MODERN PHYSICS

(ECEG 2001)

L ECTURE N OTES , S TUDY G UIDE

BY
T ILAHUN T ESFAYE (P HD)

A DDIS A BABA U NIVERSITY

D EPARTMENT OF P HYSICS
S EMESTER I 2011/12
 C ONTENTS

1 SPECIAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY 1

1.1 Review of Classical Physics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Newtonian Relativity - Galilean Transformations . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 the special theory of relativity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3.1 Postulates of Special Theory of Relativity . . . . . . . . 5
1.3.2 Consequences of Einstein’s Postulates . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.4 The Lorentz Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.4.1 Applications of Lorentz Transformations . . . . . . . . 13
1.5 time dilation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.6 velocity transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.7 doppler effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.8 the relativity of mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.9 mass energy equivalence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
1.10 the particle properties of wave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
1.10.1 Black Body Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
1.10.2 The Photo electric Effect. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
1.11 The Quantum Theory of Light. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
1.12 x-Rays and x-Ray Diffraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
1.13 Compton Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
1.14 Pair Production and pair Annhilation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
1.15 Photons and Gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

ii
 C HAPTER 1
SPECIAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY

1.1 Review of Classical Physics

At the turn of the twentieth century, there was a widespread belief that the
laws of physics were pretty well sorted out and that scientists in the future
would simply refine the theories of the day measuring a few constants to
ever greater accuracy. Heres how things stood:
• Newtons Laws of Motion explained dynamics.
• Newtons Law of Gravitation explained planetary motion (and Kepler
sorted out why this implied elliptical orbits for the planets)
• Maxwell had put together the laws of electricity and magnetism to
produce a concise set of equations to explain electromagnetic phe-
nomena.
• Laws of thermodynamics and kinetic theory had been very successful
[and profitable (!) e.g. steam engines, railways etc].

However, more cautious scientists noticed that the grand unified theories of
the day had little to say about the results of some intriguing experiments.
• What about the new discoveries in radioactivity? What about cathode
rays and X-rays?
• Why did theory fail to explain the intensity of radiation emitted from
a blackbody at short wavelengths - the ultraviolet catastrophe?
• How could the photoelectric effect be explained? Again, classical
physics failed to explain that which was observed.

These inconsistencies, rather than leading to some minor modifications to

existing theories, led to two revolutions: the development of quantum the-
ory and relativity theory.

1
1.2. Newtonian Relativity - Galilean Transformations

1.2 Newtonian Relativity - Galilean Transformations

Newtons laws are valid in all inertial frames of reference. Inertial frame is a
frame of refreeze in which a free body exhibits no acceleration. Any system
moving with constant velocity with respect to an inertial system is also an
inertial system (consider Newtons first law). There is no preferred frame
of reference. Consequently, the results of an experiment performed in a
vehicle moving with constant velocity will be exactly the same as the results
of the same experiment constructed in a stationary laboratory.
So according to Newtonian relativity, the laws of mechanics are the same in
all inertial frames of reference. What exactly does that mean for positions
and velocities measured in different frames?
We need to introduce the concept of an event. An event in Special Relativity
is a point in time and space. For example, I met a colleague at Arat Kilo in
Addis Ababa 9am on 19 October 2011. This event occurred at a particular
place (Arat Kilo) and a particular time (19 October).
Suppose an event occurs in an inertial system, the location and time of
the event can be defined by coordinates (x,y,z,t). We can change the co-
ordinates defining this event in one inertial frame, into another set of co-
ordinates in another inertial frame. This transformation of co-ordinates is
accomplished using a Galilean transformation.

Y' v
vt x’ Event (x, t)
(x’, t’)
x

K K'
X X'
O O’

Z Z'

Fig. 1.1: K  is moving with respect to K

2
 1.2. Newtonian Relativity - Galilean Transformations

The event is observed by two observers, one in frame K, the other in frame
K  . The K  frame moves with speed v with respect to frame K. The time
is designated as zero (t = 0) when the origins O and O  coincide, and the
event occurs at some later time t. The observer in frame K would describe
the event with co-ordinates (x, y, z, t), while the observer in frame K’ would
use coordinates (x  , y  , z  , t  ).
The coordinates are related by

x  = x − vt, y  = y, z  = z, t = t (1.1)
    
x = x + vt , y=y , z=z , t=t (1.2)

These equations are called Galilean transformations

Invariants of Galilean transformation.

Quantities whose numerical values are not changed by a coordinate trans-
formation are called invariants of transformation

a) Length:- Suppose the ends of a rod have coordinates (x1 , y1 , z1 ) and
(x2 , y2 , z2 ) in K  . Thus the length of the rod  is given by,

= (x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2 + (z2 − z1 )2 (1.3a)

suppose the ends are marked at t◦ and have coordinates x, y, z in K

by the transformation equations

x1 = x1 − vt x2 = x2 − vt◦ (1.3b)

y1 = y1 y2 = y2 (1.3c)
z1 = z1 z2 = z2 (1.3d)
t1 = t◦ t2 = t◦ (1.3e)

Hence:

x2 − x1 = x2 − x1 (1.3f)

y2 − y1 = y2 − y1 (1.3g)
z2 − z1 = z2 − z1 (1.3h)

3
1.2. Newtonian Relativity - Galilean Transformations

Consequently we obtain

 = (x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2 + (z2 − z1 )2 (1.3i)

= (x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2 + (z2 − z1 )2 (1.3j)
=  (1.3k)
The rod has same length in both reference fames. Therefore length is
invariant of Galilean transformations.
b) Time interval:- suppose that two events occurred at instants t1 and
t2 in K  . The time interval between these events is

Δt  = t2 − t1
= t2 − t1 ∵ t1 = t1 and t2 = t2 by equation (1.2)
∴ Δt = t2 − t1 = t2 − t1
= Δt 
Thus time interval is an invariant of Galilean transformations.
c) Acceleration:- consider the coordinates in k’ as a function of time

x  = x  (t  ), y  = y  (t), z  = z  (t  ) (1.4a)
dx  dy  dz 
⇒ vx = vy = , v2 = (1.4b)
dt dt dt
but according to equation:(1.2)

x(t) = x  (t  ) + v(t  ), y(t) = y  (t  ), z(t) = z  (t  ), t = t  (1.4c)

dx dx dt dx dt
∴ vx = = +v = + v  = vx + v (1.4d)
dt dt dt dt dt
d y d y d y 
vy = = = = vy , (1.4e)
dt dt dt
dz dz dz
vz = = = = vz (1.4f)
dt dt dt
Differentiating equation 1.4 and substituting dt = dt  we obtain.
d2 x d2 x  d2 y d2 y  d2 z d2 z 
= , = , = 2
dt2 dt 2 dt2 dt 2 dt2 dt

4
 1.3. the special theory of relativity

These formulas show that acceleration is an invariant of Galilean

transformations.

 E XAMPLE 1.1: Fx = max is invariant under Galilean Transformation

In this example we’ll see how the form of Newton’s second law remains the
same under Galilean transformation.
Assume that Newton’s law Fx = max has been shown to hold by an observer
in an inertial frame S. Show that Newtons law also holds for an observer in
S’ or is covariant under the Galilean transformation, that is, has the form
Fx = m  ax . Note that inertial mass is an invariant quantity in Newtonian
dynamics.
Solution Starting with the established law Fx = max , we use the Galilean
transformation ax = ax and the fact that m  = m to obtain Fx = m  ax .
If we now assume that Fx depends only on the relative positions of m and
the particles interacting with m, that is, Fx = f(x2 − x1 , x3 − x1 , . . .), then
Fx = Fx , because the Δx’s are invariant quantities.
Thus we find Fx = m  ax and establish the covariance of Newtons second
law in this simple case. 

1.3 the special theory of relativity

The theory of relativity starts by examining how measurements of physical
quantities are affects by relative motion between an observer and what is
being observed

1.3.1 Postulates of Special Theory of Relativity

Postulate is a basic assumption which is beyond the scope of experimental
verification. Einstein made two postulates in his theory of special relativity:

Postulate 1: The laws of physics are the same in all inertial

frames of reference.
Postulate 2:The speed of light in free space has the same value
for all inertial observers.

5
1.3. the special theory of relativity

The first postulate is simple and merely states that the laws of physics are
universal. Laws which hold for one inertial observer cannot be violated by
any other inertial observer.
The second is conceptually more difficult, as it goes against our “common
sense” (which is based on a lifetime of everyday experience). For example
consider figure 1.2.

A B C

c/4 c/4 Light Pulse

Fig. 1.2: Observers A and C are moving in opposite directions at a speed of c/4 as observed
by B.

If C fires a light pulse towards A and B, C should measure the speed of

light as c. Using common sense (i.e. a Galilean picture) we would say, A
should measure the speed of light to be c − c4 , while B should measure the
speed of light to be c + c4 .
This is not the case. Einstein’s 2nd postulate tells us that if we measure the
speed of light at points A, B and C we would always get the same value, c.
These postulates subverted almost all the intuitive concepts we had about
time and space. We will now go on to describe the consequences of Ein-
stein’s postulates.

1.3.2 Consequences of Einstein’s Postulates

Distance and time intervals are no longer what our limited intuition tells
us they should be. This are are the consequences of the two postulates. To
gain the best grasp of their origin and meaning, we begin with a qualitative
discussion.

Consequence I: Relative Simultaneity An event is defined by a location

and a time. In the Newtonian world, two events that are simulta-
neous in one inertial frame are also simultaneous in any other iner-
tial reference frame. Using Einstein’s postulates we can see that two
simultaneous events in an inertial frame of reference are no longer
simultaneous in another inertial frame moving relative to the first.

6
 1.3. the special theory of relativity

Suppose the two events are two lightning beams from the hands of
Almaz (observer A) on a moving train as shown in figure 1.3. Al-
maz causes to flash at precisely the same instant. Bekele (observer B)
standing on the ground, watching Almaz pass. We have tow events –
the flashes – with different locations. According to postulate 2, Almaz
will see both light beams move at c relative to herself, despite the fact
that she moves relative to Earth.

A
v
B

Fig. 1.3: Almaz (A) is holding flash lights

By the second postulate, again, B must see both beams travel at c. He

also see that A move to East while the beams travel. This implies the
beam from West has further distance to go.
If B is to agree the beams originated simultaneously the beam from
east should reach A first. This is contradiction!. The contradiction
is on the fact that a single event (arrival of both beams at A’s head
simultaneously) is apparently not a single event for observer B.
The occurrence or non-occurrence of the arrival event should, atleast,
be agreed by the two observers.
If B is to agree that the beams arrive at A simultaneously, he must
determine that the beams from the two flash bulbs do not originate
simultaneously.

* Two events at different locations that are simultaneous

in one frame of reference will not be simultaneous in a
frame of reference moving relative to the first.

7
1.3. the special theory of relativity

Note:-

 The previous argument has nothing todo with B’s position and
the time required by light to reach his eyes.
 The issue is not on “which reach B first” but rather “which be-
gins first” ⇒ Which begins first has nothing todo with B’s posi-
tion.

Consequence II: Time Dilation Consider A moving East on her flat car
and B observing on the ground. Almaz now holds and directs the
beam to a mirror at her feet. The beem is reflected back to the flash-
light in Almaz’s frame (see figure 1.4.

B
mirror
v

seen by Almaz seen by Bekele

Fig. 1.4: Almaz (A) is holding flash lights

We have two events: the creation of the light beam and the arrival of
the beam back to the flash light. The two events occur at the same
location in A’s frame. The time interval between the two events is

2H
(In A’s frame)
c
2H
> (In B’s frame)
c

8
 1.3. the special theory of relativity

* Two events occurring at the same location in one frame

will be separated by a longer time interval in a frame mov-
ing relative to the other

Note that time dilation is not noticeable at ordinary speeds.

Consequence III: Length Contraction Almaz and Bekele occupy their usual
frames, this time Bekele holds a plank in an east-west orientation.
Bekele could determine the length of the plank by finding the time
interval between two events:

• Event 1: Almaz passing one end of the plank

• Event 2: Almaz passing the other end of the plank

A
v
B

Fig. 1.5: Almaz (A) is holding flash lights

Bekele can determine the length of the plank by finding the time in-
terval between two events:

LB = VA relative to B × tbetween the two events as seen by Bekele

Almaz can determine the length by finding the time interval between
the same two events: first one ed of the ploank passing herself, then
the other end passing her

LA = Vplank relative to A × tbetween the two events as seen by Almaz

9
1.4. The Lorentz Transformation

In A’s from the two events occur in the same place (the position of
Almaz). The time interval in A’s frame will be shorter by time dilation.
therefore

LA < LB

* The length of an object in a frame through which the

object moves is smaller than its length in the frame in
which it is at rest.

1.4 The Lorentz Transformation

The Galilean transformation equations become wildly inaccurate when
speed becomes very close to the speed of light (v → c). Lorentz trans-
formation holds for all events in inertial frames of reference.
Consider from S’ that moves in +× direction with speed v relative to S. The
Lorentz transformation must be used to convert measurements made in one
of these frames to their equivalent in the other.

Y Y'
v
vt x’ Event (x, t)
x (x’, t’)

S S’
X X’
O O’

Z Z’

Fig. 1.6

Suppose an events is observed, by an observers located in S, to occur at x,

y, z at t. The observer in S’ will see the same event at x’, y’, z’ and t  .

10
 1.4. The Lorentz Transformation

Unlike Galilean transformation equations, given by equations (1.1) and

(1.1), Lorentz transformation equations comply with the two postulated
of the theory of relativity. The derivation follows

Let, x  = k(x − vt), y = y , z = z (1.5a)

where k is proportionality factor that does not depend on x and t but may
depend on v. Since the equations of physics must have the same form in
both S and S’, we need only change the sine of v(to take into account the
sign of v)

∴ x = k(x  − vt), y  = y, z = z (1.5b)

The time coordinates t and t  are not equal. This can be seen by substituting
the value of x  given by (1.5a) in (1.5b)

x = k(x  + vt  ) (by 1.5b)

 2 
= k[k(x − vt) + vt ] = k (x − vt) + kvt

solving the above expression for t  we obtain

x − k2 (x − vt) x(1 − k2 ) + k2 vt
t = =
kv kv
 
1 − k2
= x + kt (1.5c)
kv

Equations (1.5a) and (1.5b) to (1.5c) constitute a coordinate transforma-

tion that satisfies the first postulate.
k is evaluated from the 2nd postulate. Let the origin of both coordinate
systems be at the same place at t = 0 = t  . Suppose a flare is set off at the
common origin at t = 0 and spread. By the 2nd postulate

x = ct (1.5d)
x  = ct  (1.5e)

11
1.4. The Lorentz Transformation

substituting equation (1.5a) and (1.5c) in equation (1.5e) gives

 
1 − k2
k(x − vt) = cx + ckt
kv
   
1 − k2
⇒x k − c = ckt + kvt
kv
⎧ ⎫ ⎧ ⎫
ckt + kvt ⎨ k + ck
v ⎬ ⎨ 1+ c
v ⎬
⇒x =  
= ct  = ct 
k − 1−k c
2 ⎩ k − 1−k2 c ⎭ ⎩1 − 1 − 1 c ⎭
kv kv k2 v

The last term is the same as equation (1.5d), therefore

⎧ ⎫
⎨ 1 + vc ⎬ v c c
⇒  = 1 ⇒1+ = 1− 2 +
⎩1 − 1 − 1 c ⎭ c k v v
k2 v

v c c c 1
⇒ = − 2 = 1− 2
c v k v v k
v2 1 1 v2
⇒ = 1 − ⇒ = 1 −
c2 k2 k2 c2
1
⇒k =  (1.5f)
1 − v2 /c2

Now using the value of k given by equation (1.5f) in equations (1.5a) and
(1.5c) we obtain

x − vt t − vx2
x =  , y  = y, z  = z, t =  c (1.6a)
1 − v2 /c2 1 − vc2
2

Equations (1.6a) are known as Lorentz Transformation Equations. Inorder

to transfor measurements from S’ to S, the only changes in the Lonrentz
transormation equations that need be made are to exchange primed for
unprimed quantities and viceversa and to replace v by −v

x  + vt t  + vx2
x=  , y = y , z = z , t=  c (1.6b)
1 − v2 /c2 2
1 − vc2

Equations (1.6b) are known as Inverse Lorentz Transformation Equations.

12
 1.4. The Lorentz Transformation

1.4.1 Applications of Lorentz Transformations

Now we are ready to quantify the consequences, discussed in the previous
section, of the two postulates. Each consequence involved intervals be-
tween a pair of events–either spatial intervals or time intervals or both. Let
event 1 have position and time (x1 , t1 ) in frame S and (x1 , t1 ) in frame S’.
Event 2 has positions and time (x2 , t2 ) in frame S and (x2 , t2 ) in frame S’.
If we insert (x1 , t1 ) and (x1 , t1 ) into equation (1.6a) and separately insert
(x2 , t2 ) and (x2 , t2 ) into that equation and then subtract the two equations
we obtain:
(x2 − x1 ) − v(t2 − t1 )
x2 − x1 = 
2
1 − vc2
It is possible to evaluate any of the Lorentz transformation equations for a
pair of events in the same way. The point is that Lorentz and inverse Lorentz
transformation equations can be used directly for a pair of events just as for
a single event.

 E XAMPLE 1.2: Relativity of simultaneity: Quantified

Consider Figure 1.3 once again. Suppose Almaz is moving east at 0.6C
relative to Bekele. She holds a flashbulb in each hand and causes them to
flash simultaneously. Almaz’s hands are 2 m apartand her arms are oriented
in and east-west direction. According to Bekele, which flash bulb flashes
first and by how much?
Solution:
Let Almaz’s frame be S’ and Bekele’s S. Event 1 is the east flash and event 2
is the west flash. According to Almaz, the two events occur simultaneously,
so t2 − t1 = 0, and they are a distance apart x2 − x1 = 2m. To find the time
interval according to Bekele, we use (1.6b).


+ cv2 (x2 − x1 ) + (t2 − t1 )

t2 − t1 = 
2
1 − vc2


+ 0.6c
c2
(−2m) + 0
= 
(0.6c)2
1 − c2
= −5 × 10−9 sec


13
1.4. The Lorentz Transformation

 E XAMPLE 1.3: Time Dilation

Consider Almaz in her frame again. Suppose Almaz is holding a ticking
clock while Bekele is watching from outside. There are two events- ticks of
a clock – occur at the same location in frame S’, so that x2 = x1 . Evaluat-
ing (1.6b) for this pair of events, the term (x2 −x1 ) would drop out, leaving
t  −t  
t2 − t1 = 2 1 or in more compact notation Δt =  Δt . The special
v2 v2
1− 2 1−
c c2
term proper time is used for the time that elapses in the frame in which
events all occur at the same location. In the case we have considered here,
that frame is S’, but it need not be in general, so we choose the distinctive
symbol Δt◦

Δt◦
Δt =  (1.7)
2
1 − vc2

The time interval Δtthat pases between two events in another frame is
2
longer by the factor 1 − vc2 than the interval Δt◦ in the frame in which
the events occur at the same location.
For any series of related events, such as ticks of a clock or beats of a heart,
there is always a frame where events occur at the same place, or a frame
that follows the events around. For instance, a duck may dive and turn as it
quacks in flight, but in the duck’s frame of reference the quacks all occur at
the same location. 

 E XAMPLE 1.4: Length Contraction

Consider Almaz and Bekele in their frames. This time Almaz holds a plank
in west-east direction. To establsh the length of an object fixed in frame S’
and thus moving relative to himself, Bekele observes its ends at the same
time in his frame. these two observations are events for which t1 = t2 . If we
evaluate (1.6a) for these events, t2 −t1 drops out, leaving x2 −x1 = x2 −x12 ,
v
1− 2
 c
v2
or L = L 1 − c2 . The length of an object in the frame in which it is at rest
– its rest frame is given the symbol L◦ and is known as proper length

L◦
L (1.8)
2
1 − vc2

14
 1.5. time dilation


2
The length L of a moving object is shorte by the factor 1 − vc2 than its
length L◦ in the frame in which it is at rest.
As in the case of time dilation, no matter what frame we occupy or who
else might be watching, we never feel contracted. We never move relative
to our selves. It is only observers in other frames who will determine that
an object occupies less space than normal. 

Fig. 1.7: Relativistic phenomena Differ from every day experience.

By the 2nd postalate

- An observer on either boat must find a sphere of light expanding with

himself at center.
By the principle of relativity.

- even though one of this is changing his position wrt. the point where
the flare went off, the observes. Can not tell which of there is changing
position. b/c the fog elliminats. any frame of ref other than each boat.
Since the speed of light is the same for both of them, they must both
see the identical phenomenon.

How do we interpret this?

The only way to interpret the perception of identical expanding spheres by
the observers in the two boats is to regard the coordinate system of each ob-
serves, from the point of view of the other, as being affected with the help
with the help of Einsteins postulates, we shall find that many un expected ef-
fects are predicted, all of which have been confirmed experimentally. Some
of then are discussed in sections that follows
Special relativity is today considered on of the most securely established
scientific theories

15
1.5. time dilation

1.5 time dilation

We shall first use the postulates of special relativity to investigate how rela-
tive motion affects measurement of time intervals.
Consider the following inertial system. Flashes from a laser located al ◦’ are
reflected by a mirror back towards ◦’

Fig. 1.8: dummy

Let a clock ticks when light pulse is emitted. When the light palse com-
pletes its Journey and returns to ◦  , the clock ticks again. The time interval
between the ticks is given by

2d
Δt  =
c

as measured by an observer situated at ◦  How will an observer out side

the moving box measure this time interval?Δt tim t1 (as measured by the
observer at ◦), the pulse is emitted; reaches the mirror at t2 and returns
back to ◦  at t3

Fig. 1.9: dummy

16
 1.5. time dilation

From the triangle shown in green

   
cΔt 2 vΔt 2
− = d2
2 2
2d 2d 1 Δt 
=⇒ (Δt) = √ = . = = ∂Δt 
c2 − v2 c 1 − v2/c2 1 − c2v2

The result tells us that Δt > Δt  . This phenomenon is known as time dila-
tion

It can be a little difficult to tell which time Δt or Δt  is larger or smaller. We

need some easy way to recognize the smaller and larger time intervals. We
introduce the term proper time Δ.

Definition:- Proper time (Δtp ) is the time interval measured by an observer

who is at rest w.r.t. both events.

The proper time is always the smaller time interval

 E XAMPLE 1.5: Application The Twin Paradox

One of the most fascinating consequences of time dilation is known as the
twin paradox. This is described as follows.
Twin brother and sister aged 18, synchronise their watches just before the
brother is about to set off in a spacecraft. The brother is named Sam, and
is going to a distant star, 12 light-years away. His spacecraft is capable of
reaching three quarters of the speed of light in a very short time. The other
rather sad twin, Edith, remains on the Earth as she watches her brother
fly into space. After Sam reaches the star he turns around and begins his
journey home, but on arrival is amazed to see that Edith has aged much
quicker than himself.
We can explain this using the concept of time dilation and calculate the ages
of both Sam and Edith, from Ediths perspective.
The time interval measured by Edith on the Earth for Sam’s outward journey
is simply given by
Lp 12 cy
ΔtE = = = 16 years
v 0.75c

17
1.6. velocity transformations

Sam is present at both the beginning and ending of the outward journey so
he measures proper time DtS. Now from our time dilation equation, we can
write 
ΔtE
Δts = (1.9)
γ

where γ has the value

 2 − 12
3
γ= 1− ≈ 1.5 (1.10)
4

So the time interval measured by Sam (the proper time) is given by

16 y
Δts = ≈ 10.6 years (1.11)
1.51

Since Sam is present at both events, Earth passing and star passing, this is
the proper time. Accordingly, he will claim that Edith measures a dilated
time interval of

ΔtE = γΔts = 1.51 × 10.6y = 16 years (1.12)

Hence, Sam will claim that he is 18 y + 210.6y = 39.2 years old and Edith is
18y+216y=50 years old, exactly as Edith claims. But we are still left with
two different ages for the twins. And they both claim that the others clock
is running slower. This is the twin paradox. The resolution of the paradox
is this. The formula for time dilation (and length contraction) was derived
for inertial frames of reference, i.e. for constant velocities. Edith is always
in an inertial frame (neglecting the rotation of the Earth etc.). It is Sam
who is not in a single inertial frame. He accelerates away from the Earth
and decelerates at 12 light years to turn around etc. While he is travelling
at constant speed he measures Ediths clock to be running slower, and so 

Notice that the like that the charges to be made are primed to unprimed
and to replace v by −v
(ii) when v << c, γ ≈ 1 Lorentz transformation equations are reduced to
Galilean trans

18
 1.6. velocity transformations

1.6 velocity transformations

Consider two frames, S at rest and s  moving with speed v. Suppose an
object is observed to have uniform speed Ux as measured by observer 0 

Fig. 1.10: dummy

The speed of the object, in s  frame, is given by

dx 
Ux = ...1
dt
and insframe
dx
Ux = ...2
dt

from Lorentz transformation equations we recall

v
x  = ∂(x − vt)andt  = ∂(t − 2 ) . . . 3
 c
dx  dt
=⇒ = ∂ dxdt − v = ∂(ux − v) . . . 4a
dt dt
  
dt  v dx v
= ∂ dtdt − 2 = ∂ 1 − 2 ux . . . 4b
dt c dt c
using the chin rule and equations 4a and 4b we obtain
dx  dx  dt dx  1 1

= 
= 
= ∂(Ux = v) 
dt dt dt dt dt /dt r 1 − cv2 ux
ux − v
=⇒ ux = This is called the lorentz velocity transformation from S to
1 − cv2 ux

19
1.7. doppler effect

Notice that if v << c equation (5) reduces to galiliean transf. and if ux = c

(the object is photon), then we find
c−v
ux = = cconsistent with the 2nd postulate
1 − vc
The inverse lorentz transformation can be derived by replacing V by −v and
interchange prime and unprimed variables to get
(ux + v)
ux = . . . 5b
1 + cv2 ux

1.7 doppler effect

Doppler Effect in Sound:-

Fig. 1.11: dummy

The pitch of sound received is v◦ only if the two are not in relative motion.
If the source and the receiver are in relative motion there is a change in the
frequency received.

 
1 + v/c
v =v◦
1 − v/c

where c = speed of sound

u = speed of observer (+ for approaching, - for receding)
v = speed of the source (+ for approaching, - for receding)
This change in frequently is known as Doppler effect
doppler effect in light
Consider a light source that emits. v◦ waves each second. we can consider
three cases as shown.

20
 1.7. doppler effect

Fig. 1.12: dummy

1. Observer moving perpendicular to a line between hin and the light

source.
The proper time between ticks is o = 1/v◦
∴ In the frame of reference of the observer the time elapsed betivc
successive tickes is
t
t= 
1 − v2 , c2
=⇒the frequency be observes is

1 1 − v2 /c2
v(transverse) = =
t t◦

=⇒v = v◦ 1 − v2 /c2 Transverse Doppler effect in light

2. Observer receding from the light source. The observer travels vt away
from the source between two ticks.
=⇒ the light wave from a given tick takes vt/c longer to quach the
observer.
=⇒ the total time between the arrival of successive waves is
 
vt 1 + v/c 1 − v/c 1 + v/c
T =t+ = to √ = to  
c 1 + v/c 1 − v/c

1 + v/c
= to
1 − v/c
 
1 1 1 − v/c 1 − v/c
=⇒(receding) = = = v◦
T to 1 + v/c 1 + v/c

3. Observer approaching the light source. The light wave takes vt/c less

21
1.8. the relativity of mass

time to arrive and similar procedure shows.


1 + v/c
vapproachingvo .
1 − v/c

The approaching and receding doppler effects can be combined in a

single formula by adopting to for source and observer approaching
each other and −v for source.

1 + v/c
v = v◦
1 − v/c

Note (i) Doppler effect in light is an important tool in astronomy.

1.8 the relativity of mass

Consider two identical basket balls. Suppose one ball is in the hand of an
observer ◦  on a railroad train, moving relative to the ground with v. The
other ball is the observer ◦ on the ground at a distance d from the rail track.
Suppose each observer throw his ball with a certain velocity in a direction
1 to the track in such a way that the balls bounce perfectly off each other
just at the moment when the two observers pass each other.

Fig. 1.13: dummy

If we now treat the situation from the stand point of relativity new idea
emerges. Whereas each thrower gives him ball a velocity of magnitude
uy(hisux = 0), each observes the y-component of the velocity of the others
ball as given by
ug uy
ug = u×v = γ ∵ u + x = 0 − −−
γ(1 − c2 )

22
 1.9. mass energy equivalence

To each observer, it appears that the other person has thrown his ball slower
than he was supposed to do.
In relativity it is assumed that moment is conserved. Therefore observer 0,
sees his ball change in moment by an amount 2 mself uself .

=⇒ 2 mself Uself = 2 mother Uother
Uself
= 2 mother − −−
γ
by
=⇒ mother = γ mself 
(since Uself = Uself )

Thus 0 concludes that the masses of the balls are not equal
m◦
∴ m = γm◦ = 
2
1 − vc2

where m◦ is the mass of a body at rest relative to the measure, and m

(called the mass) is the observed mass of the body where it has a velocity v
relative to the measure.

1.9 mass energy equivalence

In classical physics we considers the k.E. of a body could be increased by
increasing its velocity, we now must take mass variation in to account. Sup-
pose we increase the K.E of a body an amount dEk by exerting a force
through a distance

dEk = F − ds
d(mv)
butF = ∵ mass is not constant
dt
d(mv)
=⇒ dEk = ds,
 dt 
dm dv
= v +m ds ∵ dv/dt = v
dt dt
= v2 dm + mv dv ...1

This expression can be simplified by using the mass transformation equa-

tions

23
1.9. mass energy equivalence

m◦
m= 
1 − v2 /c2

which after squaring and rearranging becomes m62c2 = m2 v2 + m2◦ c2 . dif-

ferentiating.

2mc2 dm = 2mv2 dm + 2m2 vdv.

c2 dm = v2 dm + mvdv ...2
Equating(1)and(2)
dEk = c2 dm. . . . 3

Ek
m
=⇒ Ek = c2 dm = c2 (m − m◦ ).
◦ m◦
2
i.eEk = mc = m◦ c2 Relativistic expression of kinetic energy.

Like other transformation equations, the expression for Ek should reduce to

the classical expression for v << c.

m◦ c2
Ek =  − mo c2 .
1 − v2 /c2

since v << c we can say

−1/2
  
1 v2 v2 3 v4
 = 1− 2 = 1+ 2 + + − − − binomial expansion
1 − v2 /c2 c 2c 8 c4
 
2 v2 3 v4
=⇒ Ek = m◦ c 1 + 2 + +−−−
2c 8 c4
1 3 v4
= m◦ v2 + m◦ 2 + − − −
2 8 c
1
≈
2
Eqn (3) suggests a broader interpretation of eq (4) i.e in addition to the

24
 1.9. mass energy equivalence

familiar forms of energy; there another kind of mass-energy.

∴ E = mc2 = m2◦ + Ek ...5

2
whereE = mc = total energy
m◦ c2 = rest-mass energy
Ek = kinetic energy

we can now obtain important relation between mass-energy of a body and

its moment.c62x(5) and appropriat sub from E = m2 and p = mv we get

E2 = p2 c2 + m2◦ c4 Eis conserved

 E XAMPLE 1.6:

1. A man on the moon sees two space craft, A and B, coming from op-
posite direction at the respective speeds. of 0.8 c and 0.9 c. (a) What
does a man on A measure for the speed with which he is approaching
the moon? For the speed whit which he is approaching B? (b)What
does a man on B measure for the speed with which he is approaching
the moon? For the speed with which he is approaching A?
Solution
The situation looks like

Fig. 1.14: dummy

using the designation used in velocity transformation

25
1.10. the particle properties of wave

Fig. 1.15: dummy

a) A observes that he is approaching the moon at 0.8 c i.e the spedd

of the moon as seen in A
0 − 0.8 c
A
Vm = 08 c
1− c2
.0 = −0.8c.
∴ he approachs the moon at
−0.9 c − 0.8 c −1.70 c
VB = = = −0.988 c
1 − 0.8 c
0.8 c 1 + 0.72
1− (0.9 c)
c2

1.10 the particle properties of wave

1.10.1 Black Body Radiation
• A small hole in a cavity of opaque material is the most perfect absorber
of radiant energy that can be found. Conversely,

• a small hole in a cavity is the most perfect emitter that has been de-
viced.

We can understand this more thoroughly from the following . If we look in

to a hole in a heated cavity, we can see the radiation from the inside wall
just opposite to the hole.

- Every substance emits electromagnetic radiation, the character of

which depends on the nature and temperature of the substance.

26
 1.10. the particle properties of wave

- The ability of a body to radiate is closely related to its ability to absorb

radiation. This is to be expected, since a body with its surroundings
and must absorb energy from them at the same rate as it emits energy.

A body that absorbs all radiation incident upon it is called block body. A
block body is the best possible emitter. consider this expt

Fig. 1.16: dummy

I’ and II’ are at the same temperature

I and I’ radiate at a rate of e1 and absorb some a fraction a1 of the radiation
falling on them.
II and II radiate at a rate of e2 and absorb some fraction a2 of the radiation
falling on them
Hence I’ absorbes energy from II at a rate prop. to a1 e2 and
II’ absorbes energy from I at a rate prop. to a2 e − 1. Thus a1 e2 = a2 e1 ∵ I’
and II’ remain at the sane temp.
e1 e2
=⇒ a 1
= a 2
The ability of a body to emit radiation is proportional to its
ability to absor radiation.
Suppose I and I’ are black bodies, so that a2 < 1.
e2
Hence e1 = a 2

=⇒ e1 > a2 ∵ a2 < 1
A block body at a given temperature radiates energy at a fastor rate than
any other body
The spectrue of a block body radiation is shown below
Rayleigh and Jeans examined why energy of a block body is distributed as
shown above
The plank law for the energy density of black body or cavity radiation a
graees with expermental results. The new constant is called plants const
h = 6.6256 ± 0.0005 × 10−34 J.s.

27
1.10. the particle properties of wave

Fig. 1.17: dummy

Fig. 1.18: dummy

Thus plank was led to his nonclasscal assumption that the endgy states of an
osiliator must be an integral multiple of the product of h and the frequency
v of the electromagnetic radiation it emits.

E = hv

Planck s quanter concept led to the conclusion that radiation is not emitted
in continuous amounts but in discreet bundles of energy each equal to hv.
These bundles of energy are known as quanta or photons.

 E XAMPLE 1.7:

1. What is the energy in quantum of radiation having a wavelength of

5000 A
Solution
hc 8m 1 1A
E = hv = = 6.63 × 10−34 J.sec × 3 × 10 × ×
n s 5000 A 10−10 m
= 3.98 × 10−19 J.

28
 1.10. the particle properties of wave

2. Explain how energy varies as the frequency of a radiation changes

from red to violet
a) Write down the distinet as the feature of the quandum model of
light as compared to the wave model
b) Give evidences for the wave nature and particle nature of light.

1.10.2 The Photo electric Effect.

Photoelectric effect is the emission of electrons from a metal when light of
suitable frequency falls on it.

Fig. 1.19: dummy

Apparatus to investigate the photoelectric effect. When the circuit is closed.

A) a connected to d and b connected to c =⇒ c is
(A)measures the photo current
(v)measures the potential difference between E and c (accelerating volt-
age).

A) photo electric current as a function of the intensity of light a is con-

nected to c and b is connected to D =⇒ c is +ve E is −ve The
v(frequency) of the incident light and v are kept constant
=⇒ Brighter light liberates more electrons. No electrons are liberated
if I = 0
B) Photoelectric current as function of accelerating retarding potential a
is connected to d and b is connected to c. C is −ve
I1 < I2 < I3 V◦ is the relanding potential that is just sufficient to half
the most energeic photoelectrons.

29
1.10. the particle properties of wave

Fig. 1.20: dummy

Fig. 1.21: dummy

=⇒ The maximum energy of the photoelectrons is independent of the

intensity of light.
c) Relationship between stopping potential and frequency of the incident
light.
The maximum kinetic energy of photoelectrons (eV◦ ) was measured
using light of various frequencies

Fig. 1.22: dummy

=⇒ for a given matal, there is a certain frequency v◦ , called the threshold

frequency of the incident light, below which no photoelectric effect is
observed.

30
 1.10. the particle properties of wave

=⇒ above the threshold frequency, the maximum kinetic energy of the

photoelectrons is proportional to the frequency of the incident light
(notice that the graph slop is the same)

=⇒ kmax = hV − hv◦
This is known as Einstenis photoelectric equation. h is planks constant
According einstein’s photon hypothesis

=⇒ Quantum energy = maximum electron energy + work function of

surface.

The photon hypothesis meets three objections raised against the wave- the-
ory interpreation of photoelectric effect. These objections are

1. Kmax is independent of intensity of the light. But according to photon

hyp. doubling intensity is doubling the number of photons =⇒ it
perfectly agees

2. The existence of threshold frequency.

-no mater how intense the radiation no photoelectrons come out if
v << b,

3. the absence of time lag follows from photon theory because the re-
quired energy is not spread uniformly over a large area, as in the
wave theory.

 E XAMPLE 1.8:

1. What is the minimum frequency needed to get photoelectrons from a

material having a work function of 4ev.
solution

work function = hv◦ = 4ev = 4 × 1.6 × 10−19 J.

4 × 1.6 × 1 −−19 J
=⇒ v◦ = = 9.6 × 10+14 HZ.
6.6 × 10−34 Jsec

2. The work function of a metal is 3.45 ev. What must be the wavelength
of a photon that can eject photo elections of maximum kinetic energy

31
1.10. the particle properties of wave

of 0.05 v from the metal

Solution
hv◦ = 3.45 ev
kmax = 0.05 ev
kmax = hv − hv◦ =⇒ hv = kmax + hv◦ = 0.05 ev + 3.45 ev
=⇒ hv = 3.5 ev
3.5 ev
v=
h
c 3.5 ev hc 6.6 × 10−34 × 3 × 108
= =⇒ ∧ = =
∧ h 3.5 ev 3.5 × 1.6 × 10−19 J/ev
=⇒ 3.5 × 10−7 m

3. light of wavelength 2000 Ǎ falls on aluminium surface. In Aluminium

42 ev are required to remove an electron what is the K.E of the fasterst
electron.
km ax = hv − hvc irc = frachc∧ × 1.6 × 10−19 − 4.2 ev
6.1875 ev − 4.2 ev

4. Monochromatic light of wavelength 640.2 nm irradiates a photocell

made of caesion on tungsten. The stopping voltage is measured to
be 0.54v.. What will be the new stopping voltage of the cell if it is
irradiated by monochromatic light wavelength 427.2nm. Given h =
6.62 × 10−34 J sec.
Solution
c 3 × 108
∧ = 640.2 × 10−9 m , v = = = 4.686 × 1014 HZ
∧ 6.402 × 10−7
hv = km ax+ =⇒
=⇒ hv◦ = hv − km ax = hv − ev◦ = 2.238 × 10−19 J
when the light of ∧  = 427.2 × 10−9 mirradiate the material we have
hv◦ = hv  − ev◦ =
c
substituting v  = we get
∧
v◦ = 1.51v

32
 1.11. The Quantum Theory of Light.

1.11 The Quantum Theory of Light.

- Energy in a light beam travels through space in concentrated bundles,
called photons. The energy of a single photon is given by.

E = hv

- The photon hypothesis fits the facts of photoelectric effect. But it is in

conflit with the wave theory of light which has been verified in many
experiments. Therefore the modern view of the nature light is that:
Light has dual nature, behaving like a wave under some circumstances
and lika particles, or photons under other.

- photons are particles that

• travel with the speed of light in vacuum

• possesses zero rest mass
• chargeless.

 E XAMPLE 1.9:

1. Find the wavelength of a 100 mevphoton.

hc hc
E = 100 mev = hv = =⇒ ∧ = .
∧ 100 × 10 ev × 1.6 × 10−19 J/sec
6

6.6 × 10−34 Jsec × 3 × 108 m/sec

∧= = 12.4 × 10−15 m
1.6 × 10−11 J

2. A 1.kw radio transmitter operates at a frequency or 880 HZ. How

many photons per second does it emit? Solution

103 J × (1/6.6 × 10−34 × 880)

photons
103 J hv J
1kw = = =
sec sec sec
= 1.71 × 1030 photons/sec

33
1.12. x-Rays and x-Ray Diffraction

3. Light from the sun arrives at the earth, from an average of 1.5×1011 m
away, at the rate of 1.4 × 103 w/m2 of area 1 to the direction of light.
Assume that sunlight is monochromatic with freq 5 × 1014 HZ.

a) How many photons fall persectond on each square meter of the earth’s
surface directly facing the sen?
b) What is the power output of the sun and how many photons does it
emit per second.
c) How many photons per cubic meter are there near the earth

Ans. a) 4.23 × 1021 photons/m2 ; 3.96 × 1026 W

1.19 × 1045 photons/s ; 1.4 × 1013 photons /m3
Solution

Fig. 1.23: dummy

photons 1m
= 4.3 × 1021 × = 1.41 × 1013 photons/m3 .
2
m sec 3 × 108 m sec


1.12 x-Rays and x-Ray Diffraction

Photons of light can transfer energy to electrons→ photoelectric effect. Is
the inversa process posible? That is, can part or all of the K.E of a moving
electron be converted to a photon?
-In 1895 Roentegen found that a highly penetrating radiation of unknown
nature is produced when fast electrons impinge on matter. These x-rays
were scon found

34
 1.12. x-Rays and x-Ray Diffraction

• travel in straight line

• Pass readily through opaque materials
• cause phosphorescent substances to glow and
• expase photographic plates.

The faster the original electrons, the more penetrating the resulting x-rays,
and the greater the number of electrons, the greater the intensity of the
x-ray beam.
Radiation produced under these circumstances is given the German name
bremsstrahlung (”breaking radiation”)

Fig. 1.24: an x-ray tube (v↑=⇒ ∧ ↓ of x-rays)

(i) enhanced production of x-rays at certain wave lengths. (in the case of
molybdenum)→ non-classical effect
(ii) for a given accelerating voltage there is minim wavelength ∧min vt =⇒
∧↓
1.24 × 10−6 vm
∧min =
v
x-ray production is the inverse photoelectric effect. If we ignore the
work function, since accelerating V is much larger than φ, the entire
K.E of a bombarding electron is given up to a single photon energy
hvmax

hc
=⇒ Ve = hvmax =
∧min
hc 1.24 × 10−6 vm
=⇒ ∧min = = Duane-How formula
vc V

35
1.12. x-Rays and x-Ray Diffraction

 E XAMPLE 1.10:
What is the shortest wavelength that can be emitted by the sudden stopping
of an electron when it strikes

a) the screen of a Tv tube operating at 10, 000 V and

b) the plate of a high-power radio transmitter tube operating at 30, 000 V?
c) Determine the spectral region in which these wavelengthis lie in the
e.m spectrum

Solution

1.24×10−6 vm
a) ∧min = hc
vc = v = 1.24 A
b) ∧min = 0.41A
c) both lie in the x-ray region (∼)102 Ato ∼ 10−2 A

x-Ray Diffraction
An atom in a crystal pacomes polarized as the result of the E field in the
wave. The polarization changes back and forth with the same frequency as
the em wave.
=⇒ An oscillating diapole is created at the expense of some energy in the
incoming wave. =⇒ Oscillating dipole radiates em.waves of freq v, and
these secondary waves proceed in all directions except along the dipole axis

Fig. 1.25: Incident plane waves are r-emitted as spherical waves

A monochromatic beam of x-rays that falls upon a crystal will be scattered

in all directions with in it. The scattered waves interfere with one another.

36
 1.13. Compton Effect

The Interference of the scattered waves may be const. or dest. and the
conditions for constructive interference may be obtained from the diagram,
shown below

Fig. 1.26: dummy

The necessary and sufficient condition for constructive intterference be-

tween two partially ”reflected” x-ray beams from Bragg planes separated
by a distance d is.

n∧ = 2dsinθ

1.13 Compton Effect

Another evidence for the particle nature of electromagnetic waves is the
compton effect.
While studying the scattering of x-rays by dyterent substances the Americal
physicst A Compton discovered in 1923 that, in addition to the radiation of
original wavelength of larger wavelength A’.
The difference Δ∧ = ∧  − ∧, called the comptonshift, was found to depend
only on the angle θ between the directions of the incident and scattered
radiation.
Δ∧ is independent of the scattering material.
=⇒ rays are scattered by electrons not tarset atoms consider a material
particle that is initially at the origin and at rest relative to the coordinate
frame shown
This particle is then hit by a photon moving along the x-axis. The photon is

37
1.13. Compton Effect

Fig. 1.27: dummy

characterized by

hc
E = hv =
A
E h h
mph = = c= .
c2 cA ∧
h
p = mv = mph c = .
c∧
Applying the mass-energy of moment conservation

hc hc
Ek = −  = mc2 − m◦ c2 K energy of ejected particle . . . 1
∧ ∧
h h
cosα + mvcosβcons. of x-comp. of momentum . . . 2 0= sinα − mvsinβ
∧ ∧
Equation (1) through (3) involve five variables

m, v, ∧  , α and β.

of which three, m, v, and β relating to the electron, will be eliminated. This

requires an additional equation that is the relativistic interdependence of
m, and v.
m◦
m=  =⇒ m2 v2 = c2 (m2 − m2◦ ) . . . 4
1 − (v2 /c2 )

we first eliminate β between eqs 1 and (2)by isolating the terms containing
β and squaring both equations. We thus obtain when the particle involved
in Compton scartering is an electron the first term in the rhs of equation
h
(12) becomes mec . This quantity is called the compton wavelength of the
electron

38
 1.13. Compton Effect

1. In metals there are free and bound electrons. An incident ellectron

may interact with electrons in the metal by photoelectric absorption
or compton scattering. Which interaction is favored by which group
(free or bound) electrons. why?
Solution
we can think of four interactions.
Thus are
photon ←→ free electron Pe interxn
photon ←→ bound electron cs interxn
photon ←→ free electron cs interxn
photon ←→ bound electron PE interxn
The first kind of interaction is impossible. i.e. it is impossible for
photo electric effect to occur when the photon is incident on a single
unbound electron.
proof

hvė
before
Ptotal = Pelec + Photon
ho
= 0+ = 0+
c
= hv/c

Etotal = hv + m◦ c2

Cons.ofP =⇒

Cons.Etotal

=⇒ hv = Pelec
2 C2 + m2 c4 − m c2 = E − E . . . 2
◦ ◦ ◦

Equating (1)and (2) we have

 
E2 − E2◦ = E − E◦ = (E − E◦ )(E + E◦ ) = E◦
 
=⇒ E + E◦ = E − E◦ This is contradiction unlessE◦ = 0

39
1.14. Pair Production and pair Annhilation

2. A 2A photon interacts with a bound electron in a hydrogen atom

(binding energy = 13.6 ev). A compton collision occurs and the elec-
tron moves forward in the same direction as the incident photon.

a) What is the energy of the electron?

b) the energy the scattered photon?

Solution

a) The electron moves in the same direction as the incident photon

implies it received (Ek )max .i.e.Δ∧ is max.

2h h
(Δ∧)max = =∴ Δ∧ = (1 − cosα).
m◦ c m◦ c
= 2 × 4.84 × 10−12 m.
 
  v ∧
Ek = hv − hv = h(v − v ) = hv 1 − = hv 1 − 
v ∧
   
∧ −∧ Δ∧ Δ∧
= hv = hv = hv
∧ ∧ ∧ + Δ∧
 
(Δ∧)max hc (Δ∧)max
(Ek )max = hv =
∧ + ((Δ∧)m ax) ∧ ∧ + ((Δ∧)m ax)
= 465 × 10−17 J
= 147 ev


b) ∧  = ∧ + Δ∧ = ∧ + m2h ◦c
= 2A + 0.0049A = 2.049A
the larger the wave length the smaller the energy

 12400 evA
Ephoton =
2.049A

1.14 Pair Production and pair Annhilation

Pair production is the process which a photon becomes an electron and a
position (a positively charged electron). The position is just like the electron

40
 1.15. Photons and Gravity

except for its positive charge

γ = e− + e+ ; γrepresents photon
=⇒ hvmin = m◦ c2 + m+
◦c
2

= 2m◦ c2
= 2 × 0.51 Mev
1.2 Mev = 1.02 × 106 ev

If the frequency of the photon is greater than Vmin then the produced
particles will have kinetic energy.
What is the maximum wavelength required for PP?

E = hvmin = 1.02 × 106 ev

hc hc
=⇒E = =⇒ ∧max = = 0.012A
∧max E

Pair production is not limited to γ → e− + e+ . It can also be

γ → p + p̄

The position and antiproton are often called antimatter

Pair annhilation : When a particle and antimatter join, they annhilate each
other and become electromagnetic radiation

m− 2 + 2
◦ c + m◦ c = hv + hv


The two photons travel in opposite directions inorder to satisfy the condi-
tion of momentm cons.

1.15 Photons and Gravity

As we have seen

41
 R EFERENCES

SERWAY, R. A., MOSES, C. J., & MOYER, C. A. (2005). Modern Physics.

Thomson Learning, Inc.

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