Sampling

Sampling is the process of selecting units (e.g., people, organizations) from a

population of interest so that by studying the sample we may fairly generalize our
results back to the population from which they were chosen. Let's begin by
covering some of the key terms in sampling :

 Population The group of people, items or units under investigation

 Census Obtained by collecting information about each member of a
population
 Sample Obtained by collecting information only about some members of a
"population"
 Sampling Frame The list of people from which the sample is taken. It
should be comprehensive, complete and up-to-date. Examples of sampling
frame: Electoral Register; Postcode Address File; telephone book etc.

Sampling Is Part of Daily Life

For example, we sample food by taking a bite or two and then deciding if it is too
hot or too cold or if it needs sampling. Without sampling, we would need to eat all
of the food before being able to decide what to do. Reading and viewing provide
another example. You may decide to switch channels after watching a program for
a few minutes. You may decide not to continue reading a novel after the first thirty
pages or so.

What is the purpose of sampling?

To draw conclusions about populations from samples, we must use inferential
statistics, to enable us to determine a population’s characteristics by directly
observing only a portion (or sample) of the population. We obtain a sample of the
population for many reasons as it is usually not practical and almost never
economical.
There would also be difficulties measuring whole populations because: -

• The large size of many populations

• Inaccessibility of some of the population - Some populations are so
difficult to get access to that only a sample can be used. E.g. prisoners,
people with severe mental illness, disaster survivors etc. The inaccessibility
may be associated with cost or time or just access.
• Destructiveness of the observation- Sometimes the very act of observing
the desired characteristic of the product destroys it for the intended use.
Good examples of this occur in quality control. E.g. to determine the quality
of a fuse and whether it is defective, it must be destroyed. Therefore if you
tested all the fuses, all would be destroyed.
• Accuracy and sampling - A sample may be more accurate than the total
study population. A badly identified population can provide less reliable
information than a carefully obtained sample

Sampling Error
A sample is expected to mirror the population from which it comes; however, there
is no guarantee that any sample will be precisely representative of the population.
Chances may dictate that a disproportionate number of untypical observations will
be made.
Sampling error can make a sample unrepresentative of its population. Sampling
error comprises the differences between the sample and the population that are due
solely to the particular participants that have been selected.

The main cause of sampling error is

Chance: That is the error that occurs just because of bad luck. This may
result in untypical choices. Unusual units in a population do exist and there
is always a possibility that an abnormally large number of them will be
chosen. The main protection against this kind of error is to use a large
enough sample.

Sampling bias - Sampling bias is a tendency to favors the selection of

participants that have particular characteristics. Sampling bias is usually the
result of a poor sampling plan. The most notable is the bias of non-response
when for some reason some participants have no chance of appearing in the
sample e.g. no internet access for completion of an online questionnaire.

There can be two causes of this type of bias.

• The wrong study population was selected
• The study population was all inclusive but the poor design of the study
introduced the bias e.g. only one group within the study population agreed to
participate in the study
Non-sampling error (measurement error) - A non-sampling error is an error that
results solely from the manner in which the observations are made. It can occur
whether the total study population or a sample is being used. It may either be
produced by participants in the study or be an innocent by product of the sampling
plans and procedures. The simplest example of a non-sampling error is inaccurate
measurements due to malfunctioning instruments or poor procedures. These biased
observations can be innocent but very devastating to the findings of the study. In
studies observing personal characteristics, unintended errors may result from: -

• The manner in which the response is elicited

• The social desirability of the persons surveyed
• The purpose of the study
• The personal biases of the interviewer or survey writer

Checks need to be put in place to ensure this type of error is minimal.

The interviewers’ effect - No two interviewers are alike and the same person may
provide different answers to different interviewers. The manner in which a
question is formulated can also result in inaccurate responses. Individuals tend to
provide false answers to particular questions.

The respondent effect – Participants may deliberately give incorrect answers (for
many reasons). This type of error is the most difficult to prevent because it results
from outright deceit. It is important to acknowledge that certain psychological
factors induce incorrect responses and great care must be taken to design a study
that minimizes their effect.

Knowing the study purpose - Knowing why a study is being conducted may
create incorrect responses. If you are looking at a particular behavior and the study
participant knows what you are studying this may change that behavior in the study
participant. There are two ways of avoiding this
1. Change your study methodology
2. Ask a sequence of questions rather than just one question.

Induced bias finally, it should be noted that the personal prejudices of either the
designer of the study or the data collector may tend to induce bias. In designing a
questionnaire, questions can be slanted in such a way that a particular response will
be obtained even though it is inaccurate. To protect against induced bias, Share
your questionnaire widely, particularly with your professional peer group and if
available seek the advice of an individual trained in statistics and someone else
who can look at the questionnaire objectively. Don’t forget to Pilot the
questionnaire this not only checks for ambiguities but also could give an indication
of bias if the questions are slanted in a particular direction

SELECTING THE SAMPLE

The preceding section has covered the most common problems associated with
statistical studies. The desirability of a sampling procedure depends on both its
vulnerability to error and its cost. However, economy and reliability are competing
ends, because, to reduce error often requires an increased expenditure of resources.
Of the two types of statistical errors, only sampling error can be controlled by
exercising care in determining the method for choosing the sample. The previous
section has shown that sampling error may be due to either bias or chance. The
chance component (sometimes called random error) exists no matter how carefully
the selection procedures are implemented, and the only way to minimize chance
sampling errors is to select a sufficiently large sample. Sampling bias on the other
hand may be minimized by the wise choice of a sampling procedure

TYPES OF SAMPLES
Probability and Non-Probability Sampling
A probability sample is one in which each member of the population has an equal
chance of being selected. There are 4 main types of probability sample. The choice
of these depends on nature of research problem, the availability of a good sampling
frame, money, time, desired level of accuracy in the sample and data collection
methods. Each has its advantages, each its disadvantages. They are:

 Simple random
 Systematic
 Stratified
 Multi-stage cluster sampling

Random sampling is the purest form of probability sampling. Each member

of the population has an equal and known chance of being selected. When
there are very large populations, it is often difficult or impossible to identify
every member of the population, so the pool of available subjects becomes
biased.

Systematic sampling is often used instead of random sampling. It is also

called an Nth name selection technique. After the required sample size has
been calculated, every Nth record is selected from a list of population
members. As long as the list does not contain any hidden order, this
sampling method is as good as the random sampling method. Its only
advantage over the random sampling technique is simplicity. Systematic
sampling is frequently used to select a specified number of records from a
computer file. Disadvantage: Effect of periodicity (bias caused by particular
characteristics arising in the sampling frame at regular units). An example of
this would occur if you used a sampling frame of adult residents in an area
composed of predominantly couples or young families. If this list was
arranged: Husband / Wife / Husband / Wife etc. and if every tenth person
was to be interviewed, there would be an increased chance of males being
selected.

Stratified sampling is commonly used probability method that is superior to

random sampling because it reduces sampling error. A stratum is a subset of
the population that shares at least one common characteristic. Examples of
stratums might be males and females, or managers and non-managers. The
researcher first identifies the relevant stratums and their actual representation
in the population. Random sampling is then used to select a sufficient
number of subjects from each stratum. "Sufficient" refers to a sample size
large enough for us to be reasonably confident that the stratum represents the
population. Stratified sampling is often used when one or more of the
stratums in the population have a low incidence relative to the other
stratums.

A cluster sample is obtained by selecting clusters from the population on

the basis of simple random sampling. The sample comprises a census of
each random cluster selected. For example, a cluster may be something like
a village or a school, a state. So you decide all the elementary schools in
Maharashtra State are clusters. You want 20 schools selected. You can use
simple or systematic random sampling to select the schools, and then every
school selected becomes a cluster. If you interest is to interview teachers on
the opinion of some new program which has been introduced, then all the
teachers in a cluster must be interviewed. Though very economical cluster
sampling is very susceptible to sampling bias. Like for the above case, you
 are likely to get similar responses from teachers in one school due to the fact
that they interact with one another.

The advantage of probability sampling is that sampling error can be calculated.

Sampling error is the degree to which a sample might differ from the population.
When inferring to the population, results are reported plus or minus the sampling
error. In non probability sampling, the degree to which the sample differs from the
population remains unknown.

In a non-probability sample, some people have a greater, but unknown, chance

than others of selection. It isn't always possible to undertake a probability method
of sampling, such as in random sampling. For example, there is not a complete
sampling frame available for certain groups of the population e.g. the elderly;
people who are attending a football match; people who shop in a particular part of
town. Another factor to bear in mind is that many of the probability sampling
methods described above may mean that researchers would have to undertake a
postal or telephone survey delivery or might be expected to go from house to
house. We will discuss some of the problems of low response rate later on in this
workbook, but you might find that a probability sample with a poor response rate
doesn't in the end give you a particularly good representation of the population
being examined.

Advantages of non-probability methods:

 Cheaper
 Used when sampling frame is not available
 Useful when population is so widely dispersed that cluster sampling would
not be efficient
 Often used in exploratory studies, e.g. for hypothesis generation
 Some research not interested in working out what proportion of population
gives a particular response but rather in obtaining an idea of the range of
responses on ideas that people have.

Convenience sampling (sometimes known as grab or opportunity sampling) is a type of

nonprobability sampling which involves the sample being drawn from that part of the
population which is close to hand. That is, a sample population selected because it is readily
available and convenient. It may be through meeting the person or including a person in the
sample when one meets them or chosen by finding them through technological means such as
the internet or through phone. The researcher using such a sample cannot scientifically make
generalizations about the total population from this sample because it would not be
representative enough. For example, if the interviewer was to conduct such a survey at a
shopping center early in the morning on a given day, the people that he/she could interview
would be limited to those given there at that given time, which would not represent the views
of other members of society in such an area, if the survey was to be conducted at different
times of day and several times per week. This type of sampling is most useful for pilot
testing.It is used in exploratory research where the researcher is interested in getting an
inexpensive approximation of the truth and is often used during preliminary research efforts
to get a gross estimate of the results, without incurring the cost or time required to select a
random sample.

Judgment sampling is a common nonprobability method. A judgment sample is obtained

according to the discretion of someone who is familiar with the relevant characteristics of the
population. The researcher selects the sample based on judgment. This is usually an
extension of convenience sampling. For example, a researcher may decide to draw the entire
sample from one "representative" city, even though the population includes all cities. When
using this method, the researcher must be confident that the chosen sample is truly
representative of the entire population.

PURPOSEFUL SAMPLING

Purposeful sampling selects information rich cases for in-depth study. Size and specific cases
depend on the study purpose.

There are about 15 different types of purposeful sampling. They are briefly described below
for you to be aware of them.

1. Extreme and deviant case sampling

This involves learning from highly unusual manifestations of the phenomenon of interest,
such as outstanding successes, notable failures, top of the class, dropouts, exotic events,
crises.

2. Intensity sampling

This is information rich cases that manifest the phenomenon intensely, but not extremely,
such as good students, poor students, above average/below average.

3. Maximum variation sampling

This involves purposefully picking a wide range of variation on dimensions of interest. This
documents unique or diverse variations that have emerged in adapting to different conditions.
It also identifies important common patterns that cut across variations. Like in the example of
interviewing Cornell students, you may want to get students of different nationalities,
professional backgrounds, cultures, work experience and the like.

4. Homogeneous sampling

This one reduces variation, simplifies analysis, and facilitates group interviewing. Like
instead of having the maximum number of nationalities as in the above case of maximum
variation, it may focus on one nationality say Americans only.

5. Typical case sampling

It involves taking a sample of what one would call typical, normal or average for a particular
phenomenon,

6. Stratified purposeful sampling (quota sampling)

This illustrates characteristics of particular subgroups of interest and facilitates comparisons

between the different groups. Like stratified sampling, the researcher first identifies the
stratums and their proportions as they are represented in the population. Then convenience or
judgment sampling is used to select the required number of subjects from each stratum. This
differs from stratified sampling, where the stratums are filled by random sampling.

7. Critical case sampling

This permits logical generalization and maximum application of information to other cases
like "If it is true for this one case, it is likely to be true of all other cases. You must have
heard statements like if it happened to so and so then it can happen to anybody. Or if so and
so passed that exam, then anybody can pass.

8. Snowball or chain sampling

This particular one identifies, cases of interest from people who know people who know
what cases is information rich that is good examples for study, good interview subjects. This
is commonly used in studies that may be looking at issues like the homeless households.
What you do is to get hold of one and he/she will tell you where the others are or can be
found. When you find those others they will tell you where you can get more others and the
chain continues.
 9. Criterion sampling

Here, you set a criteria and pick all cases that meet that criteria for example, all ladies six feet
tall, all white cars, all farmers that have planted onions. This method of sampling is very
strong in quality assurance.

10.Theory based or operational constructs sampling.

Finding manifestations of a theoretical construct of interest so as to elaborate and examine

the construct.

Confirming and disconfirming cases Elaborating and deepening initial analysis like if you
had already started some study, you are seeking further information or confirming some
emerging issues which are not clear, seeking exceptions and testing variation.

11.Opportunistic Sampling

This involves following new leads during field work, taking advantage of the unexpected
flexibility.

12.Random purposeful sampling

This adds credibility when the purposeful sample is larger than one can handle. Reduces
judgment within a purposeful category. But it is not for generalizations or representativeness.

13.Sampling politically important cases

This type of sampling attracts or avoids attracting attention undesired attention by

purposefully eliminating from the sample political cases. These may be individuals, or
localities.

14.Convenience sampling

It is useful in getting general ideas about the phenomenon of interest. For example you
decide you will interview the first ten people you meet tomorrow morning. It saves time,
money and effort. It is the poorest way of getting samples, has the lowest credibility and
yields information-poor cases.

15.Combination or mixed purposeful sampling

This combines various sampling strategies to achieve the desired sample. This helps in
triangulation, allows for flexibility, and meets multiple interests and needs. When selecting a
sampling strategy it is necessary that it fits the purpose of the study, the resources available,
the question being asked and the constraints being faced. This holds true for sampling
strategy as well as sample size

SAMPLE SIZE

Before deciding how large a sample should be, you have to define your study population
(who you are including and excluding in your study). The question of how large a sample
should be is a difficult one.Sample size can be determined by various constraints (funding
available, the time constraints etc.)
Sample size depends on

• The type of data analysis to be performed

• The desired precision of the estimates one wishes to achieve
• The kind and number of comparisons that will be made
• The number of variables that have to be examined simultaneously
• How heterogeneous the sampled population is.

Deciding on a sample size for qualitative inquiry can be even more difficult than quantitative
because there are no definite rules to be followed. It will depend on what you want to know,
the purpose of the inquiry, what is at stake, what will be useful, what will have credibility
and what can be done with available time and resources.
You can choose to study one specific phenomenon in depth with a smaller sample size or a
bigger sample size when seeking breadth.

Sample Size Determination

There are several approaches to determining your sample size and the most popular of these
is the one that studies the power of a test of hypothesis. (Power calculation) Therefore to
undertake this approach the researcher must be clear what the researcher is looking at and
what it hopes to find at the end of the study. That is research must have a hypothesis.
For projects, other than small-scale projects, it is advisable to employ the skills of a
statistician to help you with your power calculation. This will ensure that your sample size is
large enough to ensure that your results are statistically significant but not so big that you
could have achieved the same results with a much smaller size.
For small scale studies Once you have the information required to do your power calculation
there are computer software packages (available free on the web) that you can use to
determine your sample size.

Applications of sampling techniques

 Major TV networks rely on surveys to tell them how many and what types
of people are watching their programs.
 The U.S. Bureau of Census conducts a survey every month to obtain
information on employment and unemployment in the nation.
 Local housing authorities make surveys to ascertain satisfaction of people in
public housing with their living accommodations.
 Local transportation authority’s conduct surveys to acquire information on
people's commuting and travel habits.
 Magazines and trade journals utilize surveys to find out what their
subscribers are reading.
 Surveys are used to ascertain what sort of people uses our national parks and
other recreation facilities.
 Auto manufacturers use surveys to find out how satisfied people are with
their cars.

Advantages of Sampling

 Greater economy: The total cost of a sample will be much less than that of
the whole lot.
 Shorter time-lag: With smaller number of observations it is possible to
provide results much faster as compared to the total number of observations.
 Greater scope: Sampling has a greater scope regarding the variety of
information by virtue of its flexibility and adaptability.
 Actual appraisal of reliability

Limitations of sampling

 Errors due to sampling may be high for small administrative areas.

 Sampling may not be feasible for problems that require very high accuracy.
SAMPLE SIZE

Before deciding how large a sample should be, you have to define your study
population. For example, all children below age three in maharashtra. Then
determine your sampling frame which could be a list of all the children below three
as recorded by Maharashtra govt. You can then struggle with the sample size.

The question of how large a sample should be is a difficult one. Sample size can be
determined by various constraints. For example, the available funding may
prespecify the sample size. When research costs are fixed, a useful rule of thumb is
to spend about one half of the total amount for data collection and the other half for
data analysis. This constraint influences the sample size as well as sample design
and data collection procedures.

In general, sample size depends on the nature of the analysis to be performed, the
desired precision of the estimates one wishes to achieve, the kind and number of
comparisons that will be made, the number of variables that have to be examined
simultaneously and how heterogeneous a universe is sampled. For example, if the
key analysis of a randomized experiment consists of computing averages for
experimental and controls in a project and comparing differences, then a sample
under 100 might be adequate, assuming that other statistical assumptions hold.

In non-experimental research, most often, relevant variables have to be controlled

statistically because groups differ by factors other than chance.

More technical considerations suggest that the required sample size is a function of
the precision of the estimates one wishes to achieve, the variability or variance, one
expects to find in the population and the statistical level of confidence one wishes
to use. The sample size N required to estimate a population mean (average) with a
given level of precision is:

The square root of N=(1.96)*(&)/precision Where & is the population standard

deviation of the for the variable whose mean one is interested in estimating.
Precision refers to width of the interval one is willing to tolerate and 1.96 reflects
the confidence level.

Deciding on a sample size for qualitative inquiry can be even more difficult than
quantitative because there are no definite rules to be followed. It will depend on
what you want to know, the purpose of the inquiry, what is at stake, what will be
useful, what will have credibility and what can be done with available time and
resources. With fixed resources which are always the case, you can choose to study
one specific phenomenon in depth with a smaller sample size or a bigger sample
size when seeking breadth. In purposeful sampling, the sample should be judged
on the basis of the purpose and rationale for each study and the sampling strategy
used to achieve the studies purpose. The validity, meaningfulness, and insights
generated from qualitative inquiry have more to do with the information-richness
of the cases selected and the observational/analytical capabilities of the researcher
than with sample size.