PSSA 5TH GRADE CC.1.4.

WRITING ELIGIBLE Conventions of

Language

CONTENT (Grammar)

These are the grammar and style rules that 5th grade students are expected
to know
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TABLE OF CONTENTS

D.1.1.1 Conjunctions, prepositions, and interjections 2

D.1.1.2 The perfect verb tense 10

D.1.1.3 Verb tenses to convey time, sequences, states, conditions 12

D.1.1.4 Recognize and correct inappropriate shifts in verb tense 14

D.1.1.5 Use correlative conjunctions 15

D.1.1.6 Produce complete sentences; avoid fragments and run-ons 16

D.1.1.7 Correctly use frequently confused words 18

D.1.1.8 Ensure subject-verb and pronoun-antecedent agreement 23

D.1.2.1 Use punctuation to separate items in a series 27

D.1.2.2 Use a comma to separate introductory elements 30

D.1.2.3 Use a comma to set off yes and no, a tag question, and direct address 32

D.1.2.4 Use underlining, quotation marks, or italics to indicate titles of works 33

D.1.2.5 Spell grade-appropriate words correctly 35

D.2.1.1 Expand, combine, and reduce sentences for meaning, interest, and style 36

D.2.1.2 Choose words and phrases to convey ideas precisely 41

D.2.1.3 Choose punctuation for effect 43

D.2.1.4 Choose words and phrases for effect 45

Draft July 2014

Erie’s Public Schools, Erie, PA
Please contact Nora Dolak with feedback at [email protected]
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D.1.1.1 Explain the function of conjunctions, prepositions, and interjections

in general and their function in particular sentences.

CONJUNCTIONS

Conjunctions are words used as joiners.

Different kinds of conjunctions join different kinds of grammatical structures.

The following are the kinds of conjunctions:

COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS (FANBOYS)

for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so

Coordinating conjunctions join equals to one another:

words to words, phrases to phrases, clauses to clauses.

Coordinating conjunctions usually form looser connections than other conjunctions do.

Coordinating conjunctions go in between items joined, not at the beginning or end.

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Punctuation with coordinating conjunctions:

When a coordinating conjunction joins two words, phrases, or subordinate clauses, no comma
should be placed before the conjunction.

A coordinating conjunction joining three or more words, phrases, or subordinate clauses creates
a series and requires commas between the elements.

A coordinating conjunction joining two independent clauses creates a compound sentence and
requires a comma before the coordinating conjunction
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CONJUNCTIVE ADVERBS

These conjunctions join independent clauses together.

The following are frequently used conjunctive adverbs:

after all in addition next

also incidentally nonetheless
as a result indeed on the contrary
besides in fact on the other hand
consequently in other words otherwise
finally instead still
for example likewise then
furthermore meanwhile therefore
hence moreover thus
however nevertheless

Punctuation: Place a semicolon before the conjunctive adverb and a comma after the
conjunctive adverb.

SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS

These words are commonly used as subordinating conjunctions

after in order (that) unless

although insofar as until
as in that when
as far as lest whenever
as soon as no matter how where
as if now that wherever
as though once whether
because provided (that) while
before since why
even if so that
even though supposing (that)
how than
if that
inasmuch as though
in case (that) till
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Subordinating conjunctions also join two clauses together, but in doing so, they make one clause
dependent (or "subordinate") upon the other.

A subordinating conjunction may appear at a sentence beginning or between two clauses in a

sentence.

A subordinate conjunction usually provides a tighter connection between clauses than a

coordinating conjunctions does.

Loose: It is raining, so we have an umbrella.

Tight: Because it is raining, we have an umbrella.
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Punctuation Note:

When the dependent clause is placed first in a sentence, use a comma between the two clauses. When the
independent clause is placed first and the dependent clause second, do not separate the two clauses with a
comma.

PREPOSITIONS

Prepositions are words which begin prepositional phrases.

A prepositional phrase is a group of words containing a preposition, a noun or pronoun object

of the preposition, and any modifiers of the object.

A preposition sits in front of (is “pre-positioned” before) its object.

The following words are the most commonly used prepositions:

about below excepting off toward

above beneath for on under
across beside(s) from onto underneath
after between in out until
against beyond in front of outside up
along but inside over upon
among by in spite of past up to
around concerning instead of regarding with
at despite into since within
because of down like through without
before during near throughout with regard to
behind except of to with respect to
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It is useful to locate prepositional phrases in sentences since any noun or pronoun within the
prepositional phrase must be the preposition’s object and, therefore, cannot be misidentified as a
verb’s direct object.

To the store is a prepositional phrase.

Store is the object of the preposition to, not the direct object of the verb drove.

Car is the direct object of the verb drove.

To the grocery store is a prepositional phrase.

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NOTE:

A word that looks like a preposition but is actually part of a verb is called a particle.

Held up is a verb meaning “to rob.”

Therefore, up is not a preposition, and bank is not the object of a preposition.

Instead, bank is the direct object of the verb held up.

To avoid confusing prepositions with particles, test by moving the word (up) and words
following it to the front of the sentence:

Up the bank four armed men held.

If the resulting sentence does not make sense, then the word belongs with the verb and is a
particle, not a preposition.

Note the difference:

The resulting sentence makes sense. Therefore, up is a preposition.

The resulting sentence does not make sense. Therefore, up is a particle in this sentence.

The following examples illustrate the difference between prepositions and particles:
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Some other examples of particles:

give in turn in pull through wore out broke up

go in for put in for bring up found out blow up
look up make up look over

Interjections are words or phrases used to exclaim or protest or command. They sometimes
stand by themselves, but they are often contained within larger structures.

 Hey! Get off that floor!

 Oh, that is a surprise.
 Good! Now we can move on.
 Wow! I won the lottery!

Most mild interjections are treated as parenthetical elements and set off from the rest of the
sentence with a comma or set of commas. If the interjection is more forceful, however, it is
followed with an exclamation mark. Interjections are rarely used in formal or academic writing.
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D.1.1.2 Form and use the perfect verb tenses (e.g., I had walked; I have
walked; I will have walked).

Present Perfect

The present perfect consists of a past participle (the third principal part) with "has" or "have." It
designates action which began in the past but which continues into the present or the effect of
which still continues.

1. Betty taught for ten years. (simple past)

2. Betty has taught for ten years. (present perfect)

The implication in (1) is that Betty has retired; in (2), that she is still teaching.

1. John did his homework. He can go to the movies.

2. If John has done his homework, he can go to the movies.

Infinitives, too, have perfect tense forms when combined with "have," and sometimes problems
arise when infinitives are used with verbs such as "hope," "plan," "expect," and "intend," all of
which usually point to the future (I wanted to go to the movie. Janet meant to see the doctor.)
The perfect tense sets up a sequence by marking the action which began and usually was
completed before the action in the main verb.

1. I am happy to have participated in this campaign!

2. John had hoped to have won the trophy.

Thus the action of the main verb points back in time; the action of the perfect infinitive has been
completed.

Past Perfect

The past perfect tense designates action in the past just as simple past does, but the action of the
past perfect is action completed in the past before another action.

1. John raised vegetables and later sold them. (past)

2. John sold vegetables that he had raised. (past perfect)

The vegetables were raised before they were sold.

1. Renee washed the car when George arrived (simple past)

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2. Renee had washed the car when George arrived. (past perfect)

In (1), she waited until George arrived and then washed the car. In (2), she had already finished
washing the car by the time he arrived.

In sentences expressing condition and result, the past perfect tense is used in the part that states
the condition.

1. If I had done my exercises, I would have passed the test.

2. I think George would have been elected if he hadn't sounded so pompous.

Future Perfect

The future perfect tense designates action that will have been completed at a specified time in the
future.

1. Saturday I will finish my housework. (simple future)

2. By Saturday noon, I will have finished my housework. (future perfect)

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D.1.1.3 Use verb tense to convey various times, sequences, states, and
conditions.

Tense in Purpose of Dependent

Independent Clause/ Example(s)
Clause Tense in Dependent Clause
To show same-time action, use the I am eager to go to the concert
present tense because I love the Wallflowers.

To show earlier action, use past

I know that I made the right choice.
tense
Simple To show a period of time extending
Present from some point in the past to the They believe that they have elected
present, use the present perfect the right candidate.
tense.

To show action to come, use the The President says that he will veto
future tense. the bill.

To show another completed past I wanted to go home because I

action, use the past tense. missed my parents.
Simple To show an earlier action, use the She knew she had made the right
Past past perfect tense. choice.

To state a general truth, use the The Deists believed that the
present tense. universe is like a giant clock.

Present
Perfect She has grown a foot since she
turned nine.
or For any purpose, use the past tense.
The crowd had turned nasty before
Past the sheriff returned.
Perfect
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To show action happening at the I will be so happy if they fix my car

same time, use the present tense. today.

To show an earlier action, use the You will surely pass this exam if
past tense. you studied hard.
Future
To show future action earlier than
The college will probably close its
the action of the independent
doors next summer if enrollments
clause, use the present perfect
have not increased.
tense.

Most students will have taken sixty

Future credits by the time they graduate.
For any purpose, use the present
Most students will have taken sixty
Perfect tense or present perfect tense.
credits by the time they have
graduated.
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D.1.1.4 Recognize and correct inappropriate shifts in verb tense.

Avoid shifts in

1. verb tense

Except for special cases where the intended meaning requires a change in tense, maintain the
same tense within a sentence.

Error:- shift in verb tense

The sentence above begins in the past tense but shifts, without reason, to the present tense.

Error repaired
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D.1.1.5 Use correlative conjunctions (e.g., either/or, neither/nor).

B. CORRELATIVE CONJUNCTIONS

either. . .or both. . . and

neither. . . nor not only. . . but also

These pairs of conjunctions require equal (parallel) structures after each one.
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D.1.1.6 Produce complete sentences, recognizing and correcting

inappropriate fragments and run-on sentences.

Sentence Structure

This lesson addresses sentence structure. Questions about sentence structure make up 30 percent
of the questions in Part I of the GED Language Arts, Writing test. Reviewing these skills will
also help you prepare for the GED Essay, and it will improve your language skills in general.
Topics included in this resource are the following: fragment sentences, run-on sentences, comma
splices, parallel structure, modifiers, and coordination and subordination.

Fragment sentences

A complete sentence will have at least one subject and one verb. Sentences are considered
fragments when they are missing either a subject or a verb. Consider the following two
fragment sentences and their corrected versions:

 No Subject: Went to the store to buy brownie mix.

Added Subject: My dad went to the store to buy brownie mix.

 No Verb: Brownie mix at the store expensive.

Added Verb: Brownie mix at the store was expensive.

In addition to containing a subject and verb, a complete sentence will express a complete
thought. Consider the following two sentences and their revised versions.

 Incomplete: When he went to the checkout counter to pay for the brownie mix.
Complete: When he went to the checkout counter to pay for the brownie mix, he got
distracted by a display of cake mixes.

 Incomplete: The variety of yummy cake mixes.

Complete: The variety of yummy cake mixes convinced him that he’d rather bake a
cake than brownies tonight.

Run-on sentences (Run-ons)

A run-on sentence occurs when two or more independent clauses are combined without correct
punctuation. An independent clause is a complete, simple sentence, meaning that it contains a
subject, a verb, and a complete thought. There are a few ways to correct run-on sentences.
Consider the following run-on sentence and the following options for revising it.

Run-On: The grocery store was really packed with people there must have been a big sale today.

 Correction 1: The grocery store was really packed with people. There must have
been a big sale today.
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Here, the error has been corrected by simply breaking the run-on sentence into two sentences.

 Correction 2: The grocery store was really packed with people, so there must have
been a big sale today.

In this case, the sentence has been corrected by adding a coordinating conjunction and a comma.
This is a compound sentence.

 Correction 3: Because the grocery store was really packed with people, there must
have been a big sale.

In this example, the sentence has been corrected by adding a subordinating conjunction and a
comma. This is a complex sentence
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D.1.1.7 Correctly use frequently confused words (e.g., to, too, two; there,
their, they’re).

 ACCEPT-to receive
ex: He accepts defeat well.
 EXCEPT-to take or leave out
ex: Please take all the books off the shelf except for the red one.

 AFFECT-to influence
ex: Lack of sleep affects the quality of your work.
 EFFECT-n., result, v., to accomplish
ex: The subtle effect of the lighting made the room look ominous.
ex: Can the university effect such a change without disrupting classes?

 A LOT (two words)-many.

 ALOT (one word)-Not the correct form.

 ALLUSION-an indirect reference

ex: The professor made an allusion to Virginia Woolf's work.
 ILLUSION-a false perception of reality
ex: They saw a mirage: that is a type of illusion one sees in the desert.

 ALL READY-prepared
ex: Dinner was all ready when the guests arrived.
 ALREADY-by this time
ex: The turkey was already burned when the guests arrived.

 ALTOGETHER-entirely
ex: Altogether, I thought that the student's presentation was well planned.
 ALL TOGETHER-gathered, with everything in one place
ex: We were all together at the family reunion last spring.

 APART-to be separated
ex: The chain-link fence kept the angry dogs apart. OR My old car fell apart
before we reached California.
 A PART-to be joined with
ex: The new course was a part of the new field of study at the university. OR A
part of this plan involves getting started at dawn.

 ASCENT- climb
ex: The plane's ascent made my ears pop.
 ASSENT-agreement
ex: The martian assented to undergo experiments.
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 BREATH-noun, air inhaled or exhaled

ex: You could see his breath in the cold air.
 BREATHE-verb, to inhale or exhale
ex: If you don't breathe, then you are dead.

 CAPITAL-seat of government. Also financial resources.

ex: The capital of Virginia is Richmond.
ex: The firm had enough capital to build the new plant.
 CAPITOL-the actual building in which the legislative body meets
ex: The governor announced his resignation in a speech given at the capitol
today.

 CITE-to quote or document

ex: I cited ten quotes from the same author in my paper.
 SIGHT-vision
ex: The sight of the American flag arouses different emotions in different parts of
the world.
 SITE-position or place
ex: The new office building was built on the site of a cemetery.

 COMPLEMENT-noun, something that completes; verb, to complete

ex: A nice dry white wine complements a seafood entree.
 COMPLIMENT-noun, praise; verb, to praise
ex: The professor complimented Betty on her proper use of a comma.

 CONSCIENCE-sense of right and wrong

ex: The student's conscience kept him from cheating on the exam.
 CONSCIOUS-awake
ex: I was conscious when the burglar entered the house.

 COUNCIL-a group that consults or advises

ex: The men and women on the council voted in favor of an outdoor concert in
their town.
 COUNSEL-to advise
ex: The parole officer counseled the convict before he was released.

 ELICIT-to draw or bring out

ex: The teacher elicited the correct response from the student.
 ILLICIT-illegal
ex: The Columbian drug lord was arrested for his illicit activities.
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 EMINENT-famous, respected
ex: The eminent podiatrist won the Physician of the Year award.
 IMMANENT-inherent or intrinsic
ex: The meaning of the poem was immanent, and not easily recognized.
 IMMINENT-ready to take place
ex: A fight between my sister and me is imminent from the moment I enter my
house.

 ITS-of or belonging to it
ex: The baby will scream as soon as its mother walks out of the room.
 IT'S-contraction for it is
ex: It's a beautiful day in the neighborhood.

 LEAD-noun, a type of metal

ex: Is that pipe made of lead?
 LED-verb, past tense of the verb "to lead"
ex: She led the campers on an over-night hike.

 LIE-to lie down (a person or animal. hint: people can tell lies)
ex: I have a headache, so I'm going to lie down for a while.
(also lying, lay, has/have lain--The dog has lain in the shade all day; yesterday,
the dog lay there for twelve hours).
 LAY-to lay an object down.
ex: "Lay down that shotgun, Pappy!" The sheriff demanded of the crazed
moonshiner.
ex: The town lay at the foot of the mountain.
(also laying, laid, has/have laid--At that point, Pappy laid the shotgun on the
ground).

 LOSE--verb, to misplace or not win

ex: Mom glared at Mikey. "If you lose that new lunchbox, don't even think of
coming home!"
 LOOSE--adjective, to not be tight; verb (rarely used)--to release
ex: The burglar's pants were so loose that he was sure to lose the race with the
cop chasing him.
ex: While awaiting trial, he was never set loose from jail because no one would
post his bail.

 NOVEL-noun, a book that is a work of fiction. Do not use "novel" for nonfiction; use
"book" or "work."
ex: Mark Twain wrote his novel Adventures of Huckleberry Finn when he was
already well known, but before he published many other works of fiction and
nonfiction.
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 PASSED-verb, past tense of "to pass," to have moved

ex: The tornado passed through the city quickly, but it caused great damage.
 PAST-belonging to a former time or place
ex: Who was the past president of Microsquish Computers?
ex: Go past the fire station and turn right.

 PRECEDE-to come before

ex: Pre-writing precedes the rough draft of good papers.
 PROCEED-to go forward
ex: He proceeded to pass back the failing grades on the exam.

 PRINCIPAL-adjective, most important; noun, a person who has authority

ex: The principal ingredient in chocolate chip cookies is chocolate chips.
ex: The principal of the school does the announcements each morning.
 PRINCIPLE-a general or fundamental truth
ex: The study was based on the principle of gravity.

 QUOTE-verb, to cite
ex: I would like to quote Dickens in my next paper.
 QUOTATION-noun, the act of citing
ex: The book of famous quotations inspired us all.

 RELUCTANT-to hesitate or feel unwilling

ex: We became reluctant to drive further and eventually turned back when the
road became icy.
 RETICENT-to be reluctant to speak; to be reserved in manner. Note that The American
Heritage Dictionary lists "reluctant" as a synonym for "reticent," as the third definition.
For nuance and variety, we recommend "reticent" for reluctance when speaking or
showing emotion (after all, even extroverts can become reluctant).
ex: They called him reticent, because he rarely spoke. But he listened carefully
and only spoke when he had something important to say.

 STATIONARY-standing still
ex: The accident was my fault because I ran into a stationary object.
 STATIONERY-writing paper
ex: My mother bought me stationery that was on recycled paper.

 SUPPOSED TO-correct form for "to be obligated to" or "presumed to" NOT "suppose
to"
 SUPPOSE-to guess or make a conjecture
ex: Do you suppose we will get to the airport on time? When is our plane
supposed to arrive? We are supposed to check our bags before we board, but I
suppose we could do that at the curb and save time.
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 THAN-use with comparisons

ex: I would rather go out to eat than eat at the dining hall.
 THEN-at that time, or next
ex: I studied for my exam for seven hours, and then I went to bed.

 THEIR-possessive form of they

ex: Their house is at the end of the block.
 THERE-indicates location (hint: think of "here and there")
ex: There goes my chance of winning the lottery!
 THEY'RE-contraction for "they are"
ex: They're in Europe for the summer--again!

 THROUGH-by means of; finished; into or out of

ex: He plowed right through the other team's defensive line.
 THREW-past tense of throw
ex: She threw away his love letters.
 THOROUGH-careful or complete
ex: John thoroughly cleaned his room; there was not even a speck of dust when
he finished.
 THOUGH-however; nevertheless
ex: He's really a sweetheart though he looks tough on the outside.
 THRU-abbreviated slang for through; not appropriate in standard writing
ex: We're thru for the day!

 TO-toward
ex: I went to the University of Richmond.
 TOO-also, or excessively
ex: He drank too many screwdrivers and was unable to drive home.
 TWO-a number
ex: Only two students did not turn in the assignment.

 WHO-pronoun, referring to a person or persons

ex: Jane wondered how Jack, who is so smart, could be having difficulties in
Calculus.

 WHICH-pronoun, replacing a singular or plural thing(s);not used to refer to persons

ex: Which section of history did you get into?
 THAT-used to refer to things or a group or class of people
ex: I lost the book that I bought last week.

 WHO-used as a subject or as a subject complement (see above)

ex: John is the man who can get the job done.
 WHOM-used as an object
ex: Whom did Sarah choose as her replacement?
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D.1.1.8 Ensure subject-verb and pronoun-antecedent agreement.

Subject-verb agreement

1. When the subject of a sentence is composed of two or more nouns or pronouns connected
by and, use a plural verb.

She and her friends are at the fair.

2. When two or more singular nouns or pronouns are connected by or or nor, use a singular
verb.

The book or the pen is in the drawer.

3. When a compound subject contains both a singular and a plural noun or pronoun joined by
or or nor, the verb should agree with the part of the subject that is nearer the verb.

The boy or his friends run every day.

His friends or the boy runs every day.

4. Doesn't is a contraction of does not and should be used only with a singular subject. Don't
is a contraction of do not and should be used only with a plural subject. The exception to
this rule appears in the case of the first person and second person pronouns I and you. With
these pronouns, the contraction don't should be used.

He doesn't like it.

They don't like it.

5. Do not be misled by a phrase that comes between the subject and the verb. The verb agrees
with the subject, not with a noun or pronoun in the phrase.

One of the boxes is open

The people who listen to that music are few.
The team captain, as well as his players, is anxious.
The book, including all the chapters in the first section, is boring.
The woman with all the dogs walks down my street.

6. The words each, each one, either, neither, everyone, everybody, anybody, anyone, nobody,
somebody, someone, and no one are singular and require a singular verb.

Each of these hot dogs is juicy.

Everybody knows Mr. Jones.
Either is correct.
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7. Nouns such as civics, mathematics, dollars, measles, and news require singular verbs.

The news is on at six.

Note: the word dollars is a special case. When talking about an amount of
money, it requires a singular verb, but when referring to the dollars themselves, a
plural verb is required.

Five dollars is a lot of money.

Dollars are often used instead of rubles in Russia.

8. Nouns such as scissors, tweezers, trousers, and shears require plural verbs. (There are two
parts to these things.)

These scissors are dull.

Those trousers are made of wool.

9. In sentences beginning with there is or there are, the subject follows the verb. Since there
is not the subject, the verb agrees with what follows.

There are many questions.

There is a question.

10. Collective nouns are words that imply more than one person but that are considered
singular and take a singular verb, such as group, team, committee, class, and family.

The team runs during practice.

The committee decides how to proceed.
The family has a long history.
My family has never been able to agree.
The crew is preparing to dock the ship.

This sentence is referring to the individual efforts of each crew member. The Gregg
Reference Manual provides excellent explanations of subject-verb agreement (section 10:
1001).

11. Expressions such as with, together with, including, accompanied by, in addition to, or as
well do not change the number of the subject. If the subject is singular, the verb is too.

The President, accompanied by his wife, is traveling to India.

All of the books, including yours, are in that box.
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Pronoun-antecedent agreement

1. Agree in number

If the pronoun takes the place of a singular noun, you have to use a singular pronoun.

If a student parks a car on campus, he or she has to buy a parking sticker.

(INCORRECT: If a student parks a car on campus, they have to buy a parking
sticker.)
Remember: the words everybody, anybody, anyone, each, neither, nobody, someone, a person,
etc. are singular and take singular pronouns.
Everybody ought to do his or her best.

(INCORRECT: their best)

Neither of the girls brought her umbrella.

(INCORRECT: their umbrellas)

NOTE: Many people find the construction "his or her" wordy, so if it is possible to use a plural
noun as your antecedent and thus you can use "they" as your pronoun, it may be wise to do so. If
you do use a singular noun and the context makes the gender clear, then it is permissible to use
just "his" or "her" rather than "his or her."

2. Agree in person

If you are writing in the first person (I), don't confuse your reader by switching to the second
person (you) or third person (he, she, they, it, etc.). Similarly, if you are using the second
person, don't switch to first or third.

When a person comes to class, he or she should have his or her homework ready.
(INCORRECT: When a person comes to class, you should have your homework
ready.)

3. Refer clearly to a specific noun.

Don't be vague or ambiguous.

INCORRECT: Although the motorcycle hit the tree, it was not damaged. (Is "it"
the motorcycle or the tree?)
INCORRECT: I don't think they should show violence on TV. (Who are
"they"?)
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INCORRECT: Vacation is coming soon, which is nice. (What is nice, the

vacation or the fact that it is coming soon?)
INCORRECT: George worked in a national forest last summer. This may be his
life's work. (What word does "this" refer to?)
INCORRECT: If you put this sheet in your notebook, you can refer to it.
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D.1.2.1 Use punctuation to separate items in a series.

Punctuating a Series

In order to avoid confusion, it is necessary to separate items in a series with punctuation.

Read the following:

At the store, I bought red pepper salsa wheat tortillas and cheese.

What was bought? Red pepper and salsa, or red pepper salsa? Wheat and tortillas or wheat
tortillas? Punctuation marks could eliminate confusion.

Simple Series

When writing a series of three or more items, separate each item with punctuation—usually
commas. Generally, a conjunction (and, or) will follow the last comma in the list.

Example: At the store I bought red pepper, salsa, wheat tortillas, and cheese.

Note: Although the serial or Oxford comma (the comma preceding and in a series) is not used in
journalistic and informal writing, it is still required in formal and academic writing.

Interestingly, the use of an ampersand (&) instead of and in a series requires no serial comma.

Example: I received counsel from Brooks, McCarthy, Dunn & Derringer, attorneys at
law.

Commas are not needed in a series whose elements are all joined by conjunctions.

Examples: I bought salsa and tortillas.

Was it wheat tortillas or flour tortillas or corn tortillas?

Etc. and so forth are both preceded and followed by a comma.

Examples: I bought salsa, tortillas, cheese, etc., at the store.

The cashier asked me if I wanted to pay by check, cash, and so forth, when I reached the
register.

Note: For more information on comma usage see the handout Commas.
 28

Complex Series

When a sentence contains a series of items that have internal punctuation or that are very long
and complex, separate the items in the series with semicolons.

Example: The authors of the textbook include Dr. Susan Lyons, Ph.D; Marcia Shelagan, a noted
computer theorist; and Richard Everly, a systems specialist at IBM.
Example: Ajax Meats has three major divisions: the East, which specializes in quality control;
the West, which specializes in research and development; and the North, which specializes in
keeping dead rats out of the meat.

Note: For more information on semicolons see the handout The Colon, Hyphen, Dash &
Semicolon.

Introducing a Series

Colons

When using a colon to introduce a series, the colon must follow a complete sentence and cannot
immediately follow the main verb of the clause.

Incorrect: His list of office supplies contains: ceramic pots, a pair of white gloves, a wooden
stool, and twenty-five boxes of paper clips.
Correct: His list of office supplies contained unusual items: ceramic pots, a pair of white gloves,
a wooden stool, and twenty-five boxes of paper clips.

Note: For more information on colons see the handouts The Colon, Hyphen, Dash & Semicolon
and Comma Splices and Fused Sentences.

Serial Phrases

Serial phrases (the following, as follows) can introduce a series with a colon as long as they are
part of a complete sentence.

Example: Weight reduction includes the following: proper diet, aerobic exercise, and flexibility
exercises.

Some serial phrases like such as and includes are not followed by a colon when they are not part
of a complete sentence.

Incorrect: The old pool was filled with junk, such as: tires, leaves, and broken pieces of wood.
Correct: The old pool was filled with junk, such as tires, leaves, and broken pieces of wood.
 29

Or: The pool was filled with junk, including tires, leaves, and broken pieces of wood.
Or even: The old pool was filled with junk: tires, leaves, and broken pieces of wood.

i.e., e.g., and Namely

Introducing a series with i.e. (id est—that is), e.g. (exempli gratia—for example), or namely
requires the use of a comma immediately following the phrase.

Examples: He had many luxuries (e.g., a Ferrari, a pet monkey, a ten-foot-deep bathtub, and
seven swans a-swimming).
Only the most qualified employees worked on the project, namely, Burnett, Johnson, Reeves,
and Nowacki.
 30

D.1.2.2 Use a comma to separate an introductory element from the rest of the
sentence.

When a sentence begins with an adverbial clause, put a comma after it.

 Although we had reviewed the film twice before, we never noticed these details about the
shooting.
 As the day drew to a smoky end, the firefighters put out the last of the embers.

It is permissible, even commonplace, to omit a comma after most brief introductory elements —
a prepositional phrase, an adverb, or a noun phrase:

 Yesterday afternoon we sat around waiting for Bill to arrive.

 By evening we had become impatient.
 Jauntily he walked into the hall.

When a prepositional phrase expands to more than three words, say, or becomes connected to yet
another prepositional phrase, the use of a comma will depend on the writer's sense of the rhythm
and flow of the sentence.

 After his nap Figueroa felt better.

 After his long nap in the backyard hammock, Figueroa felt better.

When an introductory adverbial element seems to modify the entire sentence and not just the
verb or some single element in the rest of the sentence, put a comma after it.

 Fortunately, no one in the bridal party was in that car.

 Sadly, the old church was completely destroyed.
 On the other hand, someone obviously was badly injured.

Don't allow a brief introductory element to merge with something following it in a way that can
confuse your reader. Try reading the following sentences without their commas:

 Until the spring course lists will not be published.

Until the spring, course lists will not be published.
 Inside the gym was brightly lighted and clean.
Inside, the gym was brightly lighted and clean.
 31

When a sentence begins with an Absolute Phrase or an adverbial Infinitive Phrase, put a
comma after it. (If the infinitive phrase is acting as a noun and is the subject of the sentence, be
careful not to put a comma between the subject and its verb: "To believe in one's self is a good
thing.")

 Their headpieces flapping wildly about their ears, the priestesses began their eerie chant.
 To escape with our lives, we would have to run for the exits.
 32

D.1.2.3 Use a comma to set off the words yes and no (e.g., Yes, thank you), to
set off a tag question from the rest of the sentence (e.g., It’s true, isn’t it?), and
to indicate direct address (e.g., Is that you, Steve?).

When a sentence begins with the words yes, no, or sure begin a sentence, use a comma.

Examples:
Yes, today is Wednesday.
No, it's not my favorite food.
Sure, I'll drive you to the park.

Use commas to set off a tag question. A tag question (such as do you? or can I?) emphasizes an
implied answer to the statement preceding it.

Examples:
You’ve never played golf before, have you?
He does know the curfew is ten o’clock, doesn’t he?

Use commas to set off words or names used in direst address.

Examples:
Will you be able to pick me up on Thursday, Danielle?
Have a seat, Felicia, and I’ll be right with you.
Ladies and gentlemen, may I present Maestro Santini.
 33

D.1.2.4 Use underlining, quotation marks, or italics to indicate titles of

works.

Punctuating Titles: When to Use Italics, Underlining, and "Quotation Marks."

It's easy for students to forget that different types of titles require different typographical
features. It is even harder to remember which type of title requires which type of punctuation.
Despair not! If you remember these two handy rules, you can keep the difference straight:
1) Short works and parts of long works are usually in quotation marks.
2) Long works and collections of short works are usually put in italics (or underlined when hand-
written).

"Short Works" & Long Works &

"Sections of Longer Works" Collection of Short Works

1) "Title of a Short Poem." Title of an Epic Poem or Book-Length Poem

Ex: "The Raven." Ex: The Odyssey

2) "Title of a Short Story." Title of a Novel

Ex: "Young Goodman Brown" Ex: The Scarlet Letter

3) "Title of an Essay" Title of a Collection or Anthology of Essays

Ex: "The Fiction of Langston Hughes" Ex: Modern Writers and Their Readers

4) "Title of a Short Song" Title of a CD, Cassette, or Album

Ex: "Money Talks" Ex: The Razor's Edge, by AC/DC.
Also: Title of a Ballet or Opera
Ex: The Nutcracker Suite or Die Fliedermaus
Also: Title of Long Classical or Instrumental
Compositions Ex: Wagner's The Flight of the
Valkyries

5) "Title of a Skit or Monologue" Title of a Play

Ex: "Madman's Lament" Ex: The Importance of Being Ernest

6) "Short Commercial" Title of a Film

"Obey Your Thirst." Ex: Star Wars Episode II: Attack of the Clones

7) Title of "Individual Episode" in a Title of a Television Series as a Whole

Television Series. Ex: The Lost
Ex: "Sawyer's Past" Ex: Everybody Loves Raymond

8) "Title of a Chapter in a Book" Title of a Complete Book

Ex: "Welsh Mountains" Ex: A Guide to Welsh Geography

9) "Encyclopedia Article" Title of Encyclopedia

Ex: "Etruscan" Ex: Encyclopedia Brittanica
 34

10) "Title of an Article in a Magazine" Title of the Magazine.

Ex: "Training Your Toddler" Ex: Parenting

11) "Title of an Article in a Newspaper" Title of the Newspaper

Ex: "Man Kills Seven in Subway" Ex: The New York Times

12) "One or Two Page Handout" Pamphlet

Ex: "Old English Verbs: A One Page Guide" Ex: The Coming Kingdom of God and the
Millennium.

A Few Final Notes:

 In past editions of MLA, underlining a title and italicizing it were considered synonymous.
That is no longer the case, and the current edition of MLA favors italics. If you submit
articles for publication, some proofreaders and copy editors prefer underlining to italics. The
arrival of word-processing has made italics fairly easy to make, and many people think they
look classier than underlining.

 Traditional religious works that are foundational to a religious group or culture are
capitalized, but not italicized or underlined. For instance, note the Torah, the Bible, the
Koran, the Book of Mormon, and the Vedas [no italics or quotation marks].

 Visual artwork, including paintings, sculptures, drawings, mixed media, and whatnot, is
italicized, never put in quotation marks. Thus, Van Gogh's Starry Night and Rodin's The
Thinker both have italics.

 The one exception to this policy is the title of your own unpublished student essay at the top
of the first page. You do not need to underline your own title or put it in quotation marks.
 35

D.1.2.5 Spell grade-appropriate words correctly.

Refer to Grade 5 Word Study Documents.
 36

D.2.1.1 Expand, combine, and reduce sentences for meaning, reader/listener

interest, and style.

The Need to Combine Sentences

Sentences have to be combined to avoid the monotony that would surely result if all sentences
were brief and of equal length. (If you haven't already read them, see the sections on Avoiding
Primer Style and Sentence Variety.) Part of the writer's task is to employ whatever music is
available to him or her in language, and part of language's music lies within the rhythms of
varied sentence length and structure. Even poets who write within the formal limits and
sameness of an iambic pentameter beat will sometimes strike a chord against that beat and vary
the structure of their clauses and sentence length, thus keeping the text alive and the reader
awake. This section will explore some of the techniques we ordinary writers use to combine
sentences.

Compounding Sentences

A compound sentence consists of two or more independent clauses. That means that there are at
least two units of thought within the sentence, either one of which can stand by itself as its own
sentence. The clauses of a compound sentence are either separated by a semicolon (relatively
rare) or connected by a coordinating conjunction (which is, more often than not, preceded by a
comma). And the two most common coordinating conjunctions are and and but. (The others are
or, for, yet, and so.) This is the simplest technique we have for combining ideas:

 Meriwether Lewis is justly famous for his expedition into the territory of the
Louisiana Purchase and beyond, but few people know of his contributions to
natural science.
 Lewis had been well trained by scientists in Philadelphia prior to his expedition,
and he was a curious man by nature.

Notice that the and does little more than link one idea to another; the but also links, but it does
more work in terms of establishing an interesting relationship between ideas. The and is part of
the immediate language arsenal of children and of dreams: one thing simply comes after another
and the logical relationship between the ideas is not always evident or important. The word but
(and the other coordinators) is at a slightly higher level of argument.

Compounding Sentence Elements

Within a sentence, ideas can be connected by compounding various sentence elements: subjects,
verbs, objects or whole predicates, modifiers, etc. Notice that when two such elements of a
sentence are compounded with a coordinating conjunction (as opposed to the two independent
clauses of a compound sentence), the conjunction is usually adequate and no comma is required.
 37

Subjects: When two or more subjects are doing parallel things, they can often be combined as a
compounded subject.

 Working together, President Jefferson and Meriwether Lewis convinced

Congress to raise money for the expedition.

Objects: When the subject(s) is/are acting upon two or more things in parallel, the objects can be
combined.

 President Jefferson believed that the headwaters of the Missouri reached all the way
to the Canadian border.
 He also believed that meant he could claim all that land for the United States.
 President Jefferson believed that the headwaters of the Missouri might reach all the
way to the Canadian border and that he could claim all that land for the United
States.

Notice that the objects must be parallel in construction: Jefferson believed that this was true and
that was true. If the objects are not parallel (Jefferson was convinced of two things: that the
Missouri reached all the way to the Canadian border and wanted to begin the expedition during
his term in office.) the sentence can go awry. Click here to review the principles of parallelism.

Verbs and verbals: When the subject(s) is/are doing two things at once, ideas can sometimes be
combined by compounding verbs and verb forms.

 He studied the biological and natural sciences.

 He learned how to categorize and draw animals accurately.
 He studied the biological and natural sciences and learned how to categorize and
draw animals accurately.

Notice that there is no comma preceding the "and learned" connecting the compounded elements
above.

 In Philadelphia, Lewis learned to chart the movement of the stars.

 He also learned to analyze their movements with mathematical precision.
 In Philadelphia, Lewis learned to chart and analyze the movement of the stars
with mathematical precision.
 OR — In Philadelphia, Lewis learned to chart the stars and analyze their
movements with mathematical precision.
 38

(Notice in this second version that we don't have to repeat the "to" of the infinitive to maintain
parallel form.)

Modifiers: Whenever it is appropriate, modifiers such as prepositional phrases can be

compounded.

 Lewis and Clark recruited some of their adventurers from river-town bars.
 They also used recruits from various military outposts.
 Lewis and Clark recruited their adventurers from river-town bars and various
military outposts.

Notice that we do not need to repeat the preposition from to make the ideas successfully parallel
in form.

Subordinating One Clause to Another

The act of coordinating clauses simply links ideas; subordinating one clause to another
establishes a more complex relationship between ideas, showing that one idea depends on
another in some way: a chronological development, a cause-and-effect relationship, a conditional
relationship, etc.

 William Clark was not officially granted the rank of captain prior to the expedition's
departure.
 Captain Lewis more or less ignored this technicality and treated Clark as his equal
in authority and rank.
 Although William Clark was not officially granted the rank of captain prior to the
expedition's departure, Captain Lewis more or less ignored this technicality and
treated Clark as his equal in authority and rank.

 The explorers approached the headwaters of the Missouri.

 They discovered, to their horror, that the Rocky Mountain range stood between
them and their goal, a passage to the Pacific.
 As the explorers approached the headwaters of the Missouri, they discovered, to
their horror, that the Rocky Mountain range stood between them and their goal, a
passage to the Pacific.

When we use subordination of clauses to combine ideas, the rules of punctuation are very
important. It might be a good idea to review the definition of clauses at this point and the uses of
the comma in setting off introductory and parenthetical elements.
 39

Using Appositives to Connect Ideas

The appositive is probably the most efficient technique we have for combining ideas. An
appositive or appositive phrase is a renaming, a re-identification, of something earlier in the text.
You can think of an appositive as a modifying clause from which the clausal machinery (usually
a relative pronoun and a linking verb) has been removed. An appositive is often, but not always,
a parenthetical element which requires a pair of commas to set it off from the rest of the
sentence.

 Sacagawea, who was one of the Indian wives of Charbonneau, who was a French
fur-trader, accompanied the expedition as a translator.
 A pregnant, fifteen-year-old Indian woman, Sacagawea, one of the wives of the
French fur-trader Charbonneau, accompanied the expedition as a translator.

Notice that in the second sentence, above, Sacagawea's name is a parenthetical element
(structurally, the sentence adequately identifies her as "a pregnant, fifteen-year-old Indian
woman"), and thus her name is set off by commas; Charbonneau's name, however, is essential to
the meaning of the sentence (otherwise, which fur-trader are we talking about?) and is not set off
by a pair of commas. Click here for additional help identifying and punctuating around
parenthetical elements.

Using Participial Phrases to Connect Ideas

A writer can integrate the idea of one sentence into a larger structure by turning that idea into a
modifying phrase.

 Captain Lewis allowed his men to make important decisions in a democratic

manner.
 This democratic attitude fostered a spirit of togetherness and commitment on the
part of Lewis's fellow explorers.
 Allowing his men to make important decisions in a democratic manner, Lewis
fostered a spirit of togetherness and commitment among his fellow explorers.

In the sentence above, the participial phrase modifies the subject of the sentence, Lewis. Phrases
like this are usually set off from the rest of the sentence with a comma.

 The expeditionary force was completely out of touch with their families for over
two years.
 They put their faith entirely in Lewis and Clark's leadership.
 They never once rebelled against their authority.
 40

 Completely out of touch with their families for over two years, the men of the
expedition put their faith in Lewis and Clark's leadership and never once rebelled
against their authority.

Using Absolute Phrases to Connect Ideas

Perhaps the most elegant — and most misunderstood — method of combining ideas is the
absolute phrase. This phrase, which is often found at the beginning of sentence, is made up of a
noun (the phrase's "subject") followed, more often than not, by a participle. Other modifiers
might also be part of the phrase. There is no true verb in an absolute phrase, however, and it is
always treated as a parenthetical element, an introductory modifier, which is set off by a comma.

The absolute phrase might be confused with a participial phrase, and the difference between
them is structurally slight but significant. The participial phrase does not contain the subject-
participle relationship of the absolute phrase; it modifies the subject of the independent clause
that follows. The absolute phrase, on the other hand, is said to modify the entire clause that
follows. In the first combined sentence below, for instance, the absolute phrase modifies the
subject Lewis, but it also modifies the verb, telling us "under what conditions" or "in what way"
or "how" he disappointed the world. The absolute phrase thus modifies the entire subsequent
clause and should not be confused with a dangling participle, which must modify the subject
which immediately follows.

 Lewis's fame and fortune was virtually guaranteed by his exploits.

 Lewis disappointed the entire world by inexplicably failing to publish his journals.
 His fame and fortune virtually guaranteed by his exploits, Lewis disappointed
the entire world by inexplicably failing to publish his journals.

 Lewis's long journey was finally completed.

 His men in the Corps of Discovery were dispersed.
 Lewis died a few years later on his way back to Washington, D.C., completely
alone.
 His long journey completed and his men in the Corps of Discovery dispersed,
Lewis died a few years later on his way back to Washington, D.C., completely
alone.
 41

D.2.1.2 Choose words and phrases to convey ideas precisely.

Word Choice
It is important that the words you use be precise and that they express your ideas clearly. It is
also important that the words you use are varied, so that you aren’t using the same words again
and again. This resource provides tips for checking your word choice.

Choosing Appropriate Words

Avoid the following pitfalls. First, most slang that you might use in everyday language is too
casual for a formal essay. Similarly, casual language that you often use in everyday speech might
create too casual a tone for an essay. Finally, clichés that we use in everyday conversation (green
with envy, face the music, add insult to injury, etc.) can make your writing sound boring.
Consider the paragraph and revision below.

Original Paragraph
When I started thinking about getting a new job, I was completely clueless. I knew I wanted to
do something really cool, but I was lost about what might fit the bill.

Revised Paragraph
When I started thinking about getting a new job, I was overwhelmed by my options and unsure
of what to choose. While I knew I wanted to do something interesting, I was uncertain of what
that might be.

Choosing Precise Words

When thinking about whether the language you use conveys the meaning you want, put yourself
in your reader’s position. Specifically, consider the following issues:

Connotations: A connotation is an association that readers might have with a specific word. An
example is the different associations brought up by the words pride and arrogance. While the two
words have similar meanings, pride is generally has positive associations while arrogance carries
negative associations. Consider the connotations that certain words have when choosing your
language and revising for word choice.

Similar sound, different meaning: Be careful of words that sound similar but have different
meanings. Some examples are alternate/alternative, intelligent/intelligible, moral/morale,
portion/proportion.

General versus specific: In your writing, you will use both general and specific words. While
your goal is to include both, you should try to avoid overusing words that are really general. An
example is the word interesting. For example, if you describe an idea as interesting, your reader
may wonder what, exactly, is interesting about it. Other examples of general words include good,
thing, and some. Words like these are fine to use, but you need to add specific detail so that your
writing does not become vague.
 42

Avoiding Repetition
When proofreading your essay, look out for repetitive wording. Just as you should vary your
sentence structure (see Lesson 4), you should also vary the words you use. As you write practice
essays, you may even identify some words that you tend to use frequently. Just as you keep track
of errors you often make, you can keep track of words that you overuse.

Identifying these words can help you avoid overusing them as you write. You can even keep a
list of these words and look up possible alternatives to use in a thesaurus. Try to find a teacher to
read your practice essays when you use new words, however. You want to be sure you’re using a
new word correctly.

Transition Words
Transition words are clues to your reader that help them follow your ideas. You can use these
words to link and transition between ideas, sentences, and paragraphs. For example, writers often
use transition words when listing ideas, as in the following paragraph:

I prefer watching television shows instead of movies for a number of reasons. First, TV shows
are shorter, so I don’t spend as much time watching them as I do when watching movies. Second,
TV shows are drawn out over many episodes over many seasons, so I can get to know the
characters better than the characters in a two-hour movie. Finally, I like watching television
shows more than watching movies because they give me something to look forward to each
week.

You can use transition words for a variety of purposes aside from listing. Transition words for
different purposes are listed below. Try using these in your writing to help guide readers through
your essay.

 To show examples: for example, for instance

 To show sequence: first, second, third, etc., next, then, following this, finally, consequently,
subsequently, thus, therefore, hence
 To add: and, again, and then, besides, equally important, finally, further, furthermore, nor,
too, next, lastly, what's more, moreover, in addition, first (second, etc.)
 To compare: but, yet, on the other hand, however, nevertheless, on the contrary, by
comparison, where, compared to, although, in contrast, although this may be true
 To summarize or conclude: in brief, summing up, to conclude, in conclusion, as I have
shown, as I have said, hence, therefore, thus, consequently
 To emphasize: definitely, extremely, obviously, in fact, indeed, absolutely, positively,
naturally, surprisingly, always, forever, never, emphatically, unquestionably, without a
doubt, certainly, undeniably
 To show time: immediately, thereafter, soon, finally, then, later, previously, formerly, first
(second, etc.), next.
 43

D.2.1.3 Choose punctuation for effect.

Four Types of Sentences and the Effect of Punctuation

When students learn to write, they begin by learning about the four types of sentences and the
role punctuation plays in determining and creating those different sentence types.

The four types of sentences in the English language include:

 Declarative sentence
 Imperative sentence
 Interrogative sentence
 Exclamatory sentence

And there are only three punctuation marks with which to end a sentence:

 Period
 Question mark
 Exclamation point

Using different types of sentences and punctuation, students can vary the tone of their writing
assignments and express a variety of thoughts and emotions.

A declarative sentence simply makes a statement or expresses an opinion. In other words, it

makes a declaration. This kind of sentence ends with a period.

Examples of this sentence type:

“I want to be a good writer.” (makes a statement)

“My friend is a really good writer.” (expresses an opinion)

An imperative sentence gives a command or makes a request. It usually ends with a period but
can, under certain circumstances, end with an exclamation point.

Examples of this sentence type:

“Please sit down.”

“I need you to sit down now!”

An interrogative sentence asks a question. This type of sentence often begins with who, what,
where, when, why, how, or do, and it ends with a question mark.

Examples of this sentence type:

 44

“When are you going to turn in your writing assignment?”

“Do you know what the weather will be tomorrow?”

An exclamatory sentence is a sentence that expresses great emotion such as excitement,

surprise, happiness and anger, and ends with an exclamation point.

Examples of this sentence type:

“It is too dangerous to climb that mountain!”

“I got an A on my book report!”

Learning about the different types of sentences and punctuation will help students become better
writers by enabling them to convey various types of information and emotion in their writing.
 45

D.2.1.4 Choose words and phrases for effect

Words are the writer’s basic tools: They create the color and texture of the written work. They
both reflect and determine the level of formality. They shape the reader’s perceptions. Student
should rarely skip words they do not know when studying serious literature. (It’s like wearing
earplugs to a symphony.) To understand voice, students must “hear” the words and “feel” their
effects.

Diction (word choice) reflects the writer’s vision and steers the reader’s thought. Effective voice
is shaped by words that are clear, concrete and exact. Good writers eschew words like pretty,
nice, and bad. Instead, they use words that invoke a specific effect.

 A coat isn’t torn; it is tattered.

 The U.S. Army does not want revenge; it is thirsty for revenge.
 A door does not shut; it thuds.

Specific diction brings the reader into the scene, enabling full participation in the writer’s world.
Diction depends on topic, purpose, and occasion. The topic often determines the specificity and
sophistication of diction. Articles on computers are filled with specialized language: email,
e-shopping, web, interface. The writer’s purpose—whether to convince, entertain, amuse,
inform, or plead—partly determines diction. Words chosen to impart a particular effect on the
reader reflect and sustain the writer’s purpose.

If the author’s purpose is to inform, the reader should expect straightforward diction. If the
writer’s purpose is to entertain, the reader will likely encounter words used in ironic, playful, or
unexpected ways.

Diction also depends on the occasion. As with clothes, level of formality influences appropriate
choices. Formal diction is largely reserved for scholarly writing and serious prose or poetry.
Informal diction is the norm in expository essays, newspaper editorials, and works of fiction.
Colloquial diction and slang borrow from informal speech and are typically used to create a
mood or capture a particular historic or regional dialect. Appropriateness of diction is determined
by the norms of society.

When studying diction, students must understand both connotation (the meaning suggested by
the word) and denotation (the word’s literal meaning). When a writer calls a character slender,
the word evokes a different feeling from calling the character gaunt. A word’s power to produce
a strong reaction in the reader lies mainly in its connotative meaning.

Diction can impart freshness and originality to writing. Words used in surprising or unusual
ways make us rethink what is known and re-examine meaning. Good writers often opt for
complexity rather than simplicity, for multiple meanings rather than precision. Thus diction, the
foundation of voice, shapes a reader’s thinking while guiding reader insight into the author’s
idiosyncratic expression of thought: the writer’s voice.
 46

Explain the differences in connotation among the members of each of the following groups of
words:

 Corpulent, plump, obese, pudgy, heavy-set, fleshy, fat, paunchy, burly, overweight, roly-
poly, bulky, portly, beefy.

 Mansion, abode, dwelling, domicile, residence, house, home, habitat, Hurl, throw, pitch,
chuck, toss, fling, cast.

 Arrogant, stuck-up, conceited, cocky, vain, proud, self-satisfied, egotistical, overbearing,

supercilious.

 Cheat, phony, con man, fraud, charlatan, operator, crook, imposter, quack, swindler.4

 Naked, nude, stripped, bare, unclothed, in the buff.

 Bizarre, singular, far out, outlandish, off the wall, curious, odd, unusual, extraordinary,
remarkable, noteworthy, strange, eerie.

 Titter, giggle, chuckle, laugh, guffaw, roar, snicker, snigger, cackle.

 Saving, tight, miserly, frugal, economical, careful, penurious, thrifty, penny-pinching,

budget-minded, prudent, mean.

 Honest, straight, on the level, veracious, guileless, unaffected, artless, genuine, candid,
truthful, sincere.

 Buff, enthusiast, amateur, fan, fanatic, hobbyist, bug, connoisseur.

 Pig-headed, stubborn, obdurate, adamant, stiff-necked, rigid obstinate, unalterable,

changeless, dogged, steadfast.

 Sullen, taciturn, glum, withdrawn, down, silent, reticent, wordless.

 Concise, pointed, laconic, terse, bare bones, economical, pithy, compressed, brief, boiled
down.

 Steal, purloin, pinch, rip off, filch, embezzle, burglarize, rob, hold up, snatch, grab, help
oneself to, appropriate.

Often two words roughly “mean” the same thing, except that one has an unfavorable, the other a
favorable, connotation. Thus, although you may like to think of yourself as an idealist, people
who do not sympathize with your attitudes might call you a dreamer. For the following pairs of
terms, write short explanations of why you might like to be described by one term but not by the
other:
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 Slender/skinny
 High-strung/freaked out
 Trusting/gullible
 Firm/stubborn
 Reckless/adventurous