Participatory Methods in Use CHAPTER

The use of participatory methods has spread to ahmost every area of development cooperation. From mainly
rural development projects, participatory methodsforconveniencecalled participatory rural oppraisal (PRA)
methods-are nowbeing appliedin areasasdiverseaspolicy analysisand planntng, poverty reductions strategies,
dispute resolution and advocgcy. Brief ilhusitrations are given of the most commonly used methods from the
Catalogue' of PRA methods Ranking and scoring and socialmapsget special attention since these are particulariy
relevant tools for analysis of difference, unequal relationships and prioritization, which are at the core of much
development work and research and which many development studies have to address, Examples are given of the
spreading uses of participatory methods to policy areas of decentralization and Poverty Reduction Strategies
Processes, PRSPs, and to topical applications for participatory budgeting, economic analysis, for technology
assessment and advocacy

3.1 llustrations of Selected Farticipafory Methods

A list of participatory methods, techniques and tools were introduced with reference to the 'Catalogue
of PRA methods in Section 2.2.2. In the following sections explanations and illustrations will be given
of these. However, it cannot be over-emphasized that the 'Catalogue' should not be understood as the
exclusive and mandatory list of participatory methods. On the contrary they should serve as inspiration
for application and adjustment to specific situations and contexts. The methods included in the 'Catalogue'
represent the more commonly used PRA methods.

3.1. Elaboration of the Catalogue' of PRA Methods

1. Review of Secondary Sources

No matter what our research topic is, there is almost always a wealth of information hidden in a variety
of sources. Many references are accessible in libraries, in reports and in databases, and many documents
may be downloaded from the internet. It is a crime in research and development work to not allocate
time for prior documentary studies. It gives a better start and saves time-not only your own, but more
importantly valuable time for respondents. There are two major types of sources:
 88 Methode for Development Work and Research

and reports on socio-cultural, political

Documents: Rescarch and other official and unofficial studies
statistics, topical and area-specific articles fromm
ecological conditions, national and area-specific and satellite photos and maps
and archives and files, aerial
Journals
Folklore: newspapers,
Mythology, oral tradition, local and topical stories, proverbs and poetry (e.g., Hanghe

1988; Vansina, 1985).

To either of these categories belong films, videos and other relevant audio-visual documentation, The
use of images and sound which were earlier confined to exotic anthropological studies has been revitalized

(Bauer and Gaskell, 2002).

Development studies make frequent use of secondary data in the form of statistics. Who doesn't
make use of the data made available in a variety of UN and World Bank reports on an annual basis? Fig.
ures on human development and poverty, on women's and men's participation in education, access to
health services, etc., are convincingly presented for groups of more or less developed countries. Statistics
are powerful. They look objective, but are seductive and often highly unreliable.

2Direct Observation
Observation of physical structures, social differences, behaviour, action and symbols, in solitude or with
others with whom observations are discussed, provides important information for posing central questions.
The in
Observation during allphases of astudycontributesinformation on persistenceandchange. shit
develópment cooperation from 'top-down'interventions towards'grassroots" participatory perspectives
provides a great demand for up-to-date approaches to appreciate indigenous knowledge in a globalizing
world. Partiapant observation -the classical method of anthropologyfor understanding indigenous
knowledge andtsymbols-1s putting on new gowns, as 'the time has come for anthropology to consolidate
its place in development practice' (Sillitoe, 2002).

3 Key Indicators
An indicator is a
qualitative or quantitative factor or 'unit of information' that provides a basis for
assessing importance, achievement, change or performance.
Local indicators: Local stakeholders' criteria for what is more and less significant, e.g., criteria for
of and
priority crops, of poverty or well-being, gender roles, of illness, etc., are vital in problem analysis
for posing relevant questions.
National and global indicators: Since development studies are set in contexts where social groups,
aeographical areas, environmental zones, are analysed, ranked and
etc., compared, it is necessary to be
familiar with the indicators that are applied at national and global levels. The globally agreed Millennium
Development Goals are providing key indicators on a long list of global and national conditions relating

I For a discussion on "key and 'additional' indicators, see Section 7,4.3, and Sections 6.2 and 6.3 on poverty and E der

indicators.
 nduuuduua
oc hae

aleur olo
Amea whucl
POsLLs
o w oleas a gCnealkdatieipetoy Methoh in U 89
COLlecluut Lellne
a
the United Nations' annual Human
to human development, poverty and ecological sensitivity, etqin
Development Report and in special progress
reports.
when logical
and performance are integral tools
Indicators for objectives, for achievement, outputs
framework is applied in planning and monitoring
development interventions. Most development agencies
able to advise on which indicators
to
to indicators without necessarily being
attach much importance are illustrated in Section
indicators can be identified and used, e.g., in topical applications,
use. How
7 on monitoring and evaluation.
1.2.3, Section 5.1.3, and in Chapter

4 Semi-structured Interviews

the place of or supplementing

written or memorized checklists are taking
Increasingly, interviews based on studies. In semi-structured interviews (SSI)
structured questionnaire surveys in development
large-scale are followed up with
further questions or probing.
questions are open-ended. Unexpected, relevantissues
Interviewees are typically key individuals, focus groups
or mixed groups. the topic
are people anticipated to have particular
insight into or opinions about
Key individuals the bettereducated,
study. They may be ordinary people and not necessarily professional specialists,
under studies poor people themselves are key people-
those in power, orthe officials. In participatory poverty
Issues to be highlighted must determine who the
though not without practical and ethical problems. from different sources to
are is best identified by enquiring
are. Whothekey people
relevant key persons
avoid a biased view.
or mixed groups are
relevant when the dynamics of the group situation
Focus groups, homogeneous be optimal
information. A homogeneous group of farmers may
is considered to provide additional useful with specialists may providemore
for in-depth information about farming systems. group interview
A
of
a much more time-consuming exercise
and better information than could be obtained through
A mixed group of young, middle-aged and elderly
women

individual interviews with the same people.

will provide more information about knowledge, attitudes and
practice offamily planning, for example,
breaks on
combine mixed groups with in-built
than a homogeneous group. Care must be taken not to
caste or ethnic groups in non-appropriate ways.
open discussion, e.g., by mixing and specialists can be a useful
Chains of interviews between the different key individuals, groups
o ADU upewithout peneen om The.
sequencing of data collection. c h v w bedting around the bush Toptc
that ldad to key isssles
Probing questions or asking direct questions
can make an interview more dynamic. connection
managed
to be by selected participants themselves in
Simple questionnaires, possibly data analysis in the field.
be designed to permit continuous
with self-surveys and self-evaluations, can semi-structured interviewing is
to code. The application of
The questionnaires should be short and easy
elaborated in Section 5.2.2.

5. Ranking and Scoring

inequality is often required, whether socio-
in
and
In development studies knowledge of difference is combat
or in people's attitudes. The overarching
objective of development work to
economic conditions
90 Merhods for Develapment Work and Researech

unequal social relations and exploitation, and to reduce poverty through the promotion of Cc
and social development. People's perception of the most detrimental causes of poverty and ineauat
1S an important basis for renmedial interventions to combat poverty whether at the policy, s e s
community leyel. Had there been consensus berween all concerned stakeholders about the cause o
remedies of poverty, the world would have looked differentthanwhatit does! Ranking and scori
problems and remedialaction reflect different interests between different people; and power relas0
whether in small or large forums, in wealth ranking of communities or in national elections,infhuo
theoutcome. Attributes such as wealth or economic status,class, caste, race and ethnic group-interlinence
inked
with age and gender-are often the bases of social and economic inequality and influence people'sper
ceptions of problems and remedies.
Ranking and scoring have long been usedtoassess people'sexpectations, beliefs, judgements, attitude
preferences, and opinions. Ranking and scoring mean placing something in order. Social marketina
research uses ranking and
scoring to develop strategies for changing public behaviour (Kotler and Robert
1989). Action-oriented development studies use comparative data and rankings for
Ranking and scoring are the central tools in what is called the possible future workshopprioritizing
approach
actions
(see
10 below), practised by many point
details
participatory-oriented physical planners and soCial workers (for more
see Sections 3.1.2. and 3.1.3).

Construct ion and Analysis of Maps and Models

Aarua
Participatory mapping is used for providing distribution
and settlements, e.g., information on population information relating to limited physical space
distribution,
resources, and social services distributions. Maps are drawn demographic data, infrastructure, natural
map is to be saved for later monitoring, for example. The collectively on the sand, or on paper if the
munication between the mapping method is quick and reliable as com
participating group
members has
corrective function.
a
Construction of models, i.e., three-dimensional models of
may be preferred if the exercise, besides providing collective villages, housing and water sources, etc.,
lasting demonstration. information, has the objective of longer
Joint analysis of aerial maps
and
physical space and natural resources.photographs
With the
is a different method for obtaining local knowledge of
expansion of Remote
mation Systems, GIS, development planners in Sensing and Geographical Infor
prospects embedded in the GIS tool for cooperation with anthropologists are starting to see tne
participatory planning, e.g., for Natural Resource
(see Section 6.4.3 on Geomatics). Management
Transects cross-sectional maps or diagrams of an area (see Figure 3.1).
are
iointexercise with local informants during walks through the They are constructed as a

the endowments and problems of the area for observing, discussing and registerlu
area. Section 3.1.3 shows
techniques of mapping.
Diagramming
Participatory diagramming used tor () summarizing
1s

well as for (ii) summarizing analysed empirical information. for example, in tim
intormation, for example in bar charts and pie charts.
 Acln
Map o
places
3.1 Agro-ecosystems Transect, Misera (Young Men)
Figure

Oa_
ZONE RESIDENCE |ARABLE CDMmuNIe ARAGLE Resotnc
LAND DEPRESSoN TrON
GAROENS LANA
clay loa
(RDAO)
Sandy loam Laerite Sandy loam Sandy loam andy ice
Sol Sandy ieam
TYPE
Agn Cu ltun prdu chen 6» Soa eytoeprodu ehon
g 3 . epróut e are p a t t 1oy Usesto b e erdmdou pPp Gundnut produchm
LAND eory mlef Sorghu Gaciyord wop Sut
8aikyard copi lehuce Sorre ert
Seale Latt mWet er m a e . p u p k a f anc
ar
SuLk maj* u S petha arfor Carsav
UsE SA

ages, ve e-\Baanas CasAed inohogany.uKEoo

ime ohogany, SuKcoAon
Mengo Omaling ACacheo lime Guaa od . cn b na Cashey
s d ThoS hurdaajao Keno S+8
TREE A ree Kedfer edicns
P p s e *9*1o Ks/ago Paio
Seregalese
SPEUES Govemmen
IG(rena Drd Dparmen* ot
J c a u r a l Sermces
NTERVE-EE w£LL TA Gembr«)
Ttam
NTrONS
marke outeh
Shg1n Aactand dsaar adaguaye inpljsr verla4/e m .termtex. Roddens fenug
looo doys e r h l e gt lowera
PRoB Ers w fnit trees.
PROE5|61 Ne per tidef (Sunday) Procee
Ireugharans

Afer ActionAid, 1992: 102.

 98 Method for Develepnent Wok and Research
1 S to let people make their own diagrams. They are more likely to use other measures s .
outsider ures than the
o e s are rough overviews of events of significance for thehistory of the group or the a.
ueston They are simpler than diagrams showing changes over time. area in
Force Field
Analysis is a simple visual technique used to identify and analyse on the one side 'd.
torces,and on the other side
rend analysis
'restraining forces' which affect a problem or
emphasizes changes in local resource endowments,
driving
situation (e.8
gender egual
cropping patterns,ecology.clim
physicaland social infrastructure, settlements, population distribution,
life, etc. Causes of change are registered or kept open for further migration, wealth, 'auali
of
Seasonal inquiry.
diagrams indicate annual variations or variations during other relevant
tactors of production and reproduction--e.g., rain, labour periods for
Activity profiles and daily routines are made to availability, food availability, or prices vital
groups on a daily basis or summarize major activity trends for individual
Venn diagrams, over longer time periods. or
sometimes called chapatti
Circles of different sizes in symbolic diagrams after the Indian pancake-shaped bread,
placo
reiationships
participants' sense of relations between local to each other. Venn
diagrams are used to depict tha
1Zes the different
weights allocated to the groupsgroups
or
or
organizations. The size of the chapattis symbol.
Wollo peasants' organizations by participants. Figure 3.2
perception of the institutional universe
the
a subjective delineation. to which their illustrates
peasant assOCiation belongs. It is

3-Case Studies and Stories

Case studies, as the
must be handled with
name
indicates, concentrate special
on
cases.
generalizations,Generalizations
To serve as a
care. from case stories
a
theoretical framework, foundation for
which in turn may be case studies should be related to
1989 and 2002). The
'generalizability' of adjusted as case study results provide new
cases. Says Flyvbjerg, whose casestudies can be increased evidence (Yin,
acclaimed approach is the case study (2001:by strategic selection of critical
When the 77-78):
objective is to achieve the
phenomenon, representative case orgreatest
a possible amount of information
a random
This because the
is
sample ona given problem or
typical or average case is often not may not be the most
often reveal more
cases the richest in appropriate strategy.
in the
situation studied. information because they information. Atypical or extreme
In addition,
from both anactivate more actors and more basic
perspective, is often more mechanisms
it

consequences than to describeimportant to

clarify
the symptoms of the understanding-oriented
and an
deeper causes behind a given action-oriented
samples emphasising the problem and problem and its
more representativeness
appropriate to select a
will seldom
be able tohow frequently they occur. Random
few cases chosen for their produce this kind of
A ritical case
can be defined as
validity (pp. 77-78). insight, it is
developmentof studies having strategic
critical case could be
rOmotion of gender equality,
promotion
a
importance in relation to the
a
successful or"tlag-ship' intervention,
successtul microcredit and general problem. iu
and d
microfcredit decentralization
8 e.g.,
, regarding poverty reduction.
poverty reduction,
programmes, etc., ana
fivd emwrles
 Participatory Mehods in U 95

Figure 3.2 Venn Diagram of Decision Makers in a Peasant Association in Wollo, Ethiopia

MOE

SERVICE TEKHERS

CO-0P
YouTH
0RG
waMEN
ORG
CONTROL
CTTEE
DA PA
UDICI
MOA
RED EXECUTIVE
CROSS
RED
TTEE co-0 BO0Y
CROSS PRODUCERS
SocLET DEFENCE
RED CROSS CooPERATVE
PROJECT
DEVELOOMENT

CUNIC
MOH

After Ethiopian Red Cross Society, 1988/McCracken, 1991: 46.

 94 Metheds for Development Work and Keseareh
parameters, their relations, conte
Tocus be onlearning the maximum lessons about intervention of discussing ' etc
For Tendler (1997) has an enlightening way
ralisation, Participation and example,
from in-depth analysis.
Other Things Local' by selecting cases where better performance hu sStaff
and motivation from their employers.
and workers could be attributed to active support
Case studies often contain substantial element of narrative. Asking How! and carrying out narra
a rative
Narrative inquiries develop descriptions and interpretations o.
of a
analysis are closely
phenomenon linked
from the
activities.
perspectiveof participants, researchers, and others. Narratives not onlv give
for example Section 7.3.7 on Most Significa.
meaningful form to experiences already lived through (see icant
helping us to anticipate Situations even before we en.
Change), they can also providea forward glapce,
2001: 137).
counter them, allowing us to envision alternative futures (Flyvbjerg,
Life histories, oral or written stories told by key people, e.g., by school-children, function as
supplementary information or as in-depth case studies of households, of groups and of events. The so-
Cial analyst gives clear guidance to the story teller or informants on how to structure the story, if structurine
is at all desired.

Drama. Games and Role Plays

Games and role plays, direct or recorded on video or film, are sometimes the optimal methods for
bringing sensitive issues into the open. Professional actors can play sensitivetopics for others or join
with ordinary people. In many cultures drama is deeply ingrained and used to act out sensitiveissues
often relating to violation ofrights of minorities, poor people, dalits, the landless, women, widows,
HIV/AIDS victims, etc., and on how todefend and reclaim rights. Motivating people to act sometimes
requires skilled facilitators (e.g.. Mlama, 1991; Orkin, 1991). A number of NGOs are specialized in
dramatizing development issues. Games may be designed in accordancewith social marketing principles
if the objective of the game is to motivate participants for an idea, a product, an aid package, etc.
(Epstein, 1988; Kotler and Roberto, 1989; Epstein et al., 1991). Speaking in images and proverbs can
sometimes bring one closer to the truth, while doingrole playscan enrich communication and be useul
as training exercises.

Workshops. Scenarios and Possible Futures

Workshops have become a most favoured method of communication with different 'stakeholders' for
collecting data, and sometimesfor jointly analysing data. The book Participatory Workshops-A Souwcebok
of 2T Sets of Tdeas and hoivities(Chambers, 2002a) provides useful guidance for facilitators and trainers
on how best to conduct workshops and move from 'teaching' to participatory learning.
A useful package for facilitation of workshops, including selfadhesivecards of different shapes
and colours, posters, sticky cloth, etc., called PARTICIPLAN, is illustrated on the Internet (WW*
participlan.com). A re4Aainn
There are many types of
workshop with different
forms of participation, some resembling ro
group
discussions (see point 4 above):
 Participatory Methods in Ue 95

SwOT, Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats Workshops originate in organizational

analysis but can easily be adjusted to suit other purposes. SWOT is a useful way to elicit participants
deas retrospectively on what have been the strengths and weaknesses of an intervention, a learning
process, etc., and for identifying priorities (opportunities) with due consideration to threats (controllable
or un-controllableconditions) in a given context. Writing statements on cards and sorting these under
common denominators can be very participative and entertaining. Simpler and adjusted SWOT
approaches, e.g., with only strengths or weaknesses registered on flip-charts, are common. SWOT can
he used for planning as well as in evaluations.
AAIC-Appreciate-Influence-Control is a workshop-based method which bringsdiverse stakeholders
together. AIC typically involves three phases:looking at present realities and the reasons for present
issuesand problems;brainstorming as manyideas as possible aboutthe idealsituation, and jointly dis
cussingstrategies of how to get from present reality to the ideal vision, prioritizing different options and
then setting action plans which participantscould committo implementing, how these wc:ia be iu:ple
mented, includingwho would be responsible for what and when.
Possible Future Workshops (Future Search) bring peopletogether to elaborate possible strategies
for acting on identified problems andissues,eg, overcrowding and slum upgrading, crime prevention,
youth employment. The participants, who preferably_represent different experiences, contribute their
ideas to changeand improve the situation. Future workshopsare frequently used in connection with
actionresearch,e.g.,on work and labourmarketissues (Nielsen, 2002). In Possible Futrure Workshopsthe
participants develop thescenarios andoptforplanning alongthelines of one of these. They folow a standard
sequence of phases: (i) Critical assesmentand prioritization of the main critical issues; (ii) Phase of
imagination: brainstorming of ideas and prioritization ofthemain positiveideas; (ii) Preparation of an
implementation plan after selection and critical assessment of ideas for solutions (Jungk and Müllert,
1984). A future workshop may last from one to several days. Lessonsfrom future workshops with resource
poor Tanzanianfarmers is documented in Ravnborg (1992). The stepwise approach of future workshops
resembles the Appreciative Inquiry, AI, approach (Section 6.4.1), but differs in starting out from 'critical
issues' while Appreciative Inquiry departs from appreciation of 'what works well'.
Scenario Workshops differ from future workshops in bringing people togethertodiscuss and prioritize
scenarios which may havebeen prepared by specialists or outsiders (Elle, 1992). A typicaltopiccould be
a common concernfor a.community,for example ecological sustainable city' relating to a larger project
of urban planning. The topic should not betoo narrow and should deal with assessment and choices
using, for example, rankingand scoring-between_scenarios representing markedly differenttypes of
technology. The scenarios are used as visionsand as a spur for discussion. The scenario workshop can
be a local meeting that includes a dialogue among four local groups of actors: citizens, policy makers,
business representatives and experts. Each group comes with their own experience. It is important that the
topic lies within the participants' sphere of action, i.e., that not all decisions have been taken, and there
is consensus that local action is a necessity. The current form of scenario workshop tends to let participants
meet initially in smaller groups to develop different scenarios. Hence a scenario workshop can be a
sequence of workshops. The participants may meet in separate thematic groups according to experience
and interest. In the 'urban ecology' scenario workshops conducted by the Danish Board of Technology,
the task was to agree on a common vision and produce local action plans for energy, water and waste.
 Research
Work and
Methodl for Development itical debate. The c
local politica
and fed into cncOme
workshops wereevaluated which was presented at a public
conference
The results from the
SCenario
urban ecology, of the Environmer ent (Andersen
a national plan for Danish Ministry
was a report and
implemented by the c o n s e n s u s is not necessarily
ain dnd
this was partly conjerences,
Subsequently cirizens'juries and
consensus
using a teek
ndahl, 1995; Wallnique
2001). In contrast with form of public consultation,
Jaeger, a popular
Conferences have
become
politicians (Grundahl,
Consensus
between the general
public, experts and evidence about sene
intended 'bridge the gap
to
initiated by politicians who want civil
2001). Consensus conferences are often For example,
an exXpert panel gives evidence n

before taking political decisions. reach a c o n s e n s u s . The outco.

iSsuesof public is
concern
and negotiation,
after deliberation technias
the topic to a panel of laymen who, as with other (semi) participatory 1iques
solution. The major challenge
a report on a possible practical
to and act upon
the outcome.
IS to make the politicians listen are a long-established approach to
programmes,
Public Hearings, typically about physical planning use the public media, but will
plans. Hearings may
forthcoming
involvethe public in commenting on where dialogue takes place between decision makers
also often include public meeting arrangements
mentioned above may be included, but priorities
audience. Workshops as those
and experts and the public that such workshops and
conferences are time-consuming and
must take into consideration the fact

resource demanding.
Deliberations and negotiations in the participatory workshops, consensus conferences and hearings
are different examples of democracy in practice. They help to provide stronger evidence for decision
makers, but there is no guarantee that ideas proposed by the public and by participating stakeholders will
be adhered to.

14.Triangulafion
Triangulation-looking at things from different points of view-or multiple strategies,is a method to
overcome the problemsthat stemfrom studies relvingupon asingletheory, asingle method,asingleset
of data from limited sample, and from asingle investigator. Triangulation helps to validate observations
a

andinformation. In cross-disciplinary teams in particular, the presence of people with different experiences
should be optimized through triangulation; i.e.,
listening and learning from each member's observatiou
andfindings
There are at least five types of
triangulation.
1 . Data triangulation which can be divided into
Time trianulation yhere the
research design;
influence
of time is
considered in study design, e.g., using longiu al
Space triangulation, typical form
a

Person triangulation, for example of comparative study;

(a) the individual level, (6) comparisons of reactions at three levels of
the
interactive level
among analysi1s,
2 Investigator triangulation means that more
than one
groups, and () the
collective leve
person examines the
same situau
 Bertisiptary Merthodsin Use 97

3. Discipline triangulation means that a problem is studied by different disciplines. It optimizes the
experience of the different perspectives if combined withinvestigator triangulation, i.e., havingat
least two people of different disciplinesstudy the same problem together.
4. Theory triangulation, in which alternative or competingtheories are used in any one situaion
5. Methodological triangulation involves 'within-method' triangulation, that is, the same method
used on different occasions, and between-method"trnangulation (Christiansen, et al., 2001) when
different methods are used in relation tothesame object of study

12.Continuous Analysis and Keporting

Participatory methods mean potential participation of selected stakeholders in all stages of a study or
project, from identification of the problem to evaluation-possibly with different degrees of intensity
The processes of data analysis and interpretation are no exceptions. Continuous data analysis in the
field and reporting on the spot can be done inconcert withlocal people,if notby and for local people
themselves.The advantage of early or continuousdata analysisisthat datagaps,surprising perspectives
worth pursuing, etc., are discovered at an early stage. Theanalyst, whoalso needs toreport to authorities,
can start analysing data in the field. Portable computers are useful.
Softwarefor analysis of quantitative as well as qualitativedata, which do not require large data-
space, is available and permits continuous treatment of data (see Section 5.2.4). S PSS, NUD1ST

13. Participatory Planning, Budgeting, Monitoring, Evaluation and Other Self-surveys

Participatory approaches to development work rest on the assumptions that () ordinary people's
for a development
knowledge is differentfrom but counts as much as the experts', and (ii) people's support
The ultimate aim of project-
activity increases when they are actively part of the decision-makingprocess.
own plan or product. A plan can be a
specific participatory activities is often that people develop their
map or amodel showing physical structures, a narrative document, a report, a prioritised budget (see
Section 3.3.1), or a time-chart, all produced with incorporation of the participants'ideas or by the partici-
from different groups of stakeholders, i.e., users, local officials,
pants themselves. Participants may come
NGOs and others.
aims at creating dialogue with the
Participation in all project or programme cycle activities communication
stakeholders, getting the necessary information to and from them through convenient
Who participatesin which activities will
methods, and to promote stakeholder 'ownership'.stakeholders
be deter.
provides more information than from a
mined from case to case. Participation by different
narrow group of users.
used for example for participatory monitoring and evaluation (see Chapterthe 7)
Self-survey methods,
data. Self-surveys entail community members undertaking
may include quantitative and qualitative
facilitator. Survey forms for collection of clearly
basic data collection, typically under the guidance of a
in situ.
defined information must be short. Pre-coding permits data processing
 Methods foe
Development Work and Research

14.Do-it-yourself
Do-it-yourself reverses the classical roles,
the i.e., outsider-insider,
researched. The
outsider gets hands-on
knowledge observer-observed, of the
struction. The reversal of roles
between the
from trying the activities under .

researcher and
To conclude, insiderand the
techniques in the PRAoutsider prompts dialogue
the core methods and ne insiders in
where choose and further
to
Catalogue' is a good startir
develop, combine and apply the different
a
recipe. There is plenty of scope for innovations in PRA techniques. The Catalt from
munication and visual methods,
exercises to methods which spanning from stand alonei
o
communication technology, ICT increasingly make use of informa Com.
3.1.2 and
Ranking and Scoring lechniques
The
classics in
sociological ranking techniques
(differential ranking), Likert (summated
for making scales are those
Kumar, 1999). They ranking) and developed by Thiums
Guttman (cumulative ranking)
or derived encompass a
variety of ordinal rstone
categories, etc. metrics, interval metrics,
There is a distinction between (Karlsson. 1961961,
(cardinal-weighting weighted
ranking (ordinal-putting in metrics. nre
with or differences).
The
alternatives scoring techniques vary between multiple order)and scarina
The ranking and without a fixed reference point, choice,
scoring techniques used in graphical techniques, etc. choosing between
approaches in
activating participatory rural
appraisal, PRA, differ from the
be
ranked/scored to therespondents to undertake the ranking and
identification of indicators.participants. Ranking and scoring is leaving more decisions on classical what to
It is therefore relevant for
important to emphasize that participatory
community nembers, but in some casesranking and scoring exercises are
The types of even
more so as exercises for relevant not only for 'users' and
ranking that are most common in connection planners and practitioners
.Problem, preference and with themselves
development studies include
Pair-wise ranking opportunity ranking
Matrix ranking
Wealth and
or
scoring
well-being ranking-or
Problem, preference and grouping.
opportunities or opportunity ranking can be
stage of study preferences
a
the
as
experienced by individuals or used to quickly identify main lems
divergence
opinions, which may then be of
people's rankings will groups of stakeholders. In the prooratory
Figure 3.3
example six compared, and consensus give an impression of different expiota or
ultural production. respondents
agricultur have
agreed
later be
approached m
Note, however, that
In that through
descending order pests, drought ranks as the most discussio t
e

considerable
relevance for follow-up differences weeds, cost of severe cous
interViews to check exist in the inputs and labour shortage follow

individual shora eof

on
'correlation with scores-something whic
respondents'
ng which ma
n
be of
individual expes erience.