbol for charge is Q = Q = C . V
Voltage and current used to charge the Inductor and Capacitor – Transient Response (time
domain)
𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑣
Inductor = V = -( L . 𝑑𝑡 ) Capacitor = I = ( C . 𝑑𝑡 )
Inductor Capacitor
Energise = Inductance * Current Φ = L * i Charge = Capacitance * Volts Q = C . V
The Derivative The Derivative
𝑑Φ 𝑑𝑖 ΔΦ Δi 𝑑𝑞 𝑑𝑣
V= = L . 𝑑𝑡 OR = L . Δt i = 𝑑𝑡 = C . 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡 Δt
Inductor current change in unit by time Capacitor voltage change in unit by time
Ltot = L1 + L2 + L3
Inductors in Parallel
1
LToT = 1 1 1
+ +
𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐿3
RC and RL circuits both for Capacitance and Inductance are the opposites of each other. Looking at
the transfer function, or the reactance of the Inductor, compared to the Capacitor for each circuit.
They are the inverse of each other:
1
Eg Reactance - XL = 2π . F. L and Xc =
2𝜋.𝐹.𝐶
Impedance – ZL = 0 + l.XL and ZR = R + 0J
𝑍𝑟
Volts - Vout = Vin .
𝑍𝑟+𝑍𝐿
𝑅
Frequency – H(f) = 𝑅+(𝐽.𝑋𝐿) =
𝑅/𝑅 1
Divide by R - H(f) = 𝑅/𝑅+(𝐽.𝑋𝐿) = H(f) = 1+(2𝜋.𝐹.𝐿)/𝑅 =
1
Transfer Function = H(f) = 1+(2𝜋.𝐹.𝐿)/𝑅
1
Magnitude - IH(f)I = - At DC or F – 0hz – At F = 0 then IH(f)I = 1
√1+ (2π.F.R.L/R)2
1
Cut of Frequency = = ? = (2π. F. R. L/R)2 =1
√ 1+ ?
Take the square root of both sides = (2π. F. R. L/R) = 1 =
𝑅
F= - R = 1k , L = 330uH note: 330uH = 330e-6
𝐿 .2𝜋
1𝑘
Frequency Low pass = F(LP) = 330𝑢𝐻 .2𝜋 = 482.28Hz
Inductors have an extremely high “Q” (quality factor) which makes the Inductor very pure.
Capacitors have a lot of extraneous components. E.g. resistance, capacitance and inductance and
a small amount of reactance, Therefore the Inductor is a much purer part.
Inductors have an extremely high “Q” (quality factor) which makes the inductor very pure.
Capacitors have a lot of extraneous components
E.g. Reactance - XL = 2π . F. L
Impedance – ZL = 0 + l.XL and ZR = R + 0J
Note: RC section above, with Xc the :J” is -J because the inductive reactance are in opposite
directions.
𝑍𝐿 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝐽.2𝜇.𝐹.𝐿
Volts - Vout = Vin . 𝑍𝑟+𝑍𝐿 This can also be expressed as : 𝑉𝑖𝑛
= 𝑅+𝐽.2𝜋.𝐹.𝐿
1 1
Divide by j.2μ.f.L - H(f) = H(f) = = H(f) =
1+𝑅/(2𝜋.𝐹.𝐿) 1−𝐽.𝑅/(2𝜋.𝐹.𝐿)
1
Transfer Function = H(f) = 1+(2𝜋.𝐹.𝐿)/𝑅
1
Magnitude - IH(f)I =
√1+ (R/(2π.F.R.L))2
We now need to make the term “(R/(2π. F. R. L))2" = 1
𝑅
1- (2𝜇.𝐹.𝐿)2 = √1
𝑅
2- 2𝜋.𝐹.𝐿
=1
2𝜇.𝐹.𝐿
3- 𝑅
=R
𝑅
4- 𝐹 = 2𝜋.𝐿
= Cut Off Frequency
Note: To have multiple filter poles, you would need to calculate the transfer function of each one
and then compute their magnitude and phase angle. When using numerous poles, the transfer
functions are multiplied together e.g. TF1 + TF2 + TF3 Etc. This will allow the extra pols to be added,
resulting in a steeper curve. But Active filters would be more efficient for more than two poles.
𝑅 1𝑘
Frequency – F = 𝐿 = 2𝜋.2.2𝑚𝐻 = 72.343 kHz
LEDs – In most cases, the longer lead connects to the Anode. If a round LED has a flange around its
base, a flat spot on the base will be closest to the cathode side of the component.
The silicone diodes total forward voltage of 2.1v and the diodes will maintain this voltage droppage
subject to the amount of forward current available. Diodes use a different forward voltage drop
depending on the current output; this should be verified in the datasheet.
When calculating current in this type of circuit, it is difficult to manually calculate an accrete
amperage because the diode voltage and current needs to stabilise before an accurate value can
be calculated. This is best done using Circuit Simulation. However, we can get close:
𝑉 5𝑣−2.1𝑣
I=𝑅= 100Ω
= 29mA when there is no load and the current is only going over the diodes
𝑉 5𝑣−2.1𝑣
At 100 Ω Load. = I = 𝑅 = 100Ω
= 29mA
𝑉 5𝑣−2.1𝑣
At 1k Ω Load. = I = = = 2.1mA = 29-2.1 =26.9mA
𝑅 1000Ω
𝑉 5𝑣−2.1𝑣
At 10k Ω Load. = I = 𝑅 = 10000Ω = 0.21mA = 29 – 0.21 = 28.79mA
Switching Signal Diode – Switching diodes are just like standard diodes except that
they are designed around the premise that they must change from conduction to non-conduction
very quickly for use in switching circuits such as digital electronics.
The 1N4148 is a standard silicon switching signal diode. It is one of the most popular and long-lived
switching diodes because of its dependable specifications and low cost. Its name follows the
JEDEC nomenclature. The 1N4148 is useful in switching applications up to about 100 MHz with
a reverse-recovery time of no more than 4 ns.
This diode application is useful when a power supply connector is not polarised, making it easy to
mess up and accidentally connect the negative supply to the positive of the input circuit.
The drawback of a reverse protection diode is that it'll induce some voltage loss because of the
forward voltage drop. Therefore, the Schottky diode is an excellent choice for reverse protection
diodes.
Zener Diodes – Zener diodes are fascinating devices. The symbol is shown in Figure 35.
They are designed to operate in the reverse bias direction or in breakdown mode portion of the
operational curve, that is you purposely reverse bias a Zener diode into the breakdown region and
then it becomes a constant voltage drop with variable current. Hence, they are beneficial as voltage
regulators (devices that supply varying current at a consistent voltage level). Of course, Zeners
wouldn’t be very useful if you had to apply a breakdown of 100-200V, so they have much smaller
reverse voltages on the order of a fraction of a volt to many volts.
Zener's are designed to have an exact breakdown voltage, called the Zener breakdown or Zener
voltage. When enough current runs in reverse through the Zener, the voltage drop across it will hold
steady at the breakdown voltage.
Taking advantage of their breakdown property, Zener diodes are often used to create a known
reference voltage at exactly their Zener voltage. They can be used as a voltage regulator for small
loads, but they're not made to regulate the voltage to circuits that will pull significant amounts of
current.
Zeners are special enough to get their circuit symbol, with wavy ends on the cathode-line. The
symbol might even define what, exactly, the diode's Zener voltage is. Here's a 3.3V Zener diode
acting to create a reliable 3.3V voltage reference:
Zener’s are also used to clamp voltages and as above always used in the reverse direction.
Zener as a Regulator L56
Schottky Diodes – Very similar to silicone diodes but only use one semiconductor
Junction “P” or “N”, the “N” type is very typical, The forward voltage is low 0,2 – 0.3 volts and is very
fast, but they can’t tolerate high reverse voltages. They stop the current from flowing back to
sensitive components.
The semiconductor composition of a Schottky diode is slightly different from a standard diode,
and this results in a much smaller forward voltage drop, which is usually between 0.15V and
0.45V. They'll still have a substantial breakdown voltage though.
Schottky diodes are especially useful in limiting losses when every last bit of voltage must be
spared. They're unique enough to get a circuit symbol of their own, with a couple of bends on
the end of the cathode-line.
Schottky's are used in switching circuits, Boost & Buck converters, and for polarity protection. Refer
below.
Both the rectifier and the Schottky diodes provide a similar function but with different
voltage drops.
In Summary
If you want to:
The 5v Schottky diode power regulator is a simple way of regulating the voltage but depending on
the load can be expensive on current
As the AC cycle changes the polarity changes through the Bridge Rectifier the circuits below detail
the voltage flow for each of the two cycles.
The minimum voltage must be maintained under the worst-case load for the regulator when it
draws the most current. Beyond satisfying the worst-case current draw, if you further increase the
Capacitor to a larger value, the only benefit it provides is that it reduces the peak-to-peak ripple. This
is a minor benefit since the regulator is actively reducing that ripple by 80 to 90 decibels. If the ripple
is 0.5V peak to peak at the input of the regulator and is reduced to 80 dB, it becomes 50 μV peak to
peak at the output. If you reduce the input to 0.3V peak to peak with a larger capacitor, the output
ripple goes from 50 μV to 30 μV. Both these values are small and possibly insignificant to the circuit.
If the circuit needs less ripple, by far a better way to get it is to use a better regulator with more
decibels of ripple rejection, rather than making the Capacitor larger. A regulator that improves
rejection from 85 dB to 110 dB will make the same difference as a huge and impractical capacitor
substitution.
A Capacitor which is too large stresses the transformer and rectifier diodes when power is applied.
Because the bigger the Capacitor, the bigger and more sustained is the inrush current.
The equation to calculate the size of the Capacitor is: C=I*(∆V)/(∆T) Where I is the current you want
to output ∆V is the Maximum amount of Voltage Ripple (Peak to Peak Ripple of the Capacitor
Voltage) that your circuit can safely handle. The minimum peak should be above your voltage
regulators Desired input which is usually 3-volts above your regulated voltage. ∆T can be calculated
A safe rating for components (such as the 25V on the Capacitor) is two times the working value (12V
in this case). This part is serving as a bulk capacitor, and other values such as 100uF or 1000uF would
work as well.
The two circuits below detail the design for a 5v and 3v power supply where the 3v supply is
powered by the 5v supply. Some of the primary design efficiencies from the above circuits are as
follows:
1- The voltage Regulator – Low Drop Out (LDO) regulators are used. (LD29150 and MC33269).
LDO’s are more efficient than the old linear regulators and can provide a drop out voltage
between 0.2 – 0.5v
2- Circuit Protection – The modern LDO regulators have inbuilt circuit protection, but the
circuits below also offer:
a. TVS (Transient Voltage Suppressor) this diode is like a Zenner that can stand high
voltage and works in the Nano or Picosecond range.
b. PTC Fuse (Positive Thermal Coefficient) this fuse will melt at the cut off amperage
and then cool and reconnect providing the amperage is below its limit.
3- Noise – Extra filter capacitors and ferrite beads have been used.
Capacitance Multiplier
The Multiplier used a combination of a RC Filter and an Emitter Follower to amplify the current and
the filtering effect of the Capacitor.
The circuit uses a standard NPN BJT transistor and a small capacitor. The current will bypass R1
allowing the small Capacitor to be used.
1
For a reduction of -3db = 2π.F.C
With a 1k Resistor and a 10nF Capacitor the cut-off frequency should be 59kHz, but because the
circuit generates a β or Gain value of 100, the cut off frequency will be:
1kΩ + (100nF x 100) = 10uF ∴ at -3db F = 15.9Hz
If a higher current gain is required a Darlington pair of MOSFET transistor could be used.
Transistors L67
Voltage drop – 0.6 – 0.7v over the emitter and the voltage on the collector needs to be 0.2. or > than
the emitter.
Impedance Reflection
Set Current
Reset Current
So, by changing the required Ie to be 10mA we can reduce the VRC voltage demand to 1v. and the
circuit will now work.
To Calculate β
Beta is calculated by dividing the emitter current over the base current =
Ie = 56.8mA and Ib = 0.42mA - Refer Error! Reference source not found.
𝐼𝑒 56.8
β= = = 135 ∴ β = 135
𝐼𝑏 0.42
The circuit above (Figure 49 - Current Source) uses the transistor as a Current Source were we can
program transistor always to deliver the same current.
If we set the load RCLOAD to 10Ω, 100Ω, 1kΩ and 5kΩ and test IE stays at 1.mA – What’s the
voltage drop over the load for the above loads. Using the Proteus and Multisim simulations
(refer Fig 50 Current Source Simulations) below, the Simulations demand RB to have a much
higher resistance.
R2 represents the circuit load and can vary from 0 – 4kΩ without changing the 1A current at R3. R2
at 5k will lower the current to 0.78mA.
A voltage Divider is a step more stable to provide the transistor bias voltage than using a single
Resister. To work out the resister values, we can use a percentage value between the Vin and the
voltage required at VB . Referring to fig 51 above, we know that VB needs to be 1.6v, the typical
𝑅𝑏2
voltage divider formula is RB2 = 𝑅𝑏2 + 𝑅𝑏1
. Vin, however, a quick estimation can be used by
1.6𝑣
calculating the percentage of VB from Vin. RB2 = 5𝑣
= .32 or 32%. That makes RB2 = 32% and RB1 =
10𝑘 10𝑘
68%. ∴ 𝑖𝑓 𝑤𝑒 𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑎 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑓 10𝑘Ω then, = 6.8 = RB1 = 6.8kΩ and RB2 = 32%. ∴ = 3.2 = RB2
.68 .32
= 3.2kΩ.
The Proof:
𝑅2 3.2
VB = (𝑅1+𝑅2) . Vin = VB = (6.8+3.2) . 5v = 1.6v
As RB2 is in parallel with RE due to the Impedance on the transistor. Then the value of RB2 the will
change as a result of the resistance in parallel rule. RB2 II RC * (*=RE as seen through the base
known as the Reflective Impedance) = RB2 II (RE . β) where β = 100 or 100kΩ ∴ RB2 * = 3.2kΩ II
3.2𝑘 . 100𝑘
100kΩ = Parallel Resistance = “The product over the Sum” = 3.2𝑘+100𝑘 = 3.1kΩ , thus the effect of
the Reflective Impedance reduces RB2 by 100Ω . If the resisters are small, we will use more current,
To set the transistor bias by using a Zener Diode (refer fig 50 above), we will change IE from 1mA to
3mA and use a 3.6v Zener diode to set the voltage on VB.
The resistance on RB1 must be set small enough to all the current to maintain Zener regulation. If RB1
1𝑘
is set to 1k them = 5 mA, (note volts / k – mA). This 5mA needs power both the Zener regulation
5𝑣
and the transistor bias. If we use a 3.6 Zener then VE will 3v and for IE to have 3mA we need to
𝑉 3𝑣
calculate a resistance. RE = 𝐼
= RE = 3𝑚𝐴
= 1kΩ.
Using simulation VB was shown to 3.54v, as this is low we could lower RB1 to 470Ω or change the
Zener to be 3.9v. However, if we also chance RB1 to 470Ω we can get more current on the circuit.
We could make some small changes to the fig 53 circuit and include a 5v voltage regulator as well as
providing a 3mA current source. The 5v supply should be maintained irrespective of the current
load.
The circuit changes: Change RC to Rc Limit of 1Ω, add a 5v junction at Ve, Change Vin to 9v. (refer to
figure 53 above.
By placing a small AC signal at Vin ( Amplitude = 1v Freq = 50Hz) and receiving the AC signal at Vout,
the frequency “Wiggles” the transistor that assists with the amplification of the current. The AC
ground signal is raised the by 2.5v and sits on top of the DC supply, with an 2.5v off set. There is also
a 0.6v drop from Vin to Vout due to the bias requirement of the transistor.
The circuit is set up to get the maximum amount of output swing. Given Vout = 2.5v (half of the
𝑉𝑒 2.5𝑣
5vDC supply) and use a 1kΩ for RE then IE = 𝑅𝑒 = 1𝑘Ω = 2.5mA. this 2.5mA is the quiescent or steady-
state current supply from the circuit.
As Vin is set to 2.5 via the voltage divider and VB need to be (2.5 + 0.6) = 3.2v.
What is the input impedance om Vin? Note: Whenever we have an output, we want to input the
signal with a high impedance so that we that the circuit does not drag a lot of current and drop the
voltage and sag the circuit. We would like ∞ Impedance unless we are concerned about Maximum
Power Transfer when the signal passes between several stages, which we are not in this case.
To calculate the Impedance using RB1 at 10kΩ and RB2 at 20kΩ for the voltage divider, looking
through Vin we can see the reflective Impedance of β. If β = 100 and RE = 1kΩ then the reflective
impedance is 100kΩ.
With RB2 at 20kΩ so the Impedance now = 20kΩ II 100kΩ = 20kΩ in Parallel with 100kΩ ( II = Product
20𝑘Ω .100kΩ
over the sum) ∴ Z = 20𝑘Ω+100kΩ
= 16.64kΩ Note: we know that when calculating parallel resistance
the result is always less than the value of the smallest resistor in the calculation. So if we get a result
bigger than this, we have made a mistake.
We need to take into account RB1 at 10kΩ as this affects the reflective impedance calculation, ∴
16.64𝑘Ω . 10kΩ
10kΩ II 16.64kΩ = 16.64𝑘Ω +10kΩ = 6.24kΩ so Z = 6.24kΩ.
𝑅𝑏1 20𝑘Ω
The voltage at VB = VB = (𝑅𝑏1=𝑅𝑏2 ) . Vcc = ( 20𝑘Ω+10KΩ) . 5𝑣 = 3.3v. This is a little more than the 3.2v
required, but as we have not taken into account the parallel effect of Z (6.24kΩ) the actual vE voltage
should be slightly less.
The AC signal is coupled in by using the two capacitors C1 and C2. The inclusion of the two capacitors
is called capacitor coupling. If we look at C1 and RB2 we have a High Pass Filter and we want to design
1
the circuit to pass an AC signal close to 20Hz. To calculate this F = 2𝜋 .𝑍 .𝐶1 Note: we are using Z and
not RB2 as it is the impedance resistance that is required in this case. ∴ if we use an estimated
1
capacitor value of 1μF and the Impedance on RB2 then F = 2𝜋 .6.24𝑘Ω .1μF = 25Hz. If we made C1 10 X
bigger the F value would fall to 2.5Hz, and if we made C1 smaller, the F value would increase.
Very important note: – The resistance of RB2 in the case of the High Pass Filter is the parallel
impedance value of 6.24kΩ not 20kΩ the actual value of the resistor. The voltage divider recognises
the 20kΩ but the high pass filter does not.
The above circuit is powered by a DC 10v source (Vcc) and a small-signal AC source 10mV amplitude
with a frequency of 10kHz (Vin).
The circuit is designed to provide a constant 5v supply at Vout irrespective of the current load on IE.
IC = β . IB *
IE = IB + IC
IE = IB . (1 + β) *
IC and IE are always very close
* = Important equations
Now figure the voltage divider resistance for R1 and R2. In order to get 1v at VE and we have a 0.6v
𝑅2
bias on the transistor, then the voltage on VB must be 1.6v. ∴ VB = (𝑅2+𝑅1) . Vcc = 1.6v
One way to estimate the R1 and R2 resistance values is to calculate their percentage values first then
transpose the percentage values to resistance. If we start by setting R1 to 100kΩ and calculate the
1.6
percentage values between VB = 1.6v and Vcc = 10v then we get R2 = 10 = 16% R2 = 16% ∴ 100% -
100
16% = 84% ∴ R1 resistance of 100kΩ must = 84% of the total voltage divider resistance. ∴ R2 = 84
.
19.047
16 = 19.047kΩ ∴ R2 = 19.047kΩ The Proof = VB = (19.047+100) . 10v = 1.599v
Due to the reflected Impedance from RE and β, we know the total will be 200kΩ due to β at 100. ∴
19𝑘Ω . 200kΩ
19kΩ II 200kΩ = 19𝑘Ω +200kΩ = 17.35kΩ so Z = 17.35kΩ If we set R2 a little higher say 22kΩ then this
22𝑘Ω . 200kΩ
will compensate for the reflective Impedance. The proof 22kΩ II 200kΩ = 22𝑘Ω +200kΩ = 19.81kΩ.
We need to take into account RB1 at 100kΩ as this affects the reflective impedance calculation, ∴
19.81𝑘Ω . 100kΩ
100kΩ II 19.81kΩ = = 16.53kΩ so Ztotal = 16.53kΩ.
19.81𝑘Ω +100kΩ
The AC signal is coupled in by using the two capacitors C1 and C2. The inclusion of the two capacitors
is called capacitor coupling. If we look at C1 and R1 we have a High Pass Filter, and we want to
1
design the circuit to pass an AC signal. To calculate the Frequency, F = Note: we are using Z
2𝜋 .𝑍 .𝐶1
and not R1 as it is the impedance resistance that is required in this case. ∴ if we use an estimated
1
capacitor value of 1μF on C1 and the Impedance on R2 then F = = 9.62Hz ∴ FC1 = 3db
2𝜋 . 16.53𝑘Ω .1μF
at 9.62Hz.
Very important Note: – The resistance of R2 in the case of a High Pass Filter is the parallel impedance
value of 6.24kΩ not 20kΩ the actual value of the resistor. The voltage divider recognises the 20kΩ,
but the high pass filter does not.
To calculate C2 we also have a high pass filter in the circuit between RE and C2 as RE is going to earth.
1
∴ F = 2𝜋 .𝑅𝑒 .𝐶2 Parallel Impedance does not affect this calculation; we know RE is 1kΩ and if we use a
1
1μF for C1 now we have F = = 15.9Hz. ∴ FC2 = 3db at 15.9Hz.
2𝜋 .10𝑘Ω .1μF
Taking VE = BB – 0.6v then looking at the AC small signal, what happens when we put the small
wiggle on VB?
If we are talking about ΔVE and ΔVB and we are only looking at the difference, then Ve is following
VB – 0.6v. Then the small signals of vE and vB are effectively the same. So, we have:
𝑣𝑒
vE = vB (Result 1), iE = 𝑅𝐸 (Result 2), vC = -iC . RC (Result 3) ∴
𝑣𝑐 𝑅𝑐 10
𝑣𝑒
= -𝑅𝑒 = Gain = - 2
= an Inverse Gain of 5.
This circuit uses a transistor switch with a PN222A PNP transistor (“P” stands for plastic) to study and
eliminate the transient noise. The maximum current through the transistor (Ic) is 500mA. The
following is a set of circuits and oscilloscope images that show the circuit and the motor running
noise and on /off transients.
Other circuits are presented with extra filtration components added and corresponding scope
images.
The scope is set to 200mV without any filtering; there is substantial running noise and a large turn
off spike.
The scope is set to 500mv and using a 2200mF electrolytic cap for smoothing we are now getting
smaller spikes and killed the noise.
If we use a FET the switch would give us a very small “On” resistance, they are just like mechanical
switches. Further reading, look at Motor Driver Circuits and Snubber Circuit Design Calculators.
Oscillators
ac Small Signal
In order to use the Small ac Signal without using a signal generator refer Fig 56 above, an Oscillator
circuit needs to be developed. The three basic circuits below have been included as suggestions. As
there are many ways to generate an Oscillation signal, the reader should only use the circuits below
as a reference and research other circuits to solve specific needs.
Quartz Crystals are often used to set the frequency of an oscillator because of their precise
frequency and stability. The above circuit is very stable with a frequency range of approx—100kHz to
40MHz. The output is a sine wave with a slight distortion.
The Colpitts Oscillator was developed by Edwin H. Colpitts in the year of 1918. This oscillator is a
combination of both inductors and capacitor. The features of the Colpitts Oscillator are the feedback
for the active devices, and they are taken from the voltage divider and made up of two capacitors
which are in series across the inductor.
A CMOS 555 IC produces a 50% duty cycle square wave. Its output is sent to the Low Pass Filter that
filters out most of the harmonics, leaving the fundamental sine wave. If required, the reader may
design a more selective filter to improve the sine wave quality.
Mathematical Equations
Calculate β, 11 Resistor
Impedance, 11 Calc the Voltage, 12
Inductor in Parallel, 11 circuit will be stiffer, 59
Inductor in series, 11 parallel impedance, 63
Phase Angle, 11 Resistors are real, 36
Reactance, 11 to get 10mA, 15
Resisters in Parallel, 11
Voltage Divider, 11
RMS, 11, 18, 22, 28, 48
Time Domain, 17
Milli Amps, 9 Transfer Function, 31, 35, 36, 37, 41, 42