See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/240525306

The perceived impact of playing music while studying: Age and cultural
differences

Article  in  Educational Studies · October 2010

DOI: 10.1080/03055690903424774

CITATIONS READS

15 17,847

2 authors:

Anastasia Kotsopoulou Susan Hallam

Synchronous Support Center University College London
12 PUBLICATIONS   42 CITATIONS    184 PUBLICATIONS   5,648 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

Musical Futures View project

Music for Life: New dynamics of ageing View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Anastasia Kotsopoulou on 02 December 2014.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

The perceived impact of playing music while
studying: age and cultural differences

Authors: Anastasia Kotsopouloua; Susan Hallamb

Affiliations: a Psychology Department, City University of Seattle in Athens, Athens,
Greece
b
Institute of Education, University of London, London, UK
DOI: 10.1080/03055690903424774
Article Requests: Order Reprints : Request Permissions
Published in: Educational Studies, Volume 36, Issue 4 October 2010 , pages 431
- 440
Publication Frequency: 5 issues per year
First Published on: 08 January 2010

To cite this Article: Kotsopoulou, Anastasia and Hallam, Susan (2010) 'The
perceived impact of playing music while studying: age and cultural differences',
Educational Studies, 36:4, 431 - 440, First published on: 08 January 2010 (iFirst)

Abstract
Rating scale questionnaires were administered to 600 students in three age groups, 12-
13, 15-16 and 20-21 from Japan, the UK, Greece and the USA. The questionnaires
explored the extent of playing music while studying, the kinds of tasks when music
was played, the perceived effects of music on studying, the characteristics and types
of music played while studying and the factors that influenced the decision to play
music while studying. Statistical analysis revealed both commonality and differences
in playing music while studying related to both age and culture. Some tasks were
more frequently accompanied by music than others. Students reported being able to
make decisions about the impact of background music on their performance. The
results are discussed in relation to their educational implications.
Keywords: background music; homework; age; culture; studying

Introduction
In the modern western world where music is readily available to everyone through
radio, recordings, TV and videos and where recorded background music is routinely
played in many public places, the need to understand the effects of music on cognitive
processing has become increasingly important. While research has been undertaken
on the effects of background music on a variety of cognitive activities, it has been
relatively unsystematic and much of it has been inconclusive. This is in part because
music can be processed in different ways (see Hallam, Cross, and Thaut 2008 for
reviews). While there may be general trends in our responses to stimulating or
relaxing music, these are overlaid by individual cognitions which may mediate the
immediate effects, for instance, associations of particular pieces of music with
particular events or dislike of particular musical genres.
We know that in the adolescent years music becomes increasingly important with
most teenagers listening to music for approximately three hours a day, its role being
perceived in relation to portraying an image to the outside world and satisfying their
emotional needs (North, Hargreaves, and O'Neill 2001). We also know that much
studying undertaken at home is accompanied by music or the TV playing
(Kotsopoulou 1997; Patton, Stinard, and Routh 1983). What is as yet relatively
unexplored is the effect that playing music may have on the task performance of
young people. There is evidence that different types of music can have differential
impact on the physiological responses of premature infants (Lorch et al. 1994) and the
activity levels of young children aged three to four (Reiber 1965). Studies of children
with a range of special educational needs have also shown that the introduction of
background music into the classroom setting has a calming influence and can improve
task performance (Cripe 1986; Gregoire 1984; Hallam and Price 1998; Savan 1998;
Scott 1970).

Other studies have explored the effects of music on children in mainstream schools
with mixed results. Mitchell (1949) compared performance on a comprehension task
of listening to a variety show, a musical show or silence and found that reading
achievement was not adversely affected by the musical programme. Hall (1952) found
that performance on reading comprehension tests was significantly improved when
background music was playing. However, Fogelson (1973) found that the reading of
eighth graders was adversely affected when an instrumental version of Mantovani's
“Favourite Show Tunes” was playing. Kiger (1989), studying older pupils aged 15
years who read a 1450-word passage on Japanese history with high- or low-
information load music or no music in the background, found that reading
comprehension scores were significantly higher in the low-information load condition
than in the silent or high-information load conditions.

Other work has focused on tasks which involve recall. Henderson, Crews, and Barlow
(1945) explored the effect of music as a source of distraction during the taking of a
test. Type of music and the complexity of the testing material both affected
performance. Mowsesian and Heyer (1973) studied the effects of music on test taking
in 15-year-olds using a control, and groups listening to rock, folk, symphonic music
and opera. They were tested on mathematics, language and spelling and also
completed a self-concept of ability scale. The music had no significant effect on
performance. In contrast, Hallam, Price, and Katsarou (2002) found that 10-11-year-
olds, performance on memory and mathematics tasks was enhanced by calming music
playing in the background.

Explanations of the effects of music on learning and behaviour have tended to be in

terms of arousal and mood. The Yerkes-Dodson law states that the arousal level of the
individual increases performance up to an optimal level beyond which over-arousal
leads to a deterioration in performance. The law also states that the deterioration
occurs more quickly when the task to be performed is complex or under-learned. A
simple task will require a higher level of arousal for concentration to be maintained.
Stimulating music is expected to increase arousal and improve performance on simple
tasks but if the task is complex the level of arousal may become too great and
performance may deteriorate. Arousal levels may also be linked to personality factors
(Eysenck 1967) and are responsive to a range of environmental stimuli. Some
research has shown that positive emotions may adversely affect cognitive reasoning
tasks (Oaksford et al. 1996), so music inducing a positive mood might interfere with
task performance.

The research outlined above has been quasi-experimental and has explored whether
students are aware of the impact of music on their studying particularly in relation to
homework where they frequently have control over the playing of music. The present
study explores cultural and age differences in students' reported use of music in their
studying, and their perceptions of its effects on them and their work in relation to a
range of tasks.

Methodology

Three age groups were chosen: second year in high school (12 years old), last year in
school (16-18), and second year in university (age 20) representing distinct periods in
young people's lives. Four nationalities were identified for study exemplifying
different musical traditions, the USA (lacking a long, well-established musical
tradition, also the birthplace of modern pop music), the UK (similar to the USA but
with a long European musical heritage), Greece (linking the cultures of East and
West, European, but also retaining its own musical traditions) and Japan (own
traditional music with relatively recent Western influences). There were similar
numbers of males and females in each group. Overall, 150 students from each country
participated in the study, 50 from each age group. The students came from major
cities in each country selected from schools and universities having a broad intake
representing a wide range of socio-economic status.

A five-point rating scale questionnaire was developed to explore the listening habits
of the students from the different cultures. Five signified the response “always”, 4
“frequently”, 3 “occasionally”, 2 “rarely” and 1 “never”. The questionnaire was
devised based on earlier interviews undertaken with young people regarding their use
of music while studying. Responses were made to a range of statements about playing
music while studying (the actual statements are outlined in the results section).
Respondents were asked if they played music when they were revising for exams,
writing, memorising texts, reading, doing course work, editing work previously
completed, solving problems, developing ideas, thinking or learning a foreign
language. They also indicated their level of agreement to statements about the effects
of music on them while studying, the factors that informed decisions taken with
regard to playing music or not and what determined them not playing music.
Participants were also asked about the different kinds of music which they listened to.
The statements related to the type of music listened to varied between countries to
take account of national variation and were based on categories appearing in retail
outlets selling music recordings in each country. This ensured ecological validity and
provided respondents with categorisations that were familiar to them.

Results
Listening when undertaking different kinds of studying

Table 1 summarises the means and standard deviations for each age group regarding
their responses to statements about playing music while studying. Overall, the
reported extent of playing music while studying was low. There were very few
significant differences between the age groups. Those observed are for doing course
work and solving problems. Table 2 gives a summary of the means and standard
deviations for the respondents from each culture. In almost every category, the
Japanese reported playing music the least.

Table 1. Playing music while studying: age differences.

Mean (SD)
Overall
I listen to music while: 12-13 15-16 20-21 Significance
mean
1.8 1.9 2.0
Studying 1.1 n.s.
(1.5) (1.4) (1.2)
1.0 1.3 1.5
Revising for exams 1.3 .0001
(1.3) (1.5) (1.3)
1.7 2.0 1.9
Writing 1.9 .05
(1.5) (1.4) (1.3)
0.8 0.9 1.0
Memorising texts 0.9 n.s.
(1.2) (1.3) (1.1)
1.4 1.5 1.5
Reading 1.5 n.s.
(1.4) (1.4) (1.2)
1.4 1.7 1.7
Doing course work 1.6 .014
(1.4) (1.5) (1.3)
Editing work previously 1.3 1.5 1.6
1.5 n.s.
completed (1.4) (1.4) (1.3)
1.4 1.7 1.4
Solving problems 1.5 .032
(1.4) (1.5) (1.2)
1.4 1.7 1.7
Developing ideas 1.6 n.s.
(1.4) (1.4) (1.2)
1.7 2.3 2.2
Thinking 2.1 n.s.
(1.4) (1.4) (1.2)
1.7 1.7 1.5
Studying my favourite subject 1.7 n.s.
(1.5) (1.5) (1.3)
Studying my least favourite 1.7 1.8 1.6
1.7 n.s.
subject (1.6) (1.5) (1.3)
1.1 1.1 0.9
Learning a foreign language 1.0 .05
(1.3) (1.3) (1.1)
Table 2. Playing music while studying: cultural differences.
Mean (SD)
Overall
I listen to music while: UK Greece Japan USA Significance
mean
 Table 2. Playing music while studying: cultural differences.
Mean (SD)
Overall
I listen to music while: UK Greece Japan USA Significance
mean
2.1 1.8 1.8 1.9
Studying 1.9 n.s.
(1.5) (1.4) (1.3) (1.4)
1.6 1.1 .99 1.3
Revising for exams 1.3 .0001
(1.5) (1.4) (1.3) (1.4)
2.1 2.2 1.3 1.9
Writing 1.9 .0001
(1.4) (1.4) (1.3) (1.3)
1.6 .75 .65 1.2
Memorising text .9 .0001
(1.3) (1.0) (1.1) (1.3)
1.5 1.5 1.4 1.5
Reading 1.5 n.s.
(1.3) (1.3) (1.3) (1.4
1.6 1.9 .98 1.8
Doing course work 1.6 .0001
(1.5) (1.4) (1.1) (1.4)
Editing work previously 1.9 1.1 1.4 1.7
1.5 .0001
completed (1.4) (1.3) (1.4) (1.3)
1.5 1.5 1.3 1.7
Solving problems 1.5 .02
(1.4) (1.5) (1.3) (1.4)
1.7 1.8 1.1 1.9
Developing ideas 1.6 .0001
(1.3) (1.4) (1.2) (1.4)
1.9 2.4 1.6 2.4
Thinking 2.1 .0001
(1.3) (1.5) (1.4) (1.2)
Studying my favourite 1.9 1.5 1.6 1.7
1.7 n.s.
subject (1.4) (1.5) (1.3) (1.4)
Studying my least 1.9 1.6 1.5 1.8
1.7 .03
favourite subject (1.4) (1.6) (1.4) (1.5)
Learning a foreign .84 1.3 1.3 .76
1.1 .0001
language (1.1) (1.4) (1.2) (1.1)

A repeated measures analysis of variance found significant differences between the

means across questions demonstrating that the students played music differentially,
depending on the type of studying that they were undertaking (F = 13.01, df = 11, p =
.0001). Music was most often played in the background when thinking followed by
writing and least often when memorising texts or learning a foreign language.

Beliefs about the effects of music on studying

Table 3 reports age differences in the perceived effects of playing music on studying.
There were no statistically significant differences between secondary, advanced
secondary and university students, in relation to their perceptions of whether music
helped them to concentrate, kept them company, alleviated boredom, helped them
learn faster, interfered because they “sang along”, or interfered because it developed a
too high level of arousal. There were significant differences in relation to the extent to
which music was seen to be relaxing and to interfere with concentration, the
university and advanced students perceiving that music had a more relaxing effect but
also interfered with their concentration more than their younger counterparts. These
differences may reflect the type of music being played or increasing meta-cognitive
awareness about the effects of music with increasing age.

Table 3. Perceived effects of playing music: age differences.

Mean (SD)
Overall
I believe that music: 12-13 15-16 20-21 Significance
mean
2.0 2.0 1.7
Helps me to concentrate 1.9 n.s.
(1.5) (1.3) (1.2)
2.7 2.8 2.7
Keeps me company 2.8 n.s.
(1.3) (1.3) (1.0)
2.9 3.1 3.0
Alleviates my boredom 3.0 n.s.
(1.3) (1.1) (1.0)
3.0 3.3 3.3
Relaxes me 3.2 .03
(1.2) (1.1) (0.8)
1.5 1.6 1.3
Helps me learn faster 1.5 n.s.
(1.4) (1.3) (1.1)
1.5 1.6 2.1
Interferes so I can't concentrate 1.7 .0001
(1.5) (1.3) (1.3)
1.5 1.8 1.9
Interferes because I sing along 1.8 n.s.
(1.5) (1.5) (1.3)
Interferes because it makes me too 1.0 1.0 1.0
1.0 n.s.
aroused (1.3) (1.2) (1.1)

Table 4 sets out the means and standard deviations of respondents from each culture.
Overall, there was general agreement that music helped the students to relax,
alleviated boredom and kept them company but could interfere with concentration.
The Greek students responded significantly more positively to almost every
statement.

Table 4. Perceived effects of playing music: cultural differences.

Mean (SD)
Overall
I believe that music: UK Greece Japan USA Significance
mean
2.0 1.8 1.5 2.2
Helps me to concentrate 1.9 .0001
(1.4) (1.3) (1.4) (1.2)
2.6 2.3 2.8
Keeps me company 3.4 (.9) 2.8 .0001
(1.3) (1.3) (1.1)
2.9 3.2 3.0 3.0
Alleviates my boredom 3.0 n.s.
(1.2) (1.0) (1.2) (1.1)
3.1 3.1 3.1
Relaxes me 3.5 (.9) 3.2 .003
(1.1) (1.1) (1.0)
 Table 4. Perceived effects of playing music: cultural differences.
Mean (SD)
Overall
I believe that music: UK Greece Japan USA Significance
mean
1.5 1.3 1.6 1.4
Helps me learn faster 1.5 n.s.
(1.4) (1.2) (1.4) (1.2)
Interferes so that I can't 1.7 2.1 1.5 1.6
1.7 .003
concentrate (1.3) (1.4) (1.3) (1.3)
Interferes because I sing 1.7 2.4 1.3 1.8
1.8 .0001
along (1.4) (1.4) (1.4) (1.4)
Interferes because it makes 1.1 1.1 .77 1.0
.99 n.s.
me too aroused (1.2) (1.4) (1.1) (1.2)

Across the sample, there were statistically significant differences in responses to each
statement (F = 1.057, df = 6, p = .05). Strongest agreement was for statements relating
to relaxation and relieving boredom, weakest to raising arousal and helping students
learn faster.

Factors affecting when music was listened to

Table 5 sets out age differences in respondents' reported decisions about playing
music while studying. The older students reported being more prepared to take action
to reduce any negative effects of the music than the younger students. Younger
students were more likely to turn on music when they were disturbed by other sounds
and turn it off if someone suggested they should. Advanced secondary school students
were more influenced than the others about deciding to play music depending on the
subject they were studying, and the nature of the subject. University students turned
the music off more than the school students when they were unable to concentrate,
when it made them nervous and when they were unable to learn.

Table 5. Influences on playing music: age differences.

Mean (SD)
Overall
12-13 15-16 20-21 Significance
mean
I listen to music when studying when 2.3 2.4 2.1
2.3 n.s.
I am happy (1.5) (1.5) (1.3)
I listen to music when I am studying 2.4 2.2 2.2
2.3 n.s.
I am bored (1.5) (1.5) (1.4)
I listen to music when I like the 1.8 1.8 1.7
1.8 n.s.
subject (1.5) (1.5) (1.2)
I listen to music when I dislike the 1.7 1.9 1.7
1.8 n.s.
subject (1.5) (1.5) (1.3)
I turn the music off when I am 2.1 1.7 1.9
1.9 .017
disturbed by other noises (1.6) (1.5) (1.3)
 Table 5. Influences on playing music: age differences.
Mean (SD)
Overall
12-13 15-16 20-21 Significance
mean
I turn the music off when I can't 1.7 2.8 3.1
2.9 .001
concentrate (1.5) (1.4) (1.2)
I turn the music off when it makes 1.5 1.8 2.0
1.8 .015
me nervous (1.6) (1.6) (1.6)
I turn the music off when I am 2.1 2.3 2.7
2.4 .0001
unable to learn (1.7) (1.6) (1.4)
I turn the music off when someone 1.9 1.4 1.4
1.6 .0001
suggests I should (1.5) (1.4) (1.2)
Listening to music depends on the 2.4 2.5 2.4
2.4 n.s.
type of music (1.4) (1.5) (1.3)
Listening to music depends on the 1.6 2.0 1.7
1.8 .009
subject I am studying (1.4) (1.5) (1.3)
Listening to music depends on the 1.4 2.0 1.5
1.6 .0001
nature of the subject (1.3) (1.5) (1.2)
Listening to music depends on the 2.7 2.9 2.8
2.8 n.s.
mood I am in (1.4) (1.4) (1.3)

Responses to statements about the occasions when they were prompted to play music
for the different cultural groups were varied (see Table 6). The UK students
responded more positively to a range of factors that encouraged them to play music,
while the Greek students exhibited the most variability depending on the subject being
studied and their mood. Individual variation, perhaps related to personality
characteristics, may be responsible for some of this variation. Overall, the students
tended to agree that they would turn the music off if it disrupted their concentration
(mean 2.9); the weakest responses to this statement were made by the Japanese and
American students, the strongest by the UK students. The Japanese gave the most
negative response to turning the music off when they were unable to learn. There
were no significant differences in responses to statements about whether music would
be turned off if someone suggested that it should be. Responses to this were generally
negative.

Table 6. Influences on playing music: cultural differences.

Mean (SD)
Overall
UK Greece Japan USA Significance
mean
I listen to music when 2.6 2.5 1.9 2.3
2.3 .0001
studying when I am happy (1.3) (1.4) (1.5) (1.5)
I listen to music when 2.6 1.9 2.4 2.3
2.3 .0001
studying when I am bored (1.3) (1.5) (1.4) (1.4)
I listen to music when I like 2.1 1.8 1.5 1.8
1.8 .005
the subject (1.4) (1.3) (1.4) (1.5)
I listen to music when I 2.1 1.7 1.3 1.9 1.8 .0001
 Table 6. Influences on playing music: cultural differences.
Mean (SD)
Overall
UK Greece Japan USA Significance
mean
dislike the subject (1.5) (1.4) (1.4) (1.5)
I turn the music off when I am 2.2 2.1 1.2 2.0
1.9 .0001
disturbed by other noises (1.4) (1.4) (1.4) (1.5)
I turn the music off when I 2.9 3.2 2.6 2.6
2.9 .0001
can't concentrate (1.4) (1.1) (1.6) (1.4)
I turn the music off when it 1.3 2.3 1.9 1.5
1.8 .0001
makes me nervous (1.5) (1.6) (1.7) (1.4)
I turn the music off when I am 2.3 2.8 2.0 2.2
2.7 .0001
unable to learn (1.6) (1.3) (1.7) (1.6)
I turn the music off when 1.5 1.8 1.5 1.6
1.6 n.s.
someone suggests I should (1.3) (1.4) (1.4) (1.4)
Listening to music depends on 2.6 2.6 2.1 2.5
2.4 .006
the type of music (1.3) (1.4) (1.4) (1.4)
Listening to music depends on 1.9 2.2 1.2 1.7
1.8 .0001
the subject (1.4) (1.4) (1.2) (1.4)
Listening to music depends on 1.8 2.0 1.1 1.6
1.6 .0001
the nature of the subject (1.4) (1.4) (1.2) (1.3)
Listening to music depends on 2.9 3.2 2.8 2.4
2.8 .0001
the mood I am in (1.2) (1.2) (1.4) (1.5)

Characteristics and types of music listened to

Only one aspect of the characteristics of the music listened to while studying was
different for the three age groups. This was whether the students played music with a
fast tempo. The most negative response to this statement came from the advanced
secondary students (mean = 1.8, SD = 1.36), the most positive response from the
youngest students (mean 2.2, SD = 1.45). These differences were statistically
significant (F = 5.14, df = 2, p = .006).

There were also few significant differences in nationality between the characteristics
of music that was played while studying, with the exception of instrumental music (F
= 5.3, df = 3.593, p = .001) and arousing and calming music (F = 15.3, df = 3.595, p =
.001; F = 2.8, df = 3.596, p = .04). The Japanese played instrumental music the least,
the US students calming music the least and the UK and US students arousing music
the least. The Greeks reported listening to all of these the most.

A repeated measures analysis of variance across the whole sample comparing the
various musical characteristics showed no statistically significant differences,
suggesting that no particular characteristics determine the music which is played.
Overall, young people most often played their favourite songs and least often
instrumental or arousing music.
The most common type of music played across all nationalities and age groups was
recorded pop music, the least classical music. Because of the different types of music
available in the different cultures, it was not possible to make rigorous comparisons
but the evidence suggested that the variety of music played increased with age.
Overall, the distribution of scores reflected considerable individual diversity.

Discussion

These findings are based on self-perceptions and therefore must be interpreted with
some caution. However, there are indications that, overall, students do not play music
while studying extensively and that they rarely play music while revising for
examinations, memorising material or learning a foreign language and most often play
music when thinking or writing. This suggests that they are aware that their
performance on some tasks will be impaired, namely those where the cognitive
processes involved are shared with those involved in the processing of music. The
students were not able to articulate this in the interviews from which the questionnaire
statements were derived but they were aware of the impact on their learning.

Music played while studying was most strongly reported to relax, alleviate boredom
and help concentration. Students reported that they mainly played music while
studying when they were happy or bored and that their mood was a determinant of
their decision. Most turned off the music when they felt that it was interfering with
their concentration.

There were only relatively small differences between the students in relation to their
perceptions of the ways that music supported or hindered their studying, although the
university and advanced students perceived that music was more relaxing than their
younger counterparts. This may reflect increased pressure as students progress
through their academic courses or may simply mean that older students are more self-
aware. They were certainly more prepared to take action in relation to any negative
effects, perhaps because the tasks that they were set required greater focus and
concentration. Across all age groups there was disagreement that they turned music
off when someone suggested that they should. This suggests that parents' attempts to
prevent music being played while their offspring are studying are likely to be
unproductive.

Cultural factors appeared to affect the way that music was used to influence mood and
ameliorate other distractions. Overall, the Greek students tended to play music the
most, the Japanese the least. The UK and US students, in most cases, fell between
these two extremes and shared similar listening habits and uses of music in studying,
although there were some exceptions. However, the large standard deviations suggest
that these overall trends are underpinned by considerable individual variation in the
extent to which music is played while studying, the tasks that it is used to support and
the extent to which the individual is aware of its positive or negative effects.

The most common type of music played across all nationalities was recorded pop
music, the least common classical music. Overall, there were relatively few age
differences in the kinds of music selected. For the population as a whole it was the
variety of music, which was played, which seemed to increase with age. This supports
earlier research findings (LeBlanc and McCrary 1983).

Overall, the findings suggest that parents and educators should not be too concerned
when students play music while studying. Students are aware of its effects on
performance, use it to support their learning, seem to know instinctively which tasks
will be most affected, and generally turn the music off when it is interfering,
particularly as they get older. For younger students, parents and educators might take
time to explain how music can affect arousal levels which in turn affect concentration
and also point out those tasks that are more likely to be affected because of the
processing mechanisms that they share with music.

Notes on contributors
Anastasia Kotsopoulou, an educational psychologist, is the head of the Psychology
Department of the City University of Seattle in Athens.

Susan Hallam is the dean of the Faculty of Policy and Society at the Institute of
Education, University of London. She has extensive research and publications relating
to disaffection from school, and the psychology of music and music education.

References

 1. Cripe, F. F. (1986) Rock music as therapy for children with attention deficit
disorder: An exploratory study. Journal of Music Therapy 23 , pp. 30-37.
 2. Eysenck, H. J. (1967) The biological basis of personality Thomas. ,
Springfield, IL
 3. Fogelson, S. (1973) Music as a distracter on reading - Test performance of
eighth grade students. Perceptual and Motor Skills 36 , pp. 1265-1266.
 4. Gregoire, M. A. (1984) Music as a prior condition to task performance.
Journal of Music Therapy 21 , pp. 133-145.
 5. Hall, J. (1952) The effect of background music on the reading
comprehension of 278 eighth and ninth grade students. Journal of Educational
Research 45:6 , pp. 451-458.
 6. Hallam, S. , Cross, I. and Thaut, M. (eds) (2008) Oxford handbook of music
psychology Oxford University Press , Oxford
 7. Hallam, S. and Price, J. (1998) Can the use of background music improve
the behavior and academic performance of children with emotional and
behavioral difficulties?. British Journal of Special Education 25:2 , pp. 87-90.
 8. Hallam, S. , Price, J. and Katsarou, G. (2002) The effects of background
music on primary school pupils' task performance. Educational Studies 28:2 ,
pp. 111-122. [informaworld]
 9. Henderson, M. T. , Crews, A. and Barlow, J. (1945) A study of the effect of
music distraction on reading efficiency. Journal of Applied Psychology 29 ,
pp. 313-317. [ crossref ]
  10. Kiger, D. M. (1989) Effects of music information load on a reading
comprehension task. Perceptual and Motor Skills 69 , pp. 531-534.
 11. Kotsopoulou, A. (1997) Music in student's lives. Institute of Education,
University of London — Unpublished MA diss.
 12. LeBlanc, A. and McCrary, J. (1983) Effect of tempo on children's music
preference. Journal of Research in Music Education 31:4 , pp. 283-294. [
crossref ]
 13. Lorch, C. A. , Lorch, V. , Diefendorf, A. O. and Earl, P. W. (1994) Effect
of stimulative and sedative music on systolic blood pressure, heart rate, and
respiratory rate in premature infants. Journal of Music Therapy 31:2 , pp. 105-
118.
 14. Mitchell, A. H. (1949) The effect of radio programs on silent reading
achievement of ninety-one sixth grade students. Journal of Educational
Research 42:6 , pp. 460-470.
 15. Mowsesian, R. and Heyer, M. R. (1973) The effect of music as a
distraction on test-taking performance. Measurement and Evaluation in
Guidance 6:2 , pp. 104-110.
 16. North, A. C. , Hargreaves, D. J. and O'Neill, S. A. (2001) The importance
of music to adolescents. British Journal of Educational Psychology 70 , pp.
255-272. [ crossref ] [ csa ]
 17. Oaksford, M. , Morris, F. , Grainger, B. and Williams, J. M. G. (1996)
Mood reasoning and central executive processes. Journal of Experimental
Psychology, Learning, Memory and Cognition 22:2 , pp. 477-493. [ crossref ]
 18. Patton, J. E. , Stinard, T. A. and Routh, D. K. (1983) Where do children
study?. Journal of Educational Research 76:5 , pp. 280-286.
 19. Reiber, M. (1965) The effect of music on the activity level of children.
Psychonomic Science 3 , pp. 325-326.
 20. Savan, A. (1998) A study of the effect of background music on the
behaviour and physiological responses of children with special educational
needs. Psychology of Education Review 22:1 , pp. 32-36.
 21. Scott, T. (1970) The use of music to reduce hyperactivity in children.
American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 4 , pp. 677-680.

List of Tables
Table 1. Playing music while studying: age differences.
Mean (SD)
Overall
I listen to music while: 12-13 15-16 20-21 Significance
mean
1.8 1.9 2.0
Studying 1.1 n.s.
(1.5) (1.4) (1.2)
1.0 1.3 1.5
Revising for exams 1.3 .0001
(1.3) (1.5) (1.3)
1.7 2.0 1.9
Writing 1.9 .05
(1.5) (1.4) (1.3)
0.8 0.9 1.0
Memorising texts 0.9 n.s.
(1.2) (1.3) (1.1)
Reading 1.4 1.5 1.5 1.5 n.s.
 Table 1. Playing music while studying: age differences.
Mean (SD)
Overall
I listen to music while: 12-13 15-16 20-21 Significance
mean
(1.4) (1.4) (1.2)
1.4 1.7 1.7
Doing course work 1.6 .014
(1.4) (1.5) (1.3)
Editing work previously 1.3 1.5 1.6
1.5 n.s.
completed (1.4) (1.4) (1.3)
1.4 1.7 1.4
Solving problems 1.5 .032
(1.4) (1.5) (1.2)
1.4 1.7 1.7
Developing ideas 1.6 n.s.
(1.4) (1.4) (1.2)
1.7 2.3 2.2
Thinking 2.1 n.s.
(1.4) (1.4) (1.2)
1.7 1.7 1.5
Studying my favourite subject 1.7 n.s.
(1.5) (1.5) (1.3)
Studying my least favourite 1.7 1.8 1.6
1.7 n.s.
subject (1.6) (1.5) (1.3)
1.1 1.1 0.9
Learning a foreign language 1.0 .05
(1.3) (1.3) (1.1)

Table 2. Playing music while studying: cultural differences.

Mean (SD)
Overall
I listen to music while: UK Greece Japan USA Significance
mean
2.1 1.8 1.8 1.9
Studying 1.9 n.s.
(1.5) (1.4) (1.3) (1.4)
1.6 1.1 .99 1.3
Revising for exams 1.3 .0001
(1.5) (1.4) (1.3) (1.4)
2.1 2.2 1.3 1.9
Writing 1.9 .0001
(1.4) (1.4) (1.3) (1.3)
1.6 .75 .65 1.2
Memorising text .9 .0001
(1.3) (1.0) (1.1) (1.3)
1.5 1.5 1.4 1.5
Reading 1.5 n.s.
(1.3) (1.3) (1.3) (1.4
1.6 1.9 .98 1.8
Doing course work 1.6 .0001
(1.5) (1.4) (1.1) (1.4)
Editing work previously 1.9 1.1 1.4 1.7
1.5 .0001
completed (1.4) (1.3) (1.4) (1.3)
1.5 1.5 1.3 1.7
Solving problems 1.5 .02
(1.4) (1.5) (1.3) (1.4)
1.7 1.8 1.1 1.9
Developing ideas 1.6 .0001
(1.3) (1.4) (1.2) (1.4)
 Table 2. Playing music while studying: cultural differences.
Mean (SD)
Overall
I listen to music while: UK Greece Japan USA Significance
mean
1.9 2.4 1.6 2.4
Thinking 2.1 .0001
(1.3) (1.5) (1.4) (1.2)
Studying my favourite 1.9 1.5 1.6 1.7
1.7 n.s.
subject (1.4) (1.5) (1.3) (1.4)
Studying my least 1.9 1.6 1.5 1.8
1.7 .03
favourite subject (1.4) (1.6) (1.4) (1.5)
Learning a foreign .84 1.3 1.3 .76
1.1 .0001
language (1.1) (1.4) (1.2) (1.1)

Table 3. Perceived effects of playing music: age differences.

Mean (SD)
Overall
I believe that music: 12-13 15-16 20-21 Significance
mean
2.0 2.0 1.7
Helps me to concentrate 1.9 n.s.
(1.5) (1.3) (1.2)
2.7 2.8 2.7
Keeps me company 2.8 n.s.
(1.3) (1.3) (1.0)
2.9 3.1 3.0
Alleviates my boredom 3.0 n.s.
(1.3) (1.1) (1.0)
3.0 3.3 3.3
Relaxes me 3.2 .03
(1.2) (1.1) (0.8)
1.5 1.6 1.3
Helps me learn faster 1.5 n.s.
(1.4) (1.3) (1.1)
1.5 1.6 2.1
Interferes so I can't concentrate 1.7 .0001
(1.5) (1.3) (1.3)
1.5 1.8 1.9
Interferes because I sing along 1.8 n.s.
(1.5) (1.5) (1.3)
Interferes because it makes me too 1.0 1.0 1.0
1.0 n.s.
aroused (1.3) (1.2) (1.1)

Table 4. Perceived effects of playing music: cultural differences.

Mean (SD)
Overall
I believe that music: UK Greece Japan USA Significance
mean
2.0 1.8 1.5 2.2
Helps me to concentrate 1.9 .0001
(1.4) (1.3) (1.4) (1.2)
2.6 2.3 2.8
Keeps me company 3.4 (.9) 2.8 .0001
(1.3) (1.3) (1.1)
Alleviates my boredom 2.9 3.2 3.0 3.0 3.0 n.s.
 Table 4. Perceived effects of playing music: cultural differences.
Mean (SD)
Overall
I believe that music: UK Greece Japan USA Significance
mean
(1.2) (1.0) (1.2) (1.1)
3.1 3.1 3.1
Relaxes me 3.5 (.9) 3.2 .003
(1.1) (1.1) (1.0)
1.5 1.3 1.6 1.4
Helps me learn faster 1.5 n.s.
(1.4) (1.2) (1.4) (1.2)
Interferes so that I can't 1.7 2.1 1.5 1.6
1.7 .003
concentrate (1.3) (1.4) (1.3) (1.3)
Interferes because I sing 1.7 2.4 1.3 1.8
1.8 .0001
along (1.4) (1.4) (1.4) (1.4)
Interferes because it makes 1.1 1.1 .77 1.0
.99 n.s.
me too aroused (1.2) (1.4) (1.1) (1.2)

Table 5. Influences on playing music: age differences.

Mean (SD)
Overall
12-13 15-16 20-21 Significance
mean
I listen to music when studying when 2.3 2.4 2.1
2.3 n.s.
I am happy (1.5) (1.5) (1.3)
I listen to music when I am studying 2.4 2.2 2.2
2.3 n.s.
I am bored (1.5) (1.5) (1.4)
I listen to music when I like the 1.8 1.8 1.7
1.8 n.s.
subject (1.5) (1.5) (1.2)
I listen to music when I dislike the 1.7 1.9 1.7
1.8 n.s.
subject (1.5) (1.5) (1.3)
I turn the music off when I am 2.1 1.7 1.9
1.9 .017
disturbed by other noises (1.6) (1.5) (1.3)
I turn the music off when I can't 1.7 2.8 3.1
2.9 .001
concentrate (1.5) (1.4) (1.2)
I turn the music off when it makes 1.5 1.8 2.0
1.8 .015
me nervous (1.6) (1.6) (1.6)
I turn the music off when I am 2.1 2.3 2.7
2.4 .0001
unable to learn (1.7) (1.6) (1.4)
I turn the music off when someone 1.9 1.4 1.4
1.6 .0001
suggests I should (1.5) (1.4) (1.2)
Listening to music depends on the 2.4 2.5 2.4
2.4 n.s.
type of music (1.4) (1.5) (1.3)
Listening to music depends on the 1.6 2.0 1.7
1.8 .009
subject I am studying (1.4) (1.5) (1.3)
Listening to music depends on the 1.4 2.0 1.5
1.6 .0001
nature of the subject (1.3) (1.5) (1.2)
 Table 5. Influences on playing music: age differences.
Mean (SD)
Overall
12-13 15-16 20-21 Significance
mean
Listening to music depends on the 2.7 2.9 2.8
2.8 n.s.
mood I am in (1.4) (1.4) (1.3)

Table 6. Influences on playing music: cultural differences.

Mean (SD)
Overall
UK Greece Japan USA Significance
mean
I listen to music when 2.6 2.5 1.9 2.3
2.3 .0001
studying when I am happy (1.3) (1.4) (1.5) (1.5)
I listen to music when 2.6 1.9 2.4 2.3
2.3 .0001
studying when I am bored (1.3) (1.5) (1.4) (1.4)
I listen to music when I like 2.1 1.8 1.5 1.8
1.8 .005
the subject (1.4) (1.3) (1.4) (1.5)
I listen to music when I 2.1 1.7 1.3 1.9
1.8 .0001
dislike the subject (1.5) (1.4) (1.4) (1.5)
I turn the music off when I am 2.2 2.1 1.2 2.0
1.9 .0001
disturbed by other noises (1.4) (1.4) (1.4) (1.5)
I turn the music off when I 2.9 3.2 2.6 2.6
2.9 .0001
can't concentrate (1.4) (1.1) (1.6) (1.4)
I turn the music off when it 1.3 2.3 1.9 1.5
1.8 .0001
makes me nervous (1.5) (1.6) (1.7) (1.4)
I turn the music off when I am 2.3 2.8 2.0 2.2
2.7 .0001
unable to learn (1.6) (1.3) (1.7) (1.6)
I turn the music off when 1.5 1.8 1.5 1.6
1.6 n.s.
someone suggests I should (1.3) (1.4) (1.4) (1.4)
Listening to music depends on 2.6 2.6 2.1 2.5
2.4 .006
the type of music (1.3) (1.4) (1.4) (1.4)
Listening to music depends on 1.9 2.2 1.2 1.7
1.8 .0001
the subject (1.4) (1.4) (1.2) (1.4)
Listening to music depends on 1.8 2.0 1.1 1.6
1.6 .0001
the nature of the subject (1.4) (1.4) (1.2) (1.3)
Listening to music depends on 2.9 3.2 2.8 2.4
2.8 .0001
the mood I am in (1.2) (1.2) (1.4) (1.5)

View publication stats