Robotics and Automation 18MT651

Sensors
Different types of Sensors are used in robotics to get different inputs from the robot and also
from robot surroundings. In Robotics the Sensors are classified as Internal Sensors and External
Sensors.

1. Internal Sensors- These are the Sensors used to get internal Robot Information such
as Position of Joins speed of the joint etc
2. External Sensors- These are the sensors which are used to get information about
the robot surrounding environment such as distance of object from the end effector,
Temperature

Machine Vision
Machine vision is the substitution of the human visual sense and judgment capabilities
with a video camera and computer to perform an inspection task. It is the automatic acquisition
and analysis of images to obtain desired data for controlling or evaluating a specific part or
activity.

Steps in Machine Vision

1. Image acquisition (Image Formation)

Department of Mechatronics Naveen Kumar S N

Robotics and Automation 18MT651

The imaging device (e.g. camera) can either be separate from the main image processing
unit or combined with it in which case the combination is generally called a smart camera or
smart sensor. Inclusion of the full processing function into the same enclosure as the camera is
often referred to as embedded processing. When separated, the connection may be made to
specialized intermediate hardware, a custom processing appliance, or a frame grabber within a
computer using either an analog or standardized digital interface. To get better quality of the
images or frames better lighting devices are utilized along with some sensors. The optic lenses
have an important role in capturing better image frames of the object.

2. Pre-processing and Processing

The frames of images captured are to be processed to convert them to digital signals.
Different processing techniques are used to convert captured image frames to the digital
signals. The different techniques such are segmentation, sampling, amplifying etc., are used
to improve the quality of the frames captured by the cameras. MV implementations also use
digital cameras capable of direct connections (without a frame grabber) to a computer
via FireWire, USB or Gigabit Ethernet interfaces.

3. Image Analysis

After an image is acquired, it is processed. Central processing functions are generally done
by a CPU. Deep learning training and inference impose higher processing performance
requirements. Multiple stages of processing are generally used in a sequence that ends up as a
desired result. A typical sequence might start with tools such as filters which modify the image,
followed by extraction of objects, then extraction (e.g. measurements, reading of codes) of data
from those objects, followed by communicating that data, or comparing it against target values
to create and communicate "pass/fail" results.

4. Image Interpretation

Machine vision commonly provides location and orientation information to a robot to allow
the robot to properly grasp the product. This capability is also used to guide motion that is
simpler than robots, such as a 1 or 2 axis motion controller. The overall process includes
planning the details of the requirements and project, and then creating a solution. This section
describes the technical process that occurs during the operation of the solution. Many of the
process steps are the same as with automatic inspection except with a focus on providing
position and orientation information as the end result.

Department of Mechatronics Naveen Kumar S N

Robotics and Automation 18MT651

Ranging Sensors
Range sensors measure the distance to objects in their operation area. They are used for
robot navigation, obstacle avoidance or to recover the third dimension for monocular vision.

Range sensors are based on one of the two principles: time-of-flight and triangulation.
Time-of-flight sensors estimate the range by measuring the time elapsed between the
transmission and return of a pulse.

Laser range finders and sonar are the best-known sensors of this type. Triangulation
sensors measure range by detecting a given point on the object surface from two different points
of view at a known distance from each other. Knowing this distance and the two view angles
from the respective points to the aimed surface point, a simple geometrical operation yields the
range.

Laser Range Sensor

As the figures above show, a laser beam emitted from the semiconductor laser is applied
to the target. The light reflected from the target is collected by the receiver lens and focused on
the light-receiving element. When the distance to the target changes, the angle of the reflected
light passing through the receiver lens changes, and the light is focused at a different position
on the light-receiving element.

Acoustic Sensor

An acoustic ranging apparatus directs a burst of acoustic energy towards an acoustically

reflective target object. The time it takes for an echo to return to the ranging apparatus is
measured to determine the distance between the ranging apparatus and the object. The echo is
received, amplified and compared with a threshold voltage, which decays in time in a manner

Department of Mechatronics Naveen Kumar S N

Robotics and Automation 18MT651

which simulates the attenuation of acoustic energy as a function of distance travelled in the
medium. It is similar to the ultrasonic sensor.

The ultrasonic sensor (or transducer) works on the same principles as a radar system.
An ultrasonic sensor can convert electrical energy into acoustic waves and vice versa. The
acoustic wave signal is an ultrasonic wave traveling at a frequency above 18kHz.

Magnetic or Inductive sensor

Inductive Proximity sensor

Inductive proximity switches are basically used for detection of metallic objects. The
above figure shows the construction of inductive proximity switch. An inductive proximity
sensor has four components; the coil, oscillator, detection circuit and output circuit. An
alternating current is supplied to the coil which generates a magnetic field. When, a metal
object comes closer to the end of the coil, inductance of the coil changes. This is continuously
monitored by a circuit which triggers a switch when a preset value of inductance change is
occurred.

Department of Mechatronics Naveen Kumar S N

Robotics and Automation 18MT651

Tactile sensors

Tactile sensing is defined as the continuous sensing of variable contact forces over an
area within which there is a spatial resolution. Tactile sensing is more complex than touch
sensing which usually is a simple force/torque measurement at a single point. Tactile sensors
mounted on the fingers of the hand allow the robot to measure contact force profile and
slippage, or to grope and identify object shape.

In general, tactile sensors are used to sense the contact of fingertips of a robot with an
object. They are also used in manufacturing of ‘touch display’ screens of visual display units
(VDUs) of CNC machine tools. The above shows the construction of piezo-electric
polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) based tactile sensor. It has two PVDF layers separated by a
soft film which transmits the vibrations. An alternating current is applied to lower PVDF layer
which generates vibrations due to reverse piezoelectric effect. These vibrations are transmitted
to the upper PVDF layer via soft film. These vibrations cause alternating voltage across the
upper PVDF layer. When some pressure is applied on the upper PVDF layer the vibrations gets
affected and the output voltage changes. This triggers a switch or an action in robots or touch
displays.

Department of Mechatronics Naveen Kumar S N