MODULE SCIENCE TECHNOLOGY SOCIETY

CHAPTER I: Intellectual Revolutions That Defined Society

Lesson Objectives:

At the end of this lesson, the students should be able to:

- Discuss how the ideas postulated by Copernicus, Darwin, and Freud contributed to the
spark of scientific revolution; and.

- Identify actual science and technology policies of the government and appraise their
impact on the development of the Filipino nation.

This lesson will give light to the development of science and scientific ideas in the heart
of the society. It is the goal of this lesson to articulate ways by which society is
transformed by science and technology.

Scientific Revolution
Science is as old as the world itself. There is no individual that can exactly identify when
and where science began. From the genesis of time, science has existed. It is always
interwoven with the society. So, how can science be defined?

1. Science as an idea. It includes ideas, theories, and all available systematic

explanations and observations about the natural and physical world.

2. Science as an intellectual activity. It encompasses a systematic and practical study

of the natural and physical world. This process of study involves systematic observation
and experimentation.

3. Science as a body of knowledge. It is a subject or a discipline, a field of study, or a

body of knowledge that deals with the process of learning about the natural and
physical world. This is what we refer to as school science.

4. Science as a personal and social activity. This explains that science is both
knowledge and activities done by human beings to develop better understanding of the
world around them. It is a means to improve life and to survive in life. It is interwoven
with people's lives.

Human beings have embarked in scientific activities in order to know and

understand everything around them. They have persistently observed and studied the
natural and the physical world in order to find meanings and seek answers to many
questions. They have developed noble ideas, later known as philosophy, to provide
alternative or possible explanations to certain phenomena. Humans also used religion
to rationalize the origins of life and all lifeless forms.

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The idea of scientific revolution is claimed to have started in the early 16th
century up to the 18th century in Europe. Why in Europe? The probable answer is the
invention of the printing machine and the blooming intellectual activities done in various
places of learning, and the growing number of scholars in various fields of human
interests. This does not mean, however, that science is a foreign idea transported from
other areas of the globe. Anyone who can examine the history of science, technology,
medicine, and mathematics is aware that all great civilizations of the ancient world had
their own sophisticated traditions and activities related to these disciplines.

Scientific revolution was the period of enlightenment when the developments

in the fields of mathematics, physics, astronomy, biology, and chemistry transformed
the views of society about nature. It explained the emergence or birth of modern
science as a result of these developments from the disciplines mentioned. The ideas
generated during this period enabled the people to reflect, rethink, and reexamine their
beliefs and their way of life. There is no doubt that it ignited vast human interests to
rethink how they do science and view scientific processes.

Scientific revolution was the golden age for people committed to scholarly life in
science but it was also a deeply trying moment to some scientific individuals that led to
their painful death or condemnation from the religious institutions who tried to preserve
their faith, religion, and theological views. Some rulers and religious leaders did not
accept many of the early works of scientists. But these did not stop people especially
scientists to satisfy their curiosity of the natural and physical world.

SCIENCE IDEAS

SCIENTIFIC
REVOLUTION

HUMANS SOCIETY

Figure 1. Influences to Scientific Revolution

Scientific revolution is very significant in the development of human beings,

transformation of the society, and in the formulation of scientific ideas. It significantly
improved the conduct of scientific investigations, experiments, and observations. The
scientific revolution also led to the creation of new research fields in science and

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prompted the establishment of a strong foundation for modern science. In many ways,
scientific revolution transformed the natural world and the world of ideas.

Some Intellectuals and their Revolutionary Ideas

To further understand what exactly happened during the scientific revolution, it is

important to examine the different individuals whose ideas have shaken and contested
the dominant theories and ideas during this period-the truths of their time. Scientists in
all periods of time are driven by their curiosity, critical thinking, and creativity to explore
the physical and natural world. Their love for science is driven by their deep passion to
know and to discover.

crcc
CREATIVITY SCIENTIST SCIENCE IDEAS

-Passion to
know
SCIENCE
CURIOSITY
DISCOVERIES

-Passion to
discover
CRITICAL TECHNOLOGY
THINKING

Figure 2. Variables that influence The Development of Science Ideas, Science

Discoveries, and Technology

Scientists are not driven by clamor for honor and publicity. They are ordinary
people doing extraordinary things. Some scientists were never appreciated during their
times, some were sentenced to death, while others were condemned by the Church
during their time. In spite of all the predicaments and challenges they experienced, they
never stopped experimenting, theorizing, and discovering new knowledge and ideas.

In this part of the lesson, three notable scientists are discussed. For sure, there
were many scientists who worked before and after these individuals. However, it is
important to note that these men, particularly through their ideas, had shaken the world.

Nicolaus Copernicus

One of the Renaissance men, particularly in the field of science, is Nicolaus

Copernicus. Knowledge about the nature of the universe had been essentially
unchanged since the great days of Ancient Greece, some 1,500 years before
Copernicus came on the scene (Gribbin, 2003), This continued up to the Renaissance

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period. In one important way, Copernicus resembled the Greek ancient philosophers or
thinkers--he did not do anything extensive such as observing heavenly bodies or inviting
people to test his ideas. His ideas were an example of what is presently called as a
thought experiment. By the time he finished his doctorate degree, Copernicus had been
appointed as canon at Frombork Cathedral in Poland. Despite his duty as a canon, he
had plenty of time to sustain his interest in astronomy.

Copernicus was strongly influenced by a book entitled Epitome published in

1496 by a German author, Johannes Mueller. This book contains Mueller's observations
of the heavens and some commentary on earlier works especially that of Ptolemy.

Copernicus's idea and model of the universe was essentially complete in 1510.
Not long after that, he circulated a summary of his ideas to his few close friends in a
manuscript called Commentariolus (Little Commentary). There was no proof that
Copernicus was concerned about the risk of persecution by the Church if he published
his ideas formally. Copernicus was a busy man. His duty as a canon and as a doctor
affected his time to formally publish his work and advance his career in astronomy. The
publication of his book De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (On the Revolutions of
the Heavenly Spheres) in 1543 is often cited as the start of the scientific revolution.

In his book, he wanted a model of the universe in which everything moved

around a single center at unvarying rates (Gribbin, 2003). Copernicus placed the Sun to
be the centerpiece of the universe. The Earth and all the planets are surrounding or
orbiting the Sun each year. The Moon, however, would still be seen orbiting the Earth.
Copernicus's model of the Earth orbiting around the Sun automatically positioned the
planets into a logical sequence. In his model, Copernicus outlined two kinds of planetary
motion: (1) the orbits of Venus and Mercury lay inside the orbit of the Earth, thus, closer
to the Sun; and (2) the orbits of Mars Saturn, and Jupiter lay outside the Earth's orbit,
thus, farther from the Sun. From this model, he would work on the length of time it will
take for each planet to orbit once around the Sun. The result would for a sequence from
Mercury, with a shortest year, through Venus, Earth Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn with the
longest year. He placed the planets order of increasing distance from the Sun. One of
the great problems in the Copernicus model, however, was the position of the stars. The
stars cannot be placed in a fixed position like crystals in a distance sphere,

Copernicus is also a courageous man. Although the Copernican model makes

sense now, during those times, it was judged to be heretic and therefore it was an
unacceptable idea to be taught to Catholics. The Catholic Church banned the
Copernican model and was ignored by Rome for the rest of the 16th century.

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Charles Darwin

Charles Darwin is famous for his theory of evolution. He changed our concept
of the world's creation and its evolution Johnson (2012) described Darwin as a genius
who came from a line of intellectually gifted and wealthy family. He developed his
interest in natural history during his time as a student at Shrewsbury School. He would
also spend time taking long walks to observe his surroundings while collecting
specimens and he pored over books in his father's library (Gribbin, 2003). According to
Johnson, Darwin went to the best schools but was observed to be a mediocre student.
He struggled in his study in medicine and ministry, which his father has imposed to him.
Darwin's life soon changed when one of his professors recommended him to join a five-
year voyage through the HMS Beagle on the Islands of Galapagos.

Darwin published his book The Origin of Species in 1589. This book is
considered to be one of the most important works in scientific literature. Darwin
collected many significant materials in order to present his theory with overwhelming
evidence. His book presented evidence on how species evolved over time and
presented traits and adaptation that differentiate species. Like many other scholars,
Darwin accumulated many pertinent materials and data that he could ever possibly
need to substantiate his theory.

Darwin's observational skills as a scientist were extraordinary that moved

beyond the realms of plants and animals into the realms of humans. His book The
Descent of Man was so impressive yet very controversial. He introduced the idea of all
organic life, including human beings, under the realm of evolutionary thinking. This
replaced the dominant views of a religious or biblical design that places human beings
in a privileged position of having been created by God. Darwin's theory of evolution
scientifically questioned this view.

Darwin's accomplishments were so diverse that it is useful to distinguish two

fields to which he made major contributions: evolutionary biology and philosophy of
science. More than these works, what made Darwin truly remarkable was his courage to
challenge religious and unscientific ideas that are deemed to be prominent during those
days. His unorthodox way of pursuing science gave more value to evidence- based
science. Darwin provided a different framework for doing scientific activities. It is a
science marked by observation and experiment.

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Sigmund Freud

Freud is a famous figure in the field of psychology. Rosenfels (1980) also

described him as a towering literary figure and a very talented communicator who did
his share to raise the consciousness of the civilized world in psychological matters.

However, apart from these, Freud also made a significant contribution in the
scientific world through the development of an important observational method to gather
reliable data to study human's inner life. This method is popularly known as the method
of psychoanalysis. The scientific hypothesis he formulated formed the essential
fundamental version of this method. For Freud, this method of psychoanalysis is a
scientific way to study the human mind and neurotic illness. It is no doubt that amidst all
questions on his works that led to some sort of academic controversy, his method of
psychoanalysis had great impact on the scientific way of understanding human nature.

Freud is not a traditional thinker. According to Weiner (2016), his method of

psychoanalysis was proven to be effective in understanding some neurological
conditions that were not understood by medicine at that time. His method was
unorthodox-focusing on human sexuality and the evil nature of man. This posed
immense challenges to scholars and ordinary citizens of his time. To some, they found
his ideas not easy especially in his explanations of human sexuality.

Freud was born in a much later period from the scientific revolution but his
contribution to knowledge can be seen in many aspects of the human scene, including
art, literature, philosophy, politics, and psychotherapy. Whether he is more of a
psychologist or a scientist is for people to decide. The fact remains that Freudian ideas
and theories are still considered nowadays as a great inspiration to examine human
mind and behavior in a more scientifically accepted way.

Cradles of Early Science

Development of Science in Mesoamerica

Mesoamerica includes the entire area of Central America from

Southern Mexico up to the border of South America. There is no doubt
that the Mesoamerican region is rich in culture and knowledge prior to the
arrival of its European colonizers.

The Maya civilization is one of the famous civilizations that lasted for
approximately 2,000 years. These people are known for their works in astronomy. They
incorporated their advanced understanding of astronomy into their temples and other

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religious structures. This allows them to use their temples for astronomical observation.
For example, the pyramid at Chichén Itzá in Mexico is situated at the location of the Sun
during the spring and fall equinoxes.

Mayan knowledge and understanding about celestial bodies was

advanced for their time, as evidenced by their knowledge of predicting eclipse and using
astrological cycles in planting and harvesting. The Mayans are also known for
measuring time using two complicated calendar systems. These calendars were very
useful for their life especially in planning their activities and in observing their religious
rituals and cultural celebrations. The Mayans also developed the technology for growing
different crops and building elaborate cities using ordinary machineries and tools. They
built hydraulics system with sophisticated waterways to supply water to different
communities.

Furthermore, they used various tools and adapt themselves to innovations

especially in the field of arts. The Mayans built looms for weaving cloth and devised a
rainbow of glittery paints made from a mineral called mica. They are also believed to be
one of the first people to produce rubber products 3,000 years before Goodyear
received its patent in 1844. The Mayans are considered one of the most scientifically
advanced societies in Mesoamerica. They are also famous as one of the world's first
civilizations to use a writing system known as the Mayan hieroglyphics. They were also
skilled in mathematics and created a number system based on the numeral 20.
Moreover, they independently developed the concept of zero and positional value, even
before the Romans did. The Inca civilization is also famous in Mesoamerica. The Incas
made advanced scientific ideas considering their limitations as an old civilization.

The following were scientific ideas and tools that they developed to help
them in everyday life:
1. roads paved with stones;
2. stone buildings that surmounted earthquakes and other disasters;
3. irrigation system and technique for storing water for their crops to grow in all types of
land;
4. calendar with 12 months to mark their religious festivals and prepare them for
planting season;
5. the first suspension bridge;
6. guipu, a system of knotted ropes to keep records that only experts can interpret; and
7. Inca textiles since cloth was one of the specially prized artistic
achievements.
Following the Inca, the Aztec civilization has also made substantial
contributions to science and technology and to the society as a whole.
Some of their contributions are the following:

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1. Mandatory education. The Aztec puts value on education, that is why their children
are mandated to get education regardless of their social class, gender, or age. It is an
early form of universal or inclusive education.
2. Chocolates. The Aztec in Mexico developed chocolate during
their time. In the Mayan culture, they used it as currency. The Aztec valued the cacao
beans highly and made it as part of their tribute to their gods.

3. Antispasmodic medication. They used a type of antispasmodic medication that

could prevent muscle spasms and relax muscles, which could help during surgery.
4. Chinampa. It is a form of Aztec technology for agricultural
farming in which the land was divided into rectangular areas and surrounded by canals.
5. Aztec calendar. This enabled them to plan their activities, rituals, and planting
season.
6. Invention of the canoe. A light narrow boat used for traveling in water systems.

Development of Science in Asia

ASIA

Asia is the biggest continent in the world and the home of many
ancient civilizations. It is a host to many cultural, economic, scientific, and political
activities of all ages. In the field of science, technology, and mathematics, great
civilizations have stood out: India, China, and the Middle East civilizations. These
civilizations were incomparable in terms of their contributions to the development of
knowledge during their time,

India

India is a huge peninsula surrounded by vast bodies of water and fortified by

huge mountains in its northern boarders. The Indians creatively developed various
ideas and technologies useful in their everyday lives.They are known for manufacturing
iron and in metallurgical works. Their iron steel is considered to be the best and held
with high regard in the whole of Roman Empire.

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India is also famous in medicine. For example, Ayurveda, a system of
traditional medicine that originated in ancient India before 2500 BC, is still practiced as
a form of alternative medicine. They discovered some medicinal properties of plants that
led them to develop medicines to cure various illnesses. Some ancient texts, like the
Susruta Samhita, describes different surgical and other medical procedures famous in
Ancient India.

Ancient India is also notable in the field of astronomy. They developed

theories on the configuration of the universe, the spherical self-supporting Earth, and
the year of 360 days with 12 equal parts of 30 days each. Sama (2008) noted that their
interest in astronomy was also evident in the first 12 chapters of the Siddhanta
Shiromani, written in the 12th century. According to Sama (2008), this ancient text
covered topics such as: mean longitudes of the planets; true longitudes of the planets;
the three problems of diumal rotation; syzygies; lunar eclipses; solar eclipses; latitudes
of the planets; risings and settings, the moon's crescent; conjunctions of the planets
with each other, conjunctions of the planets with the fixed stars, and the paths of the
Sun and Moon.

Ancient India is also known for their mathematics. Bisht (1982) noted
that the earliest traces of mathematical knowledge in the Indian subcontinent appeared
in the Indus Valley Civilization. The people of this civilization, according to Bisht (1982),
tried to standardize measurement of length to a high degree of accuracy and designed
a ruler, the Mohenjo- daro ruler.

Clifford (2008) and Bose (1998) pointed out that Indian astronomer and
mathematician Aryabhata (476-550), in his Aryabhatiya, introduced a number of
trigonometric functions, tables, and techniques, as well as algorithms of algebra. In 628
AD, another Indian, Brahmagupta, also suggested that gravity was a force of attraction,
and lucidly explained the use of zero as both a placeholder and a decimal digit, along
with the Hindu-Arabic numeral system now used universally throughout the world
(Clifford, 2008; Bose, 1998). Another Indian named Madhava of Sangamagrama is also
considered as the founder of mathematical analysis (Joseph, 1991).

China

China is one of the ancient civilizations with substantial contributions

in many areas of life like medicine, astronomy, science, mathematics, arts,
philosophy, and music, among others. Chinese civilizations have greatly influenced
many of its neighbor countries like Korea, Japan, Philippines, Vietnam, Thailand,
Cambodia, Myanmar, and other countries that belong to the old Silk Road.

The Chinese are known for traditional medicines, a product of centuries of

experiences and discovery of the Chinese people. They discovered various medical

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properties and uses of different plants and animals to cure human illness. An example is
the practice of acupuncture.

In terms of technology, the Chinese are known to develop many tools.

Among the famous discoveries and inventions of the Chinese civilizations were
compass, papermaking, gunpowder, and printing tools that became known in the West
only by the end of the Middle Ages (Davies,1995). They also invented other tools like
iron plough, wheelbarrow, and propeller, among others. They developed a design of
different models of bridges (Zhongguo ke xue yuan, 1983), invented the first
seismological detector, and developed a dry dock facility (Needham et al., 1971),

In the field of astronomy, the Chinese also made significant records on

supernovas, lunar and solar eclipses, and comets, which were carefully recorded and
preserved to understand better the heavenly bodies and their effects to our world
(Mayall, 1939). They observed the heavenly bodies to understand weather changes and
seasons that may affect their daily activities. They used lunar calendars, too. The
Chinese are also known in seismology. This made them more prepared in times of
natural calamities.

China made substantial contributions in various fields. The list of their

discoveries and inventions is overwhelming. These contributions were made along with
mathematics, logic, philosophy, and medicine. However, cultural factors prevented
these Chinese achievements from developing into modem science. According to
Needham (1986), it may have been the religious and philosophical framework of
Chinese intellectuals that made them unable to accept the ideas of laws of nature.

Middle East Countries

The Middle East countries are dominantly occupied by Muslims.

With the spread of Islam in the 7th and 8th centuries, a period of Muslim scholarship, or
what is called the Golden Age of Islam lasted until the 13th century. The common
language of Arabic, access to Greek texts from the Byzantine Empire, and their
proximity to India were contributory to the intellectualization of the Muslims and provided
their scholars knowledge to create innovations and develop new ideas. But contrary to
the Greeks, Muslim scientists placed greater value on science experiments rather than
plain-thought experiments. This led to the development of the scientific method in the
Muslim world, and made significant improvements by using experiments to distinguish
between competing scientific theories set within a generally empirical orientation. A
Muslim scientist named Ibn al-Haytham is also regarded as the Father of Optics,
especially for his empirical proof of the intromission theory of light.

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In mathematics, the mathematician Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi gave
his name to the concept of the algorithm while the term algebra is derived from al-jabr,
the beginning of the title of one of his publications. What is now known as the Arabic
Numeral System originally came from India, but Muslim mathematicians did make
several refinements to the number system, such as the introduction of decimal point
notation.

Muslim chemists and alchemists also played an important role in the

foundation of modern chemistry (Durant, 1980). In particular, some scholars considered
Jābir ibn Hayyān to be the “Father of Chemistry" (Derewenda, 2007; Warren, 2005).

In the field of medicine, Ibn Sina pioneered the science of experimental

medicine and was the first physician to conduct clinical trials (Jacquart, 2008). His two
most notable works in medicine, the Book of Healing and The Canon of Medicine, were
used as standard medicina! texts in both the Muslim world and in Europe during the
17th century. Among his many contributions are the discovery of the contagious nature
of infectious diseases and the introduction of clinical pharmacology (Craig & Walter,
2000).

There are numerous Muslim scholars who made significant contributions in the
field of science, mathematics, astronomy, philosophy, and even in the field of social
sciences. The decline of this golden age of Islam started in the 11th to 13th century due
to the conquest of the Mongols whereby libraries, observatories, and other learning
institutions were destroyed.

Development of Science in Africa

Africa is blessed with natural and mineral resources Science also emerged in this
part of the planet long before the Europeans colonized it. The history of science and
mathematics show that similar to other ancient civilizations, the early civilizations in
Africa are knowledge producers, too. The ancient Egyptian civilization has contributed
immensely and made significant advances in the fields of astronomy, mathematics, and
medicine. For example, the development of geometry was a product of necessity to
preserve the layout and ownership of farmlands of the Egyptians living along the Nile
River. The rules of geometry were developed and used to build rectilinear structures,
the post of lintel architecture of Egypt.

These early science activities in Egypt were developed to improve the quality of
life of the Egyptians especially in building their early homes and cities. The great
structures of the Egyptian pyramids and the early dams built to divert water from the
Nile River are some proofs of their advanced

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civilization.

Egypt was known to be a center of alchemy, which is known as the

medieval forerunner of chemistry. They tried to study human anatomy and
pharmacology, and applied important components such as examination,

diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis for the treatment of diseases. These

components displayed strong parallels to the basic empirical method of
studying science.

Astronomy was also famous in the African region. For instance,

documents show that Africans used three types of calendars: lunar, solar,
and stellar, or a combination of the three.

Metallurgy was also known in the African regions during the ancient times. North
Africa and the Nile Valley imported iron technology from the Near East region that
enabled them to benefit from the developments during the Bronze Age until the Iron
Age. They invented metal tools used in their homes, in agriculture, and in building their
magnificent architectures.

Mathematics was also known to be prominent in the life of early people in the
African continent. The Lebombo Bone from the mountains between Swaziland and
South Africa, which may have been a tool for multiplication, division, and simple
mathematical calculation or a six- month lunar calendar, is considered to be the oldest
known mathematical artifact dated from 35,000 BCE. Ancient Egyptians are good in the
four fundamental mathematical operations and other mathematical skills. They have
knowledge of the basic concepts of algebra and geometry. The Islamic regions in Africa
during the medieval period was also benefiting from mathematical leaming, which is
considered advanced during those times, such as algebra, geometry, and trigonometry.

SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND NATION-BUILDING

This lesson will discuss the influence of science and technology in the
development of the Philippine society. It identifies government programs, projects, and
policies geared toward boasting the science and technological capacity of the country.
This lesson will also include discussions on Philippine indigenous science and
technology.

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Brief Historical Background of Science and Technology in the
Philippines
The history of science and technology in the Philippines started way back before
the country gained its independence from the American colonizers. Before the coming
of the Spanish colonizers, the early inhabitants of the archipelago had their own culture
and traditions. They had their own belief system and indigenous knowledge system that
keeps them organized and sustained their lives and communities for many years.

Science, in pre-Spanish Philippines, is embedded in the way of life crops that

provide them food, in taking care of animals to help them in their daily tasks, and for
food production. Science is observed in the way they interpret the movements of
heavenly bodies to predict seasons and climates, and in-organizing days into months
and years. They use science in preparing the soil for agricultural purposes and like any
other ancient cultures, they discovered the medicinal uses of plants.

Technology is used by people in building houses, imigations, and in developing

tools that they can use in everyday life. They developed tools for planting, hunting,
cooking, and fishing; for fighting their enemies during war or tribal conflicts; and for
transportation, both on land and on waterways. They also developed technologies in
creating musical instruments.

The different archeological artifacts discovered in different parts of the country

also prove that the Metal Age also had a significant influence on the lives of early
Filipinos. The sophisticated designs of gold and silver jewelry, ceramics, and metal tools
proved that their technological ideas helped in the development of different tools. Also,
trading with China, Indonesia, Japan, and other nearby countries have influenced their
lives by providing different opportunities for cultural and technological exchange. All
these ancient practices in science and technology are considered now as indigenous
science or folk science.

When the Spaniards colonized the country, they brought with them their own
culture and practices. They established schools for boys and girls and introduced the
concept of subjects and disciplines. It was the beginning of formal science and
technology in the country, known now as school of science and technology.
Learning of science in school focuses on understanding different concepts related to the
human body, plants, animals, and heavenly bodies. Technology focuses on using and
developing house tools used in everyday life.

Life during the Spanish era slowly became modernized, adapting some Western
technology and their ways of life. The Filipinos developed ways to replicate the

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technology brought by the Spaniards using indigenous materials. Medicine and
advanced science were introduced in formal colleges and universities established by
the Catholic orders.

The galleon - trade has brought additional technology and development in the
Philippines. Although it is only beneficial for the Spaniards, these trades allowed other
ideas, crops, tools, cultural practices, technology, and Western practices to reach the
country. Some Filipino students who were able to study in Europe also contributed to
the advancement of medicine, engineering, arts, music, and literature in the
country.

The Philippines, being one of the centers of global trade in Southeast Asia
during that time, was considered to be one of the most developed places in the region.
Although the country is blessed with these developments, the superstitious beliefs of the
people and the Catholic doctrines and practices during the Spanish era halted the
growth of science in the country.

The Americans have more influence in the development of science and

technology in the Philippines compared to the Spaniards. They established the public
education system, improved the engineering works and the health conditions of the
people. They established a modem research university, the University of the
Philippines, and created more public hospitals than the former colonial master. The
mineral resources of the country were also explored and exploited during the American
times.
Transportation and communication systems were improved; though not
accessible throughout the country.

The Americans did everything to "Americanize" the Philippines. They

reorganized the learning of science and introduced it in public and private schools. In
basic education, science education focuses on nature studies and science and
sanitation, until it became a subject formally known as “Science. The teaching of
science in higher education has also greatly improved and modernized. Researches
were done to control malaria, cholera, and tuberculosis and other tropical diseases.

The desire of the Americans to develop the human resources of the Philippines
to serve their own interests is, somehow, beneficial in the country. These allowed
American scholars to introduce new knowledge and technology in the country. The
Protestant church missions in different places in the country also brought hospitals and
schools to far-flung areas. Little by little, these efforts built a stronger foundation for
science and technology in the country.

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However, World War II has destabilized the development of the country in many
ways. Institutions and public facilities were turned into ashes, houses were burned, and
many lives were destroyed. The country had a difficult time to rebuild itself from the
ruins of the war. The human spirit to survive and to rebuild the country may be strong
but the capacity of the country to bring back what was destroyed was limited. The
reparation funds focused on building some institutions and public facilities like schools,
hospitals, and transportation systems. The reparation money from Japan was also
concentrated on building highways and in providing technological training and human
resource development in the country.

Since the establishment of the new republic, the whole nation has been focusing
on using its limited resources in improving its science and technological capability. It
has explored the use of ODA or Overseas Development Allocations from different
countries to help the country improve its scientific productivity and technological
capability. Human resource development is at the heart of these efforts focusing on
producing more engineers, scientists, technology experts, doctors, and other
professionals in the country.

The development of science and technology in the Philippines, based on its brief
history, is shaped by several factors and influences. Like in the history of science in
other countries, it is always shaped by human and social activities, both internal and
external.

Internal Influences

- Survival
- Culture
- Economic
- Activities Development of Science
and Technology in the
External Influences Philippines
-Foreign Colonizers

-Trades with foreign

countries

-International Economic
Demands

Figure 3. Influences in the Development of Science And Technology in the Philippines

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Science and technology may have significant impact on the lives of the people
and in the development of the Philippine society. However, improving the quality of
science education still remains as a big challenge in the country. School science from
basic education to graduate education is improving slowly, and there are only few
students enrolling in science and technology courses.

Government Policies on Science and Technology

The Philippine government introduced and implemented several programs,
projects, and policies to boost the area of science and technology. The goal is to
prepare the whole country and its people to meet the demands of a technologically
driven world and capacitate the people to live in a world driven by science.

Padilla-Concepcion (2015) reported that in 2015, in response to the ASEAN 2015

Agenda, the government, particularly the Department of Science and Technology
(DOST), has sought the expertise of the National Research Council of the Philippines
(NCRP) to consult various sectors in the society to study how the Philippines can
prepare itself in meeting the ASEAN 2015 Goals. As a result of the consultation, the
NCRP is expected to recommend policies and programs that will improve the
competitiveness of the Philippines in the ASEAN Region.

The NCRP clustered these policies into four, namely:

1. Social Sciences, Humanities, Education, International Policies and Governance

- Integrating ASEAN awareness in basic education without adding to the
curriculum

- Emphasizing teaching in the mother tongue

- Developing school infrastructure and providing for ICT broadband

- Local food security

2. Physics, Engineering and Industrial Research, Earth and Space Sciences, and
Mathematics
- Emphasizing degrees, licenses, and employment opportunities
- Outright grants for peer monitoring
- Review of R.A. 9184
- Harnessing science and technology as an independent, mover of development

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3. Medical, Chemical, and Pharmaceutical Sciences

- Ensuring compliance of drug-manufacturing firms with
ASEAN-harmonized standards by full implementation on the Food and Drug
Administration
- Creating an education council dedicated to standardization of pharmaceutical
services and care
- Empowering food and drug agencies to conduct evidence- based research as
pool of information
- Allocating two percent of the GDP to research
- Legislating a law supporting human genome projects

4. Biological Sciences, Agriculture, and Forestry

- Protecting and conserving biodiversity by full implementation of existing laws
- Use of biosafety and standard model by ASEAN countries
- Promoting indigenous knowledge systems and indigenous people's conservation
- Formulation of common food and safety standards

There are also other existing programs supported by the Philippine

government through the DOST. Some of these projects are the following:

- Providing funds for basic research and patents related to

science and technology. The government funds basic and
applied researches. Funding of these research and projects
are also from the Overseas Development Aid (ODA) from
different countries.

- Providing scholarships for undergraduate and graduate studies

of students in the field of science and technology. Saloma
(2015) pointed out that the country needs to produce more
doctoral graduates in the field of science and technology, and
produce more research in these fields, including engineering.

- Establishing more branches of the Philippine Science High School System for
training young Filipinos in the field of science and technology.

- Creating science and technology parks to encourage academe

and industry partnerships.

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 MODULE SCIENCE TECHNOLOGY SOCIETY
- Balik Scientist Program to encourage Filipino scientists abroad to come home
and work in the Philippines or conduct research and projects in collaboration with
Philippine-based scientists

- Developing science and technology parks in academic campuses to encourage

academe and industry partnerships.

- The establishment of the National Science Complex and National Engineering

Complex within the University of the Philippines campus in Diliman. These aimed
to develop more science and technology and engineering manpower resources
needed by the country. They also aimed to produce more researches in these
fields.

The Philippine-American Academy of Science and Engineering

(PAASE, 2008) identified several capacity-building programs such as:

- Establishment of national centers of excellence

- Manpower and institutional development programs, such as the Engineering and

Science Education Program (ESEP) to produce more PhD graduates in science
and engineering

- .Establishment of regional centers to support specific industries that will lead the
country in different research and development areas

- Establishment of science and technology business centers to assist, advise, and

incubate technopreneurship ventures
- Strengthen science education at an early stage through the Philippine Science
High School system

In the field of education, several science-related programs and projects were

created to develop the scientific literacy of the country. Special science classes were
organized and special science elementary schools were established in different regions.
Aside from these, science and mathematics in basic education were continuously
improved. The current K to 12 education program included Science, Technology,
Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) as one of its major tracks in the senior high
school program to encourage more students to enroll in science-related
fields in college.

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 MODULE SCIENCE TECHNOLOGY SOCIETY
Lately, the Commission on Higher Education launched its Philippine-California
Advanced Research Institutes (PICARI) Project to allow several higher education
institutions in the Philippines and some US- based laboratories, research institutes, and
universities to work on research and projects related to science, agriculture,
engineering, health, and technology. This project is hoped to strengthen the STEM
competitiveness of the country.
There are many other areas and fields that the country is looking forward to
embark various research and projects. The following are some of them:

1. Use of alternative and safe energy

2. Harnessing mineral resources
3. Finding cure for various diseases and illness
4. Climate change and global warming
5. Increasing food production
6. Preservation of natural resources
7. Coping with natural disasters and calamities
8. Infrastructure development

The Philippine Congress has also created various laws related to science and
technology. These laws serve as a legal framework for science and technology in the
country. These laws vary according to different themes such as: conservation, health-
related, technology-building, and supporting basic research, among others. Some laws
and policies are in line with international treaties such as the United Nations (UN),
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO),
Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) and other international agencies.
National Goals

International
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
Treaty
-Policies
Legal Framework
-Programs

- Projects

Social Needs,
Issues, and
Problems
Figure 4. Development of Science and Technology Policies in the Philippines

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 MODULE SCIENCE TECHNOLOGY SOCIETY
As shown in the diagram, the development of policies in science and technology
is shaped or influenced by several variables: policies needto be aligned to national
goals, consider international commitments based on legal frameworks, and respond to
various social needs, issues, andproblems. Science and technology policies ensure that
the whole country and all people will experience the progress that science can bring.
Policies are guides to direct all efforts to a goal of developing a scientifically advanced
country.

Famous Filipinos in the Field of Science

School science is filled with names of foreign scientists: Einstein, Galileo Galilei,
Newton, Faraday, Darwin, and many other Western scientists. We rarely hear of Filipino
scientists being discussed in science classes. Lee-Chua (2000) identified 10
outstanding Filipino scientists who have made significant contributions in Philippine
science. These scientists are also famous abroad especially in different science
disciplines: agriculture, mathematics, physics, medicine, marine science, chemistry,
engineering, and biology.

These Filipino Scientists are:

1. Ramon Cabanos Barba - for his outstanding research on tissue culture in Philippine
mangoes

2. Josefino Cacas Comiso - for his works on observing the characteristics of Antarctica
by using satellite images

3.Jose Bejar Cruz Jr. known internationally in the field of electrical engineering, was
elected as officer of the famous Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineering

4. Lourdes Jansuy Cruz - notable for her research on sea snail venom

5. Fabian Millar Dayrit - for his research on herbal medicine

6. Rafael Dineros Guerrero III - for his research on tilapia culture

7. Enrique Mapua Ostrea Jr. – for inventing the meconium drugs testing

8. Lilian Formalejo Patena - for doing research on plant biotechnology

9. Mari-Jo Panganiban Ruiz - for being an outstanding educator and graph theorist

10. Gregory Ligot Tangonan - for his research in the field of communications technology

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 MODULE SCIENCE TECHNOLOGY SOCIETY
There are other outstanding Filipino scientists who are recognized here and abroad
for their outstanding contributions in science:

- Caesar A. Saloma - an internationally renowned physicist

- Edgardo Gomez - famous scientist in marine science
- William Padolina chemistry and president of National Academy of Science and
Technology (NAST)- Philippines
- Angel Alcala - marine science

There are other scientists in the Philippines who were not identified
in the list. Yet, the Philippines still need more scientists and engineers, and there is a
need to support scientific research in the country. The University of the Philippines-
Los Baños is a science paradise for agriculture, forestry, plant and animal science,
and veterinary science. It has produced numerous scientists and various research in
the fields mentioned. The University of the Philippines-Visayas is also a national
center for marine science, fisheries, and other related sciences. The University of
the Philippines-Manila is a center of excellence and has produced many
researchers, doctors, health professionals, and scientists in the area of medical and
public health.

The University of the Philippines-Diliman also has established a national

science and engineering complex to develop more research and produce more
scientists and engineers in the country. The government must find ways to establish
more research laboratories and research institutes. There is also a need to find ways on
how their researches are disseminated to the public.

Many of these Filipino scientists are products of good school science. It

means they were taught and inspired by great teachers. Their interests in science
started to manifest during their childhood years. Their natural environment ignited their
curiosity to learn more about the natural and physical environment. Schools and the
laboratories where they studied and worked nurtured this.

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 MODULE SCIENCE TECHNOLOGY SOCIETY

Individual Interests
in Science
SCHOOL SCIENCE SCIENCE LABORATORIES

Family

(TEACHERS AND (REAL- LIFE CONTEXT)

LEARNING
ENVIRONMENT)
Natural
Environment

FILIPINO SCIENTISTS

Figure 5. Factors that influence the Development of Filipino Scientists

Many Filipino scientists, whether they are in the country or abroad, always
excel in their job. The Filipino spirit in their souls has never faded. They continue to
bring honor to the country. They make ordinary things in an extraordinary way. They are
always at par with other scientists in spite of the limited facilities we have here in the
country.

SUMMARY

- Scientific revolution is a golden age in the history of science. It marked the birth
of science as a discipline and as a field of inquiry and gave birth to the
development of the scientific method. It was a time in the history of science
where many scientific ideas and discoveries, which were considered innovative

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 MODULE SCIENCE TECHNOLOGY SOCIETY
and useful, were developed. Some of these ideas were also controversial in the
scientific community and in the political arena. The scientific revolution
significantly changed how people study science and do scientific activities. It
inspired human creativity and critical thinking, moving away from thought
experiments to data-driven and experiment-based ideas.

- There were many intellectuals who made essential contributions in science

during the period of scientific revolution. Nicolaus Copernicus developed a model
of the universe in which everything moved around a single center at unvarying
rates. He placed the Sun in the center of the universe and all the planets were
surrounding or orbiting it. Copernicus's model of planets orbiting around the Sun
automatically positioned the planets into a logical sequence. Charles Darwin
made significant contribution in the field of evolutionary biology and philosophy of
science. His theory of evolution by natural selection is very useful in many fields
until now, Sigmund Freud developed the idea of psychoanalysis that helped in
understanding human behavior especially neurological conditions.

- Science also developed in different parts of the world: in Asia, Europe,

Mesoamerica, and Africa. People in these continents invented tools to help them
in everyday life, discovered medicines to cure diseases, observed heavenly
bodies, built structures, discovered many things, and invented mathematics as a
tool and as a discipline. Science provided different ancient civilizations the
means to survive and understand the natural and physical world. It also enabled
human beings to develop various technologies that helped them in their everyday
tasks.

- This lesson discussed the influence of science and technology in the

development of the Philippines as a country. Even before the time of Spanish
colonization in the Philippines, various people and communities already practiced
science. They invented tools and built structures, studied the medicinal uses of
plants, observed heavenly bodies to predict seasons and weather, and used
indigenous science in agriculture. These are considered indigenous science,
which is one of the foundations of modem science.

- The growth of science and its development as a field in the country is a hybrid of
indigenous and foreign ideas. Spain and the United States, being the former
colonial masters of the country, played an important role in building the
foundation of science in the Philippines. To further strengthen the science
program in the Philippines, the government establishes various science
programs, policies, and projects.

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 MODULE SCIENCE TECHNOLOGY SOCIETY

- Through the years, many Filipinos were able to establish themselves as

scientists and science educators in various scientific areas and fields. Invention
and innovations were done by these Filipino scientists. Finally, the demands of
globalization, especially the ASEAN economic agenda, prompted the Philippines
to invest in science and technology programs and projects.

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